Ch 13 Creation of a new world market

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1 Ch 13 Creation of a new world market The 15th Century - About 450 million people whose dominant lifestyle was agriculture (some were nomads and hunters) -1490s is considered turning point in world history Europeans begin to have oceanic contact with America s and Asia. In most societies there were already systems in place to transfer the farmer s proceeds to others (seen as paying rent to landlords, taxes to gov t, food/animals to nobles). Work done by peasants but benefits reaped by landlords & aristocrats. Resulted in a surplus of wealth held by the landlords etc. and allowed them to live leisurely, patronize art, culture, hand out scholarships, and for governments to wage war. Some Political Entities in 1500: Asia CHINA 100+ million people, a strong unified state, incorporated various cultural groups and almost all the Han Chinese in the world. Often referred to as empire.! Yuan (Mongol) dynasty ( )! Zhang He (Cheng Ho) ( )! Ming dynasty ( ) JAPAN Second most significant society of East Asia.! Strong, unified state under which almost all the Japanese were under one ruler Europe: HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE in Western Europe Several differences with China: - Contained several small states (i.e. Kingdoms of France, England, Scotland, etc.) whose constant warring for land, power, and wealth constantly changed the political map - Lines of political authority in Europe were unclear -Had a holy Roman emperor (but his power was not so great not like China s emperor) -Numerous Kings (of Scotland, France, Denmark, etc) whose King was the emperor Principalities, Duchies, City-States, etc., Competition between states for wealth, power, and prestige encouraged INNOVATION & new ideas, so that it can be used to defeat the other countries Islamic World: OTTOMAN EMPIRE Turkish. Took over most of Asia Minor, North Africa (Egypt), the Balkans in Europe, Persia, and destroyed the last remaining bits of Constantinople (aka Byzantine, modern Istanbul). -Single dominant religion Islam (Muhammed was the prophet of Allah, monotheistic). -Many of the sub-empires of the Mongol empire (when it broke up) adopted Islam as their religion and expected their subjects to do the same. Contributed to the spread of Islam. -Five pillars created an idea of strength and cultural unity Americas: Large, land-based tributary empire. Engaged in lots of wars in order to get tributes. AZTEC EMPIRE Mexico Extreme separation from most of the world. INCA EMPIRE West coast of South America (Peru, Ecuador) TRAVELING - By land-boats (wagons with a sail, moved by the wind not very common), walked, boats/ships, the rich were carried

2 - Short distance traveling was usually for economic reasons (bringing your products to the marketplace) -Long distance traveling for economic reasons (usually semi/non-perishable products like silk, grains, metals). Sought to bring resources abundant in one area to areas where they were considered valuable. -Religious reasons pilgrimages to places that were considered especially holy and thought that by doing this that their God/deity would favor them as a reward for the effort that they made for traveling the long distances. Often by foot, sometimes by ship. -Relocation of officials being promoted and having to move -Slaves were a commodity transferred from place to place -Sometimes due to tourism. Tourists usually from China, but still extremely rare. -Military reasons not many people travelled in huge numbers. Military traffic usually carried out on animals (horses and elephants) -Most often means of traveling long-distance is by ship. Fleets of ships were often organized by governments because individuals often didn t have the resources to outfit ships to take goods from one place to another. Sometimes organized by a band of merchants working together A merchant is a person who generates wealth by arranging a transfer of products from where they are common and cheap to where they are scarce and expensive. You must be able to invest some kind of capital to arrange for this transportation. AGE OF EXPLORATION AND EXPANSION (early 1400s late 1600s) Spring 1498 Vasco da Gama (Portuguese) arrives at Calicut in West India and goes home with a cargo of spices, setting the stage for Europe s participation in the Spice trade that opens up the trade routes to Asia. The European expansion in Asia also eventually results in Western domination of the trade routes in the Indian Ocean and the establishment of colonies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Islam and the spice trade 1400s Islam begins transporting more spices to Sumatra and Java (islands in Indonesia) from India and the Middle East. Muslim merchants try to convert the island people to Islam. 1400s a Hindu establishes his kingdom at Malacca (in Malaysia), a major meeting place for Muslim merchants. He converts to Islam to better his chances of profiting from the merchants passing through the region. Malacca soon becomes the leading economic power in the region and promotes the spread of Islam to other trading ports throughout SE Asia. Malacca was an important trade center because it possessed spices something scarce in most of the world and therefore valuable (used to make food that had begun to gone bad edible). Spread of Islam into West Africa 14-15th century Muslims cross the Sahara desert into the Niger River Valley. The kingdom of Songhai is formed by Sonni Ali, and soon becomes a major trading state. Ali s successor was a Muslim who used Islamic institutions and ideology to strengthen national unity and his own power. It was the one of the last states to dominate the Niger River Valley before European domination. A new player: Europe Europeans, attracted by tales of a rich, magical, and exotic land to the east, undertake voyages to try to make contact with the East.

