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1 Chapter 1 : The Reconquest of Spain - Derek W. Lomax - Google Books In, the Christian Reconquest forced Spanish Muslims south, and the kingdom of Granada was established as the last refuge of the Moorish civilization. Enjoy the Famous Daily Visigothic kingdoms: In both contexts they are acting as allies of Rome. But in a Visigothic king, Euric, declares his independence and energetically extends his own territory on his own account. Spain is at first of secondary importance to the Visigoths, compared to France. During the 6th century the Visigothic territory in Spain is steadily extended. There is a temporary setback in the south from, when an army of the Byzantine emperor Justinian captures a region from Cadiz in the west to Cartagena in the east. But within seventy years all the territory has been recovered. During the 7th century the whole of Spain is in the hands of the Visigoths with their capital at Toledo, though hostilities between rival Visigothic clans, between Visigoths and the indigenous population, and between Arians and Catholics make it a turbulent time. In one faction, in an internal squabble of this kind, invites an Arab commander to lend support. An Arab army crosses from Africa. Arabs in Spain and France: In a frequently repeated pattern of history the invaders, invited to assist one side in a quarrel, rapidly take control and suppress both squabbling parties. Within a few months the Arabs drive the Visigoths from their capital at Toledo. Soon governors appointed by the caliph in Damascus are ruling much of Spain. The Arabs press on northwards. Their armies move into Gaul, and here at last they are halted - near Poitiers in Umayyad dynasty in Spain: The effect is to limit Arab territorial ambitions in Europe to the Iberian peninsula. Even this proves hard to hold because of hostilities between rival Arab groups. Stability in Spain is restored by an Umayyad prince, Abd-al-Rahman, who escapes the Abbasid massacre of his family in Syria. He establishes himself in at Cordoba. Here he founds the first great Muslim civilization of Spain. Abd-al-Rahman begins the process of making Cordoba one of the outstanding cities of the medieval world. Cordoba continues to grow in size and wealth and reputation, known equally for its skilled craftsmen and its scholars. He is the first amir of Cordoba to accord himself the resounding title of caliph. During the three centuries of Umayyad rule in Spain the Arabs are for the most part in control of almost the entire peninsula. The Christian reconquest makes several tentative beginnings during the period, but northern territories are often then regained by Arab rulers - relying heavily on the wild Berber mercenaries who form the bulk of their armies. The Berbers eventually prove too hard to control. Concessions to their demands lead in to the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate and the effective end of Arab rule in Spain. There follows a period of steady Christian advance southwards. It is halted, in, by a tribal leader from north Africa. He is head of a Berber dynasty, the Almoravids. The Reconquista becomes an ideal of medieval Spanish chivalry. It will take more than seven centuries to complete, until the fall of Granada in, and it is complicated by the high degree of integration which develops in many parts of Spain between Muslims and Christians. The intermingling of the communities reduces tension in the early centuries, but in a later more bigoted age provides rich opportunities for persecution. There is a corresponding change in the notion of reconquest. At the start the ideal is to restore a united Spain under the kings of the Visigoths. This is a territorial ambition, and in these early centuries the two religions or three, with the many Jews living in Spain prosper regardless of whether the ruler of the region is Muslim or Christian. In the 11th century religious fervour enters both camps. A new Muslim dynasty, that of the Almoravids, is more dogmatic than the Umayyads. A more aggressive Christianity, characteristic of the whole of Europe at this time, affects the northern kingdoms. On the wider stage this is the time of the crusades, and the Christians of Spain have their own local Muslims to confront. During the many centuries of the Reconquest, the Christian rulers of northern Spain control a frequently squabbling group of small kingdoms. In spite of their mutual antipathies, they gradually coalesce into larger units capable of confronting the Muslims. The process begins on the north coast, in the 8th century, with the tiny kingdom of Asturias. Here they elect a Visigothic prince, by the name of Pelayo, as their king - and dream of reconquering Spain. The first step in that direction is achieved in the s. While the Arabs are distracted by a Berber uprising, in, the Asturians annexe Galicia - the coastal region to their west. In the early 9th century Galicia makes an unexpected but powerful contribution to Christian Spain. Human remains are unearthed and Page 1

2 are said to belong to the apostle St James, martyred in Jerusalem but miraculously floated to Spain in a stone coffin. A church built over the spot rapidly becomes a popular place of pilgrimage and the focal point of Christian Spain. The town which grows up around the church is known by the name of St James, Santiago in Spanish. It is Santiago de Compostela. By the early 10th century the rulers of Asturias control sufficient territory to feel secure in moving their capital from Oviedo to Leon. They call themselves, from, the kings of Leon and Asturias. Gerona is captured in and Barcelona in The counts continue the reconquest, expanding their territory. By the end of the 10th century they are an independent dynasty ruling Catalonia. In the count of Barcelona marries the heiress of Aragon, uniting the regions and ending the identity of a separate Catalonia. But the Catalans, in the northeast extremity of the peninsula, retain a strong sense of independence which has often, in history, resulted in separatist movements. Possibly deriving its name from its profusion of castles, the region is shared by several warring rulers. From about Castile becomes united under a single count, who makes his capital at Burgos. At first the counts of Castile accept the suzerainty of the kings of Leon, but