3 Why? Rise of capitalism in Europe, outrageously expensive spices, hopes of finding precious metals, GET RICH, expanding the areas of trades, and spreading Christianity are the main reasons for their voyages. How: Centralization of power in the Crown allowed countries to expand outwards. Improvements to ships, and developments in technology and knowledge (resource-carrying capacity, warfare, cartography, compass), allowed them to regularly travel beyond Europe. Europe and Christianity In Europe, the highest level of society was nobles/aristocrats who served the King a hereditary status (or bestowed by the King). Some people came to serve the King by giving him money, and as a reward he granted them the title of noble. One way to make money was by selling products and being a merchant. So you might start out as merchants and eventually come to be powerful, wealthy, land-owning aristocrats. A very well-known example is the Medici family. You can become rich through economic activities. Christianity is premised on the assumption that it is the one and only true religion. Many other religions take a more open view each religion will worship their own. Europeans came to believe that if they came upon another country that had no way to resist Europeans and were not Christians, it was their right to impose Christianity upon the area (seen as doing them a favor by exposing them to Christianity). The Portuguese maritime empire Most active traders were generally Arabs carrying spices or slaves huge economic activity in the Indian Ocean attracted Europe s interest, but routes were difficult to access for Europeans. Instead of navigating through the Mediterranean (many politics conflicts impeded travel there at that time), they decided to try to go around Africa, but they didn t know how big Africa was. Henry the Navigator of Portugal ( ) leads the organization to try to go around Africa (he never actually sailed a ship but directed the ships from Lisbon in Portugal). This trip was never accomplished in Henry s lifetime first cargo of Black Africans are brought by Portuguese ships back home and sold. In 1471, they discover a new source of Gold along the coast of West Africa and leased land from local rulers to build forts that would facilitate the trade in gold, ivory and slaves Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut believing that it is the source of the spices. Goes back home with a cargo of spices and makes a profit of several thousand percent. Early 1500 s Portuguese set out to take over spice trade. Takes over Malacca (and kills its Muslim pop n) because 1) it can block passage through the Strait of Malacca, hindering the Arab spice trade network, and 2) it can serve as a port for ships traveling east to the Spice islands. They then travelled to China and the Moluccas (Spice Islands), make a deal with the local sultan to buy and export cloves to Europe, and within a few years the Portuguese gained control of the Spice Trades from Muslim Arabs & create huge profit for Portuguese Monarchy. Portuguese were successful mainly because of guns and seamanship; although they were not the only ones with guns, their ships were able to maintain their distance while hitting the enemy with cannons. Spanish conquest in the new world As the Portuguese headed east across the Indian Ocean to try to reach the Spice Islands, the Spanish tried to reach the same place by traveling west across the Atlantic.

4 The voyages Columbus, an Italian, convinces the Spanish Queen to sponsor his voyages, and in 1492 he reaches the Americas and Cuba. In future voyages he travels to the Caribbean and Central America and thinking it was Asia, names it the Indies. The conquests Fear that a war would erupt between the Spanish (who claim to find Asia through the Atlantic) and the Portuguese (who have reached the Indies through Africa) causes the Pope (Spanish in origin) to declare that the East route around Africa (cape of good hope) would be reserved for the Portuguese, while the path across the Atlantic Ocean would be the Spanish s. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. Portugal s success is taking over Latin America is due mostly to superior weapons, diseases, organizational skills, and determination. Governing the empire Spanish impose the encomienda system towards the inhabitants of America ( Indians ), where the conquerors collected tributes from the Indians and used them as laborers, but in return the conquerors were supposed to protect the Indians and satisfy their spiritual and material needs (in reality, they did whatever they wanted). European diseases, forced labour, and starvation decimates the Native population from 100,000 to 300 from encomienda system abolished, Council of the Indies set up. Each area was governed by a viceroy who served as the King s chief civil and military officer (ADMINISTRATIVE). The Catholic monarchs of Spain had religious authority in the Indies converted and baptized thousands of Indians after the conquest, building churches, schools, hospitals, dioceses, and parishes (mimicking the European society). Portugal and Spain Spain take over mainly because of guns (other important ones are disease). They take over much of America in this way. Portuguese operate differently they realize that they don t have the power to take over large amounts of established territory (india and china). What they want to do is establish welldefended trading posts by defeating one ruler of one area. They want strongly defended trading posts to dominate the trading network (instead of conquering large masses of land). Second treaty (1529) draws second line almost identical to the first line. Drawn to deal with territorial problems between Portugal and Spain. The impact of European expansion Native American civilizations, with their own social and political structures, were replaced by European institutions, religion, language, and culture. Because of their ease in taking over the Americas, Europeans believed that their civilization was superior the beginning of its relationship with the rest of the world. Expansion overseas also meant that much trading occurred of slaves, ideas, gold, silver, flowers, crops, cotton, perfumes, silk, ivory, etc (the columbian exchange). This increase in European trade and the rise in fluid capital were essential to creating a new era of capitalism, which would come to represent the economy of our modern era. New rivals - europeans in Asia Portugal was never able to completely dominate trade in the Indian Ocean; they lacked the size and wealth to colonize the Asian regions. In the early 1520 s, the Spanish establish themselves in Asia and take

5 control over the Philippines. In 1600, the (English) East India Company was founded to provide money for future voyages, and in 1608, the English land on the NW coast of India and begin trading with SE Asia. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was created to compete with the English and Portuguese. Europeans in America War with the Dutch and English impeded Portuguese trade in both the West and East, although they still profited from their colonial empire in Brazil, which exported sugar to the Old World. The Spanish s dominance in South America began to decline due to a decrease in silver output and the poverty of the Spanish monarchy. Dutch soon took over parts of North America, but war with the French and English brought its demise, leading to the battle between the English and French for Canada. The desire to escape religious oppression and to become rich made colonization in the America s possible. Africa in transition Early 1500s The Portuguese build forts along East Africa in the hopes of monopolizing the trade in gold, which the local Zimbabwe people had controlled at the time. Lacking the personnel, money, and expertise to dominate the local trade, they were eventually driven from the land. The Dutch were the first to settle in South Africa, and become the Boers (apartheid). The slave trade Trafficking slaves existed long before the arrival of Portuguese fleets; most were shipped to the Middle East where they were used as domestic servants. It was only after the discovery of the New World and the planting of sugarcane in South America and Caribbean that African slaves became agricultural laborers. The middle passage The middle passage refers to the journey from Africa to the Americas (for slaves) where almost a third of slaves fell victim to disease or malnourishment. Most slaves were prisoners, war captives, or had inherited their status. As demand increased, slave traders travelled inland to locate their victims and although some rulers were concerned about the impact of the slave trade on the well-being of their society, most viewed the slave trade as a source of income. The effects of the slave trade Led to depopulation of some areas (Angola which is south of the Congo River, and in parts of East Africa). In West Africa high birth rates offset the death rate and the introduction of new crops led to an increase in food that made it possible to support a larger population. Europeans justified the slave trade by believing that 1) slave trading had existed for centuries so they were only carrying on a tradition, 2) that they were doing Africans a favor by exposing them to Christianity and that 3) American Indian workers, who were considered too fragile for cutting sugarcane, could now be replaced by Africans. Effects on political and social structures The importation of European goods into the non-western world drove many local industries and families poor. The demand for slaves and the use of firearms where there previously were none created political instability and escalated civilian conflicts. However, European influence was mostly limited to their forts on the coast of Africa, as some African states allied with each other to resister European forces. As well, many states were tempted by the profit to be made from slavery and this led to an increase in conflict.