from Castile insists on an independent status. Subsequently the two kingdoms are often linked, with Castile increasingly the more powerful. In the dance of the Spanish kingdoms these are established partners, confronting Navarre and Aragon to the east. In the 9th century the Basques make their own inroads on Muslim territory, establishing the kingdom of Navarre with their capital at Pamplona. In Sancho III leaves to one of his sons the small mountain territory of Aragon, with its capital at Jaca, as an independent kingdom. This kingdom, in its turn, expands to the south - incorporating Saragossa by The union through marriage of Aragon and Catalonia, in, creates a territorial unit much larger and of greater significance in Spanish history than the parent kingdom of Navarre - which by then is more closely involved with French dynasties north of the Pyrenees. Portugal, traditionally dating its independent existence from a victory over the Muslims at Ourique in, is on the attack down the west coast. Responsibility for the reconquest of the rest of the peninsula is shared by Castile and Aragon, whose kings sign a treaty at Cazorla in establishing zones of operation Aragon is to concentrate on Valencia, on the east coast. By now the enemy is no longer the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba. Muslim Spain has been ruled for the past century by more fundamentalist Berber dynasties from the Sahara. Berber dynasties in Spain: This gives the Christian kingdoms in the north a welcome opportunity. He follows the Arab example, maintaining the multi-cultural flavour of this civilized city of Muslims, Christians and Jews. But his military successes prompt Muslim rulers further south to enlist the help of the new Almoravid dynasty of Morocco. The Almoravids - with armies of their own Berber tribesmen - arrive in Spain in and rapidly overrun the territories recently gained by the Christians. Only on the east coast do they meet their match in the buccaneering El Cid, who captures Valencia in Though stricter in religion than the Umayyads, the Almoravid sultans continue the traditions of Muslim Spain; indeed they introduce its architecture to the other half of their empire, in north Africa. But they soon begin to lose control in both regions. The Christian reconquest in Spain begins anew with the capture of Saragossa in Meanwhile Marrakech, the Almoravid capital in Africa, falls in to a more puritanical dynasty of Berbers, the Almohads. The Almohads move rapidly into southern Spain after their defeat of the Almoravids in Morocco. Seville falls to them in, the same year as Marrakech. The decline of Almohad power, and the decisive phase of the Christian reconquest, begins with the defeat of the Muslims at Las Navas de Tolosa, in, by the combined armies of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. Cordoba falls to the Christians in and Seville in Page 2

3 Chapter 2 : Reconquista (Spanish America) - Wikipedia The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for "reconquest") is a name used in English to describe the period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula of about years between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in and the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada to the expanding Christian kingdoms in Once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in the general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church, and so on May 4, he repudiated the Spanish Constitution of and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders who had created it on May Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes and political institutions. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain. Most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined guerrilla movements. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of â and even moderates there who had entertained a reconciliation with the crownâ now saw the need to separate from Spain, if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the country several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized and sent in the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of approximately 10, troops and nearly sixty ships under the command of general Pablo Morillo. Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito and Peru and lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. The expeditionary army of Tierra Firme[ edit ] Main article: After picking up supplies and militia volunteers in Santa Marta on July 23, the Spanish expeditionary forces besieged Cartagena de Indias. After a five-month siege the fortified city fell on December Units of the republican armies of New Granada were incorporated into the royalist army and sent to Peru. The Chilean campaign[ edit ] Main article: Osorio succeeded in organizing local recruits into a mobile army of some 5, men, of which the troops of the Talaveras Regiment were practically the only Spaniards. The new royalist force fought the patriot forces on October 1 in Rancagua, in which the patriots unsuccessfully tried to stop the expeditionaries from taking Santiago. By November Spanish control had been reestablished in most of Chile. A member of the Talavera Regiment, Vicente San Bruno was put in charge of carrying out the orders to arrest civilians suspected of having helped or sympathised with the patriots. The royalist military[ edit ] Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was substituted by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example Pablo Morillo, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent South America, reported that he only had 2, European soldiers under his command in, in other words, only half of the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. The American militias reflected the racial make-up of the local population. Royalist army Main articles: Several Neogranadine and Venezuelan exiles fled to Haiti, where they were well received. Both of these sets of exiles from northern and southern South America formed the basis of what would become the armies that successfully established republics in all of the regions of the continent controlled by the Spanish. Towards the end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances that ultimately led to the continental-wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent by Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared in Page 3