6 Southeast Asia in the era of the spice trade The arrival of the Portuguese in the late 1400s eventually led to the breakdown of traditional societies and the rise of colonial role. By the 1600 s, the Dutch, English, and French had begun to compete for rights to the spice trade. The Dutch (through their Dutch East India Company) began to dominate the spice trade as well as establish some military and political control over the area, ruling through the aristocracy that already existed in those areas. The domination of mainland SE Asia was not as successful because 1) strong kingdoms already existed, and 2) spices did not thrive there, so Europeans didn t try as hard. State and society in precolonial southeast Asia Religion and kingship Both Buddhism and Islam were popular in SE Asia, but Christianity began to become popular in some places, like the Philippines. Buddhism and Islam helped shaped SE Asian political institutions, as seen in the evolution of political systems in 4 main types:! 1) Buddhist Kingship The monarch was God-like, and because of his Samaritan virtues he was considered to be innately superior to others. He was the connection between humans and the cosmos. 2) Javanese Kingship blend of Buddhist and Islamic political traditions. Monarchs were sacred and maintained the balance between the sacred and material world 3) Islamic Sultans head of state was a sultan, who was viewed as a mortal with magical qualities. 4) Vietnamese Emperors very strongly influenced by China, but not talked about. The Economy Based mainly on agriculture until the 16th century, when commerce began to affect people s daily lives (agriculture was turned into cash crops like sugar, and spices replaced rice and other cereals). They also traded copper, gold, fruits, cloth, and gems to China. Society Enjoyed a somewhat higher living standard than those in other parts of Asia; hunger was not a widespread problem due to a favorable climate, nutrient-rich deltas & volcanic soils, and a dispersed and relatively small population. There was little social stratification, and women had more rights than were common at the time they could divorce, inherit, and hold property. EXCERPT: An exchange of royal correspondence 1681, King Louis 14th of France writes to the King of Tonkin (Vietnam) praising the kindness and protection that the Tonkin King showed to his French ambassadors. Louis kindly asks the permission of Tonkin to allow Christian missionaries to spread their religion in Vietnam, and Tonkin politely declines, saying that it is against the rules of his religion to allow the propagation of another religion. Ming dynasty fleets Commander: Zhang He (Cheng Ho) Family was originally Muslims, born in South Asia. Captured by a Ming army, sent as a slave to the court of the Ming emperor. He was castrated (the idea was that if you never had your own family, you would never have divided loyalty between your family and your master). Rose up the ranks, became one of the most trusted advisors to the emperor, and finally became appointed as the admiral of the imperial fleet, with about 60 ships under his command. He was sent on 7 expeditions, all over the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

7 Men who were highly educated were held in very high regard in Chinese society. The smartest were chosen to be officials of the Chinese state, and were seen as the most distinguished ones in the society. Ch 14 - Europe transformed: reform & state building April 18, 1521 Martin Luther stands before Louis V and the Diet of Worms to defend his acts of criticizing the Church, and refuses to take them back. He is excommunicated, and the church is divided into Catholics and Protestants, beginning a series of religious wars from In response to these crises, absolutism (absolute monarchy) emerges, where monarchs seek a monopoly over power to act as a stabilizing force. In other places, a limited monarchy emerges where monarchs are limited by the power of their representative assemblies. During this time most people s religions are chosen by their rulers. The reformation of the 16th century Christianity Monotheist. Began with the basic premise that all people are inherently sinful, and because of this, after death our souls deserve to be punished. The coming and crucifixion of Jesus allowed people to escape the punishment of their sins (Jesus took the punishment that humans deserved, making it possible for some humans to be saved and go to Heaven instead of Hell). Certain requirements for being a Christian: -Baptism (at birth by a priest b/c infant mortality rate was still high get the baby before its too late) -Participation in communion/eucharist/mass/lord s supper (bread and wine, led by a priest) -Confession of sins (to a priest) -Absolution (by a priest) Once baptized, people can now repent for their sins and hopefully go to Heaven. Priest = special status conferred to a person ordained by a bishop (who was ordained by an earlier bishop). Only they could listen to people confess their sins, and promise that because of their confession that they would be given absolution (God will overlook those sins). God may also forgive you if you do certain things to make up for your sins (prayers, charity work, give money to church). Protestant Reformation people began to question this system (most notably Erasmus). Refers to the movement that divided the western Christian church into Catholic and Protestant groups. Background to the reformation In the 15th century Renaissance period many things helped the reformation come about: 1) The growth of state power monarchies began to try to centralize power, suppress nobilities, control the church, and obtain more money to increase their power and military were termed new monarchies. There is an emphasis on the ends justifying the means, and morality is abandoned as the basis for ruling. 2) Social changes in the Renaissance before Renaissance, society was divided into the clergy (first estate), who believed that people should be guided to spiritual ends; nobility (second), who were supposed to provide security and justice for society; and the peasants of the towns and cities (third). During the Renaissance, nobility came to dominate society and politics, while more peasants became free. They began to seek a greater share of the benefits of their labour and these grievances led many of them to support religious reform movements. At the top of society were the patricians, who dominated economically, socially, and politically, then the petty bourgeoisie (shopkeepers, artisans,

8 guildsmen) who provided goods and services, and at the bottom were the propertyless workers and the unemployed, who also came to support religious reform in the 16th century. 3) Impact of Printing allowed for the mass printing and distribution of religious works. Multiple printing led to the development of research, of a lay-reading public, and the desire to gain knowledge. 4) Prelude to reformation Christian Humanism (northern Renaissance humanism) emerges, who tries to reform Christianity. They believe that through reason, personal improvement, and reading classical (Christian) works, they could reform the church and society. Erasmus, a humanist, believed in looking to the Bible rather than the Church, and that people should do works of charity for people in need to relieve their sins, NOT indulgences. Helped paved the way for the Reformation. 5) Corruption in the Catholic Church also encouraged reform. Many popes were too involved in worldly interests (wars) and failed to fulfill their spiritual duties, while others used their church position to increase their wealth. As people sought for more meaningful religious expression and obtaining salvation, they collected relics and bought indulgences, which people believed would shorten their time in purgatory. Made Church good $$. Purgatory: there s Heaven and Hell; most people were considered to in between extremely good and bad, they committed an almost equal number of good and bad events, so when they died they weren t good enough to go to Heaven but not bad enough to go to Hell. So purgatory was where the soul waited before it could go on to Heaven. This led to the idea of indulgences. Martin Luther and the reformation in Germany At the time, Catholic doctrine emphasized that both faith and good works (usually giving money) were needed to be saved. After finding Romans 1:17 in the Bible, Luther disagreed with the Church and thought that faith in God was the only way to achieve salvation (justification by faith). The Bible alone was the guide to salvation. Faith gift from God that would save people; not attainable from any other sources. Justification having a good relationship with God (justified) so that he will consider you a RIGHTEOUS person (being in a spiritual state where you will be saved after death) After believing in faith and justification, he began to get angry at the church for telling people that they could only be saved by listening to what the priests tell you what to do, and he couldn t find a reference to purgatory in the church. Began to question the church, indulgences, purgatory, and imagined that other churches would agree with his theory, but he was de-credited and criticized by the church. So he began to think that priests were not special people with powers that others don t have to make the promises of salvation. Then he began to question whether there should be a pope or priests, and the Church was so angry that he was excommunicated. Then came in Charles V (I), the most powerful person in the world because of inherited positions (holy Roman emperor, archduke of Austria, ruler of the Netherlands (richest place in europe), Burgundy, Spain, and all of Spain s American colonies.) called a meeting (the Diet of Worms), and wanted Luther to show up, explain himself, and apologize. However, Luther instead refuses and sticks by everything he s said. A Prince of Saxony saves Luther from execution and hides him for a year, and when he reemerged out of hiding he had enough

9 supporters that Charles V couldn t execute him. He now thought of himself as a minister/pastor, without the special powers that monks and priests had. Instead, now he had faith. Came to a split of the Church pope based in Rome, and became the Roman Catholic. Those who protested against the church were known as Protestants (Luther). For a majority of Europe, people became Protestants or Catholics because of their lords. Then Protestants started arguing within themselves (about where Luther was right and where he was wrong), leading to further splits. One of the first to split is Huldrych Zwingli, the leader of the Swiss reformation, he agreed with Luther on almost everything for 2 or 3 particular points of doctrine, but these differences were so important to them that they couldn't agree to remain one religion. One of these points had to do with the meaning of the Lord s Supper/Communion. The old Catholic belief was that the priest held up the bread and said this is my body, and at that moment that bread became the real body of Christ (no real transformation), same for the wine. Luther believed that the priest had no special powers like that but that god decides at what time the bread and wine becomes the blood and body of Christ, and when people gather for this event then god will change it. Zwingli believed that the bread and wine doesn t change into body and blood at all, but they are merely symbols, this is an act of remembering Jesus sacrifice. (ritual: involving the actual body of Christ vs just a symbolic gesture). Argument between Zwingli and Luther led to the splitting of the Protestants. Eventually John Calvin became the religious leader of Protestants, and he could not agree with Luther. Ended up in Geneva and created a document named the Geneva Confession Confession = list of things that Christians believed in, differing from earlier definitions of confession. So then there were Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists, and then emerged others (anabaptists - waited for people to grow up until they grew up). By 1550, Western Christianity is divided by Roman Catholics, and Protestants who were split. How those rival groups started interacting with each other is known as the age of the Wars of Religion ( ). Politics and religion in the German reformation Charles V, ruler of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, sought to maintain his empire and preserve the Catholic faith; when he reached Germany Lutheranism was well established and he was unable to defeat them. In 1555, the peace of Augsburg was established, recognizing the formal division of Christianity and legal rights for the Lutheran states. The spread of Protestantism ended Christian unity. He also abdicated as the Holy Roman Emperor after being unable to crush Protestantism. He divided his lands between his son Philip II and younger brother Ferdinand I. Not long after, the age of the Wars of the Religion happened (wars had to do with religion, as well as with expanding their land and political power). Calvin and Calvinism John Calvin ( ), a Protestant, believed in many Lutheran doctrines but placed more emphasis on the all-powerful nature of God. He believed that God had already determined who was going to Heaven or to Hell (predestination). Predestination contributed to the dynamism and activist Calvinist faith, who strongly believed that they were doing God s work. His church had a consistory, a group that enforced moral discipline and punished crimes (dancing, swearing, playing cards, being drunk). The English reformation 1533 King Henry VIII broke away from the Pope and the Catholic Church, and declared that he would be the supreme head of the Church of England (Anglican Church). Few things actually changed until his death, when his Archbishops moved the church towards Protestant doctrines. Eventually (Bloody) Mary takes the