4 Chapter 3 : The Reconquest Of Spain by Derek W. Lomax Reconquista, English Reconquest, in medieval Spain and Portugal, a series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory from the Muslims, who had occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century. The Christian attempt to recapture Spain from Muslim rule spanned centuries and was rarely a consistent effort. Owing to squabbles between the various Christian kingdoms as well as successful campaigns undertaken by the Muslim rulers of al-andalus the Arabic name for Iberia, the Reconquista lasted from the eighth century AD until the late 15th century. Most writers will date the end of the Reconquest at January 2,, for on that day, the final redoubt of Muslim power, Granada, fell to the allied Christian forces of King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I. Following this triumph, an emboldened Spain ventured forth into the New World. Along with Portugal, another mostly Christian nation that experienced Muslim rule for centuries, the Spanish crown established a global empire that peaked in the 16th century. As with most history, the usual story about the Reconquest is too neat. For starters, Spanish Muslims continued to exist after, and their eventual expulsion from Spain was due to the rebellions that followed the successful conclusion of the Reconquista. Furthermore, the Reconquest involved many more players than just the Christian kingdoms of Spain. The full story of the Reconquest is rarely told. According to Freyre, the Portuguese were better imperialists and colonizers than other Europeans because of their history of miscegenation. This theory has been scrutinized and criticized since its first publication, but Freyre is undoubtedly right that Portugal and Spain have seen their fair share of population mixing. Spain, for instance, once sported both Phoenician and Greek colonies. Even the Etruscans of Italy founded merchant colonies in ancient Iberia. The Spanish port city of Cadiz has a history that is especially tied to non-iberian outsiders, for the city itself was founded by Phoenician traders from the city of Tyre. Before the beginning of the Reconquest, Spain, which had long been a source of horses, fighting men, and generals for the Roman Empire, experienced several invasions from the Germanic tribes of Central and Northern Europe. By the mid-fifth century, the Vandals, under kings Gunderic and Gaiseric, established themselves as the chief rulers of Iberia and North Africa. When the first Muslim armies invaded Spain, the force that opposed them was primarily composed of Visigothic Christians, the Germanic rulers of both Spain and Portugal. Tony Rotondas The Battle of Covadonga is controversial among historians. Some label it as nothing more than a minor skirmish, while others have called it the most important Christian success in Spain during the eighth century. Whatever the case, the Battle of Covadonga certainly helped to change the tide of the Muslim takeover of Spain, even if that change was small. In the summer of AD, a small band of Visigothic nobles led by Pelagius had fled to the Bay of Biscay, a mountainous and rainy region that was known for its stubborn independence. There, the Visigoths combined forces with local Iberian and Celtic fighters in order to repel a much larger Umayyad army. From their cave headquarters, which they called Santa Maria, the Christians, who numbered somewhere around men, squared off against a Muslim force numbering somewhere between 25, and, For their part, the Umayyad Moors were not terribly interested in occupying Northern Spain. However, given that Pelagius sometimes spelled as Pelayo and his men refused to pay the jiyza, the tax on non-muslims, the Umayyad generals Munuza and Al Qama sought to rid themselves of the last Christian thorn in their sides. According to most Christian accounts of the battle, after Pelagius refused an offer to peacefully surrender, the best Muslim fighters were sent into the valley as shock troops. From their cave hideout, the Christians rushed into the valley with the element of surprise in their favor. Depending on the source, the Muslim losses were either disastrous or hardly worth noting. Following his victory, peasants in and around the Bay of Biscay took up arms and began to attack the retreating Muslims. With Pelagius as their leader, they established the Kingdom of Asturias, the first Christian kingdom in Muslim-dominated Iberia. After a larger Muslim force failed to capture Asturias a few years later, Pelagius and the subsequent kings of Asturias began to capture parts of northern Spain and Portugal, such as Galicia, Leon, and Castile. Prior to capturing what was then called Gaul, the Franks had been feared border guards for the Western Roman Empire. They were also noted for their piracy. Amazingly, despite being a minority in a country mostly composed of Gallo-Roman citizens, the Franks managed to maintain power for centuries. By Page 4

5 the eighth century, Frankish power was expanding drastically under the brilliant leadership of Charlemagne. As Frankish power consolidated to the east, Charlemagne sought to achieve Frankish success in the west, namely in Spain. Fearing that his city might fall into the hands of the Christian Spanish, al-arabi offered Charlemagne an alliance. For agreeing to protect Barcelona against any Christian invasion, Charlemagne was promised territory in Spain. Accordingly, in AD, an army led by Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and quickly captured the city of Pamplona. Ultimately, Charlemagne abandoned Zaragoza after receiving a fortune in gold. When a Saxon rebellion began to cause trouble, Charlemagne decided to return to France. The Basque attack, which became known as the Battle of Roncesvalles, was a disaster for the Franks. In the poem, instead of fighting Basque guerrillas, Roland and his men are set upon by Muslim fighters from Spain. So, in the late eighth century, the Franks returned to Spain. Next, Charlemagne attempted to retake Zaragoza but failed. Then, in, Charlemagne netted a major prize when his army successfully occupied the important city of Barcelona. From there, the Franks conquered most of Catalonia and established it as the Spanish Marchâ a reinforced buffer state designed to stop Muslim armies from reaching France. This lasted until, when a Moorish force under the leadership of Al-Mansour managed to sack Barcelona. Incensed that he had received zero assistance from the Carolingian army, Count Borrell II declared the state of Catalonia independent of Frankish rule. Even before this declaration, Catalonia had enjoyed widespread autonomy, which in turn allowed a separate identity to form. Arguably, the roots of Catalan independence formed at this time. While there may be kernels of truth to this, for the most part, Spanish Jews were not entirely appreciated by their Muslim superiors. More broadly speaking, Islamic Spain was no more tolerant or open-minded than Christian Europe. Underneath the Umayyads, the Emirate of Cordoba, and the Almoravids, books deemed blasphemous were publicly burned and their authors imprisoned and executed. Likewise, although Christians and Jews could attain high positions in the government, they were always considered second-class citizens and were forced to pay the jiyza if they did not convert to Islam. Indeed, many jihadist terrorists today uphold Islamic Spain not as a beacon of multicultural hope, but as a perfect example of a country ruled by Islamic fundamentalism. No action highlights the false myth of an enlightened Spain under Muslim rule like the Granada Massacre of On December 30,, an estimated 4, Jews were killed by a Arab mob in the important Andalusian city of Granada. What sparked this violence has long been debated, but a general consensus claims that the Jews of Granada were the unfortunate scapegoats in a sociopolitical conflict between the North African Arabs and the Berbers. As was the case in most of the Islamic world, Arabs in Islamic Spain were considered a privileged class. Francisco de Paula Van Halen Although the Knights Templar were primarily a French military order led by and composed of French knights, other orders from different European kingdoms existed as well. The battle, which is considered one of the more important battles of the entire Reconquista, was a massive success for the Christian alliance. In order to stop further Christian success, especially in the Muslim province of Valencia, al-nasir began a siege of Toledo, the capital city of Castile. Although this siege failed, Al-Nasir still managed to capture the castle of Salvatierra. The next spring, when Al-Nasir launched a second siege of Toledo, the Pope called for a crusade, which attracted knights from France, Navarre, Portugal, Leon, and other kingdoms. In July, approximately, Christian soldiers, including Templars, faced off against approximately,00 Almohad troops, most of whom were North African Berbers. As in the Battle of Covadonga, the Christian forces used the element of surprise to their advantage and slaughtered their Muslim foes in a valley just northwest of Jaen. Furthermore, by, Almohad control over Spain was no more due to internal feuding in North Africa. As already noted, France played an important role in the centuries of warfare between Spanish Christians and Muslims. The Kingdom of Portugal was likewise a key mover and shaker in the recapture of the Iberian Peninsula. The battle was incredibly lopsided, and Portuguese control over Ceuta was quickly established. Following their success at Ceuta, the Portuguese crown decided to capture the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, the Azores, and Cape Verde soon thereafter. By the s, the Kingdom of Portugal had established trading outposts in West Africa. Since then, Ceuta has remained a troubled possession that has been frequently fought over. The western edge of North Africa was bitterly divided between the Almohads and the Marinids, which helped to weaken the fighting abilities of the Muslim kingdoms in Spain. The only kingdom strong enough to repeatedly resist Christian advances was the Kingdom of Granada in the thoroughly Page 5

6 Muslim province of Andalusia. However, even Granada needed to keep the sea lanes open to North Africa in order to guarantee its survival. Specifically, Mohammad I decided to use subterfuge in order to keep the Castilian crown from gaining a strong foothold in Southern Spain. Sometime in, the Muslim inhabitants of Seville were supposed to capture Alfonso X, but they failed to do so because the king was not in the city when the revolt erupted. Nevertheless, in May, a full-fledged Muslim revolt against Castilian rule was underway and was bolstered by the addition of 3, Almohad warriors from Morocco. The revolt managed to successfully capture several Andalusian cities until Alfonso X decided to act. In, the Kingdom of Castile won Gibraltar for the first time after a siege. In modern Catalonia, the separatist position is especially strong, with one poll in indicating that 80 percent of Catalans prefer independence. As such, cultural and linguistic differences between Spanish regions deepened. That being said, the age of the Reconquista also saw the first steps toward Spanish unification. The main drivers of this push were the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. During the medieval period, Aragon became a major European empire that stretched from Spain to Greece. While Aragon expanded eastward, the Kingdom of Castile later the Crown of Castile remained the most active proselytizer of the Reconquista. Through marriage and conquest, Castile became the most powerful Christian state in Europe by the 16th century. To this day, the influence of Castilian power during the Reconquista can be seen in the fact that the Castilian dialect of Spanish is the standard form of Spanish used by television stations and newspapers to this day. Francisco Pradilla Ortiz The capture of Granada in certainly ended the offensive phase of the Reconquista, but the establishment of a fully Christian Spain was far from complete. Pursued by the Spanish Inquisition, a policy of forced conversions was adopted. Jews and Muslims were converted en masse, sometimes willingly but more often by force. Despite this sweeping campaign of religious pacification, many Spanish rulers continued to distrust their formerly Jewish and Muslim neighbors. Making all of this worse was the fact that by the 16th century, Catholic Spain had two major enemies in Europeâ the Protestants and the Ottoman Empire, who could find ways to support a Morisco rebellion if they decided to do so. Beginning in, the Muslims of Granada openly rebelled against Christian rule. While the city itself was easily reconquered, the Andalusian countryside remained in rebellion until the forced baptisms of Over 60 years later, the Moriscos of Granada revolted again after the inquisitor Pedro de Deza forbade the use of Andalusian Arabic in public and private and required all Moriscos to speak only Castilian Spanish. Beginning in the Albaycin neighborhood of Granada in and spreading to the mountains of Alpujarras, this second rebellion was far bloodier than its predecessor. Page 6