10 throne and tries to revert England back to Catholicism, but her unpopular actions lead to an increase in Protestantism. The social impact of the Protestant reformation Protestantism placed the family at the center of human life and mutual love between man and wife. This often meant that the wife was the obedient servant and the husband was the ruler. They saw the wife s main duty as bearing children and remaining housewives. Marriage in the early modern world The family was placed at the heart of Europe s social organization. They were a house whose interests were placed above individual interests. Parents chose who their children married, and determined dowries. Love was seen as distraction to the couple s responsibility to the family, and sometimes the lower classes had to give gifts to their landlords to obtain their permission to marry. The Catholic reformation By 1550, Lutheranism was well established. However, the Catholic church also changed; there were 3 chief pillars of the Catholic Reformation: 1) The Society of Jesus 1534 Jesuits believed in absolute obedience to the pope, a hierarchal society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and fighting for God. They were quite successful in restoring Catholicism to parts of Europe, and often travelled far to spread the Catholic faith. 2) A Reformed Papacy The Reformation caused Pope Paul III to form a reform commission to figure out the church s problems. He recognized the Jesuits and created the Council of Trent. 3) The Council of Trent a group of high church officials who reestablished the Catholic Church s traditions and teachings (both scripture and tradition were valid in confirming religious matters; only the church could interpret scripture; and both faith and good works were needed for salvation). Belief in purgatory and indulgences was strengthened, but selling indulgences was made illegal. Thus both Catholicism and Protestantism were religions who firmly believed in opposite doctrines and were dedicated to spreading God as they interpreted it; this paved the path for an era of religious wars. Europe in crisis, Politics and the wars of religion in the 16th century The French wars of Religion ( ) Many nobles converted to Calvinism by the 1560s. These Huguenots (French Calvinists) were persecuted by French Kings as they became a potential political threat to the Catholic monarchy. There were 9 separate wars of religion in France. The most famous was the St. Bartholomew s eve massacre, where a Protestant massacre occurred at the wedding of Henry of Navarre (Protestant) to the King s Catholic sister. He was forced to convert to save his life, but eventually escaped after a year. Soon became Henry IV and King of France, but the people would not accept a Protestant ruler (led to 9th war), and so he converted Edict of Nantes created, recognized Catholicism as the official religion of France, but also guaranteed Protestants the right to worship and participate in politics. Philip II of Spain (son of Charles V, Habsburg) and Catholicism in the Netherlands (1560s) Netherlands thought that Philip II was too focused on Spain and did not pay attention to their needs. Many Dutch nobles were also Protestants, while Philip was Catholic led to the Dutch Revolt, beginning in the

11 1560s. Protestants didn t want Philip to rule and didn t want a Catholic country; Catholics didn t mind that he was Spanish since he was a Catholic. In 1609 there was a truce that recognized the independence of the northern provinces became the core of the modern Dutch State. In 1648, there was a formal treaty to confirm the truce, and which split the Netherlands in half. The northern became independent (Netherlands), while the southern half was ruled by the (Spanish) Habsburg family (Belgium now). the England of Elizabeth & the Spanish Armada (1558) England went through many changes with King Henry the VIII with the English Reformation (see above). When his son took over, the son