7 Chapter 4 : Middle Ages for Kids: Reconquista and Islam in Spain 10 Spain Was An Invasion Magnet Before the Reconquest. Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre became famous for arguing a sort of novel theory in defense of colonialism. Coat of arms of Alcanadre. La Rioja, Spain. Depicting heads of slain Moors The first victory in resistance to Muslim rule occurred in Asturias in A drastic increase of taxes by the emir Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi provoked several rebellions in Al-Andalus, which a series of succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. Around, a Muslim military expedition was sent into the north in late summer to suppress a rebellion led by Pelagius of Asturias Pelayo in Spanish, Pelayu in Asturian. No Muslim source mentions the battle at Covadonga, in contrast with the Battle of Toulouse in, with a death toll of perhaps tens of thousands, which was mourned for centuries as a large scale tragedy by the Iberian Muslims. For Pelagius, however, the Christian victory secured his independent rule, while the precise date and circumstances of the battle are unclear. Two northern realms, the Basque Navarre [16] and Asturias, despite their small size, demonstrated an ability to maintain their independence. Arab-Berber forces made periodic incursions deep into Asturias, but this area was a cul-de-sac on the fringes of the Islamic world fraught with inconveniences during campaigns and little interest. Favila, according to the chronicles, was killed by a bear during a trial of courage. However, credit is due not to him but to his successors, the Banu Alfons from the Arab chronicles. Further expansion of the northwestern kingdom towards the south occurred during the reign of Alfonso II from â During his reign, the bones of St. James the Great were declared to have been found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela. Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond, centuries later. Franks and Al-Andalus[ edit ] Main articles: From the stronghold of Narbonne, they tried to conquer Aquitaine but suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Toulouse Charlemagne followed his father by subduing Aquitaine by creating counties, taking the Church as his ally and appointing counts of Frankish or Burgundian stock, like his loyal William of Gellone, making Toulouse his base for expeditions against Al-Andalus. Abd ar-rahman I expelled Yusuf from Cordova, [21] but it took still decades for him to expand to the north-western Andalusian districts. He was also opposed externally by the Abbasids of Baghdad who failed in their attempts to overthrow him. In, Abd al-rahman closed in on the Ebro valley. Regional lords saw the Umayyad emir at the gates and decided to enlist the nearby Christian Franks. These rulers of Zaragoza, Girona, Barcelona, and Huesca were enemies of Abd ar-rahman I, and in return for Frankish military aid against him offered their homage and allegiance. Near the city of Zaragoza Charlemagne received the homage of Sulayman al-arabi. However the city, under the leadership of Husayn, closed its gates and refused to submit. On the way home the rearguard of the army was ambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. The Song of Roland, a highly romanticized account of this battle, would later become one of the most famous chansons de geste of the Middle Ages. In Hisham proclaimed a jihad, advancing in against the Kingdom of Asturias and Carolingian Septimania Gothia. They defeated William of Gellone, Count of Toulouse, in battle, but William led an expedition the following year across the eastern Pyrenees. An army of the emir managed to recapture it in, but Louis, at the head of an army, crossed the Pyrenees and besieged the city for two years until it finally capitulated in Charlemagne established across them the vassal regions of Pamplona, Aragon, and Catalonia respectively. Catalonia was itself formed from a number of small counties, including Pallars, Girona, and Urgell ; it was called the Marca Hispanica by the late 8th century. They protected the eastern Pyrenees passes and shores and were under the direct control of the Frankish kings. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon was annexed by Navarre. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were small counties and had little significance to the progress of the Reconquista. In the late 9th century under Count Wilfred, Barcelona became the de facto capital of the region. These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained stable for two centuries. Expansion into the Crusades and military orders[ edit ] A battle of the Reconquista from the Cantigas de Santa Maria In the High Middle Ages, Page 7

8 the fight against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula became linked to the fight of the whole of Christendom. The Reconquista was originally a mere war of conquest. It only later underwent a significant shift in meaning toward a religiously justified war of liberation see the Augustinian concept of a Just War. The papacy and the influential Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy not only justified the acts of war but actively encouraged Christian knights to seek armed confrontation with Moorish "infidels" instead of with each other. From the 11th century onwards indulgences were granted: Not until and the Council of Clermont did the Reconquista amalgamate the conflicting concepts of a peaceful pilgrimage and armed knight-errantry. But the papacy left no doubt about the heavenly reward for knights fighting for Christ militia Christi: The pope promised them the same indulgences that he had promised to those who chose to join the First Crusade. Later military orders such as the Order of Santiago, Montesa, Order of Calatrava, and the Knights Templar were founded or called to fight in Iberia. The Popes called the knights of Europe to join the effort to destroy the Muslim states of the peninsula. Military culture in medieval Iberia[ edit ] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. December Learn how and when to remove this template message In an atmosphere of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were strongly intertwined during this period. Small, lightly equipped armies reflected the need for society to be on constant alert. These forces were capable of moving long distances in short times, allowing a quick return home after sacking a target. Battles were mainly waged between clans, expelling intruder armies or sacking expeditions. In the context of the relative isolation of the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe, and the contact with Moorish culture, geographical and cultural differences necessitated the use of military strategies, tactics, and equipment that were markedly different from those found in the rest of western Europe during this period. Medieval Iberian armies mainly comprised two types of forces: Infantry only went to war if needed, which was not frequent. Cavalry and infantry[ edit ] Iberian cavalry tactics involved knights approaching the enemy, throwing javelins, then withdrawing to a safe distance before commencing another assault. Once the enemy formation was sufficiently weakened, the knights charged with thrusting spears lances did not arrive in Hispania until the 11th century. There were three types of knights caballeros: Royal knights were mainly nobles with a close relationship with the king, and thus claimed a direct Gothic inheritance. Royal knights were equipped in the same manner as their Gothic predecessors: Noble knights came from the ranks of the infanzones or lower nobles, whereas the commoner knights were not noble but were wealthy enough to afford a horse. Uniquely in Europe, these horsemen comprised a militia cavalry force with no feudal links, being under the sole control of the king or the count of Castile because of fueros charters with the crown. Both noble and common knights wore padded armour and carried javelins, spears and round-tasselled shields influenced by Moorish shields, as well as a sword. The peones were peasants who went to battle in service of their feudal lord. Poorly equipped, with bows and arrows, spears and short swords, they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived and to block the enemy infantry from charging the knights. The longbow, the composite bow, and the crossbow were the basic types of bows and were especially popular in the infantry. Armour was typically made of leather, with iron scales; full coats of chain mail were extremely rare and horse barding completely unknown. Head protections consisted of a round helmet with nose protector influenced by the designs used by Vikings, who attacked during the 8th and 9th centuries and a chain mail headpiece. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-shaped designs used by the royal knights. Usually adorned with geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of wood and had a leather cover. Steel swords were the most common weapon. The cavalry used long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones. Guards were either semicircular or straight, but always highly ornamented with geometrical patterns. Spears and javelins were up to 1. Maces and hammers were not common, but some specimens have remained and are thought to have been used by members of the cavalry. Finally, mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers available. Norsemen, Flemish spearmen, Frankish knights, Moorish mounted archers, and Berber light cavalry were the main types of mercenaries available and used in the conflict. Technological changes[ edit ] This style of warfare remained dominant in the Iberian Peninsula until the late 11th century, when lance tactics entered Page 8

9 from France, although the traditional horse javelin-shot techniques continued to be used. Armor consisted of a coat of mail over a quilted jacket, extending at least to the knees, a helmet or iron cap, and bracers protecting the arms and thighs, either metal or leather. Knights rode in both the Muslim style, a la jineta i. Horses were occasionally fitted with a coat of mail as well. Northern Christian realms[ edit ] The northern principalities and kingdoms survived in their mountainous strongholds see above. However, they started a definite territorial expansion south at the turn of the 10th century Leon, Najera. The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova heralded a period of military expansion for the northern kingdoms, now divided into several mighty regional powers after the division of the Kingdom of Navarre A myriad of autonomous Christian kingdoms emerged thereafter. Kingdom of Asturias â [ edit ]. Page 9

10 Chapter 5 : Moorish Invasion The Christian Reconquest of Spain. The "Reconquest" of Spain by the Christians ushered in a time of great persecution that eventually led to the complete destruction of the entire Spanish Jewish community. It was the first interaction of Islamic civilization with the Latin West. For centuries, Muslim Spain was a beacon of knowledge to a European continent that was shrouded in the stupor of the Dark Ages. It was Spain, along with southern Italy, that was destined to act as a conduit for learning to the West. It played a central role in the reawakening of Europe. The very name Andalus conjures up images of a bygone golden age of a brilliant civilization. Spain, as Andalus is known today, is situated in the northwestern corner of the Mediterranean. It is a peninsula, bound to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east by the Mediterranean Sea. To the north the Pyrenees Mountains separate it from France and the rest of Europe. To the south the narrow Straits of Gibraltar connect the waters of the Atlantic with the Mediterranean. Geographically, it is a part of the Mediterranean world, although topographically, the rugged mountains of the Peninsula make it more a part of North Africa than southern Europe. The Atlantic Ocean had arrested the westward advance of Muslim armies. But the narrow straits separating Morocco from Spain were not wide enough to stop their inexorable march northward into Europe. They were propelled by the vision of a world order wherein tyranny was abolished and freedom of religion guaranteed. The early Muslims considered Tawhid meaning, a God-centered civilization to be a Divine trust and the establishment of Divine patterns on earth, a mission. Neither the ocean nor the desert was an insurmountable barrier in their drive to establish a just order on the globe. Faith was the driver for centralization of power during the first centuries of Islamic rule, just as today economics is the driver for centralization of power in the world. Faith cements civilization, advances knowledge and brings prosperity. Absence of faith destroys civilization, fosters ignorance and invites poverty. When the human soul is motivated by faith, nothing in this worldâ not greed, nor passion nor even gloryâ can detract it from the single-minded pursuit of a higher goal. People with faith work together and create civilizations. It is only when faith is weak that greed and passion win, co-operative struggle becomes impossible and civilization crumbles. In the 5th century, the Visigoths conquered Spain and established a kingdom there with Toledo as their capital. Not noted for their skills in administration and statecraft, the Visigoth monarchs invited the Latin Church in to manage the affairs of state. In return, the church obtained official sanction to propagate its faith. The economic condition of the Spanish peasant improved little under this arrangement because he was now subject to double taxation, one from the despotic monarchs and the other from the local monasteries. The rich lived in opulence while the farmers suffered abject poverty. The condition of the Jews was even worse. They were precluded from owning land and prohibited from openly practicing their religion. When they protested, the Church came down hard on them. In, when the Visigoth king Vietza slackened in the persecution of the Jews, the clergy promptly deposed him and installed a playboy army officer, Rodriguez, as the new king. The Jews were forced into slave labor and their women condemned to servitude. The contrast between Spain and North Africa at the beginning of the 8th century was as marked as it can be between two geographically adjacent areas. The Muslims had arrived on the scene with a new creed and a new mission, preaching the freedom of man and justice before the law. The openness of the Muslims was not unknown in Spain and many of the serfs and the Jews had escaped and found a new home in Maghrib al Aqsa Morocco. North Africa was seething with vibrant energy. The Berber revolts had been overcome. The Berbers were enlisting in the Muslim armies with the newfound zeal of faith. In Damascus, Waleed I had ascended the Omayyad throne. A skillful administrator and shrewd statesman, he had successfully crushed a rebellion in far-away Khorasan and had even outmaneuvered the Chinese emperor into a stalemate in Sinkiang. Waleed is known in history as the Emir who gathered around himself the most capable generals of any Omayyad. One by one, the Visigoth strongholds on the Mediterranean had been captured. It was customary among the Visigoth nobles to send their daughters to the royal palace so they could learn the etiquette of the court. In accordance with this custom, Count Julian sent his daughter Florinda to the court in Toledo. There, the profligate Rodriguez raped her. Julian was outraged and sought to take revenge on Page 10

11 Rodriguez for this act of dishonor. Julian traveled to Kairouan to confer with Musa and ask him to invade Spain and humble Rodriguez. The timing was right. Musa ordered Tariq to cross the straits with a contingent of troops. Tariq was an outstanding soldier, a brilliant general, a man of faith and determination. He burned the boats that had brought his forces across the straits and extolled his men to march forward in the name of Tawhid or perish in the struggle. A skirmish ensued with the local Visigoth lord, Theodore Meier, in which the latter was soundly defeated. The year was Rodriguez heard of the invasion and collecting a force of 80,, advanced to meet the Muslim force. Tariq called for reinforcements and received an additional contingent of 7, cavalrymen under the command of Tarif bin Malik Naqi after whom Tarifa inspain is named. The two armies met at the battlefield of Guadalupe. The Muslims were fighting to establish a just political order whereas the Visigoths were fighting to protect and preserve an oppressive scheme. The Arabs were superior in the art of mobile warfare. They were superb horsemen and had mastered the art of rapid enveloping movements in their advance from the desert across Asia and. The Visigoths were accustomed to fighting in static, fixed positions. There was no contest. Even though the Muslims were outnumbered, the Visigoths were cut to pieces. Rodriguez was slain in battle. The defeated Visigoths retreated towards Toledo, the ancient capital of Spain. Tariq divided his troops into four regiments. One regiment advanced towards Cordoba and subdued it. A second regiment captured Murcia. A third advanced north towards Saragossa. Tariq himself moved swiftly towards Toledo. The city surrendered without a fight. Visigoth rule in Spain came to an end. Meanwhile, Musa bin Nusair landed in Spain with a fresh contingent of Berber troops. His first advance was towards Seville. The defenders closed the city gates and a long siege ensued. The offensive capability of the Arabs, backed by military engineering and technology, was superior to the defensive capabilities of the Visigoths. Musa had brought his Minjaniques machines with him, which threw heavy projectiles at the city ramparts demolishing them. After a month, the city surrendered. The Umayyad armies now fanned out across the Spanish peninsula. In rapid succession, Saragossa, Barcelona and Portugal fell one after another. The Pyrenees was crossed and Lyons France was occupied. Musa was ready to continue his drive into France and Italy. But in the meantime, CaliphWaleed I fell ill in Damascus. In the power struggle that ensued, Musa was called back to take his oath to the next Caliph Sulaiman. During their conquest of Spain, the Muslims had captured an enormous amount of booty. Musa was eager to hurry up and bring the conquered booty to Walid I so that the dying Emir would appreciate the services rendered by Musa. Meanwhile, Sulaiman, the heir-apparent, wrote to Musa to slow down his return so that by the time the war booty arrived in Damascus, Walid I would be dead and the booty would belong to Sulaiman. However, Musa, out of courtesy to the dying Emir, did not oblige Sulaiman. He arrived before Walid died. Sulaiman was very upset at losing his chance to claim the war booty. So, when he ascended the throne, he stripped Musa of all rank, accused him of misappropriating war funds and reduced him to stark poverty. Musa lived the rest of his life as a beggar, half blind and at the mercy of public charity. The Jews and the peasants in Spain received the Muslim armies with open arms. The serfdoms were abolished and fair wages were instituted. Taxes were reduced to a fifth of the produce. Anyone who accepted Islam was relieved of his servitude. A large number of Spaniards became Muslim to escape the oppression of their former masters. The religious minorities, the Jews and the Christians, received the protection of the state and were allowed participation at the highest levels of the government. Spain, under Muslim rule, became a beacon of art, science and culture for Europe. Mosques, palaces, gardens, hospitals and libraries were built. Canals were repaired and new ones were dug. Page 11

12 Chapter 6 : Epic World History: Reconquest of Spain The conquest of Spain was the beginning of a new era in world history. It was the first interaction of Islamic civilization with the Latin West. For centuries, Muslim Spain was a beacon of knowledge to a European continent that was shrouded in the stupor of the Dark Ages. Christian or Muslim rulers would, from time to time, fight amongst themselves and even support certain rulers of the "other side. It has been argued that there is a direct link between the Reconquista, and the Spanish conquest of South and Central America, especially with reference to attitudes towards the cultures and religions of the indigenous peoples encountered there. Psychologically, narratives such as the Story of Roland and the Chronicle of El Cid played a part in defining French and Spanish identity. For several centuries, however, the academies of Al-Andalus were among the most famous in the world, where scholars studied from across the Christian and Muslim worlds, as did Jews. Different narrators tell the story of the Muslim conquest and presence in Andalusia and of its Christian reconquest differently, making historical reconstruction challenging. What can be said is that the sins that Muslim did commit in Andalusia were repeated by the Spanish not only in their conquest of the Americas but in Africa as well. The world needs to rid itself of imperialism, cultural and religious rivalry and military conquest, which always results in efforts to recover what has been lost, or to gain independence from foreign domination. Background The divided Visigothic Kingdom before the Muslim invasion. The accuracy of this map is disputed. One version of the narrative has it that Muslims seized the moment, having recently conquered the western part of Northern Africa modern Morocco, to launch a single, or perhaps several, raid s under the command of Tarif ibn Malluk across the straits. It is unclear if there was a single large raid, several smaller ones, and of its initial purpose: The search of plunder, to evaluate the opposition, or, more likely, a combination of the two. Another version of the story adds to the complexity of the narrative, especially to the more straightforward claim that Muslim aggressors invaded and occupied Christian land which was after a hard and gallant struggle over many centuries eventually won back by the reconquistadores. It claims Christian complicity in the Muslim invasion. An account written in the mid to late ninth century mentions a Julian, count of Ceuta who aided the Muslims. Julian could think of no other way to punish Roderic except by "sending the Arabs against him," which he did, acting as their guide. A large part of the Visigothic nobility also fell in the battle. This created a sudden power vacuum without a clear political and military Chain of command leaving the kingdom widely disorganized. Taking advantage of this situation the Muslims, under the command of Musa bin Nusair, escalated their efforts into a full-fledged invasion. They succeeded in pushing Achila II, and later his successor Ardo, more and more into the north-west until conquering the remainder of the kingdom and conquering almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. Constable comments that "areas may have been won by â peaceful means, using treaties â to enlist the cooperation of local administrators and inhabitants. The conquered were largely allowed to keep their property and social status, but most of the local rulers in key positions were replaced by Arab Muslims. While the conversion to Islam was always encouraged by the Muslim elite, Christianity and Judaism was largely tolerated. Non-Muslims were subjected to a series of discriminatory laws, although the severity of this varied from time to time as did the presence of Christians and Jews within government service. Given the relatively small size of the Muslim population, treating Christians and Jews well was also a political necessity. Probably in, Pelayo, a Visigothic nobleman, led a rebellion against Munuza, a local Muslim governor. Becoming a leader of the local nobility he gathered all available support and one his most important allies was Duke Pedro of Cantabria. Around, the Emir sent a military expedition to quell this rebellion resulting in the Battle of Covadonga, where the forces of Pelayo prevailed. Meanwhile the main Moorish army had crossed the Pyrenees, beginning an invasion into southern France. Checked by Odo the Great in the Battle of Toulouse in they retreated and regrouped, receiving reinforcements. A later invasion was defeated by Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours in The Kingdom of Asturias The kingdom of Asturias was located in the Cantabrian Mountains, a wet and mountainous region in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. During the reign of King Alfonso II â, the kingdom was firmly established. He is believed to have initiated diplomatic contacts Page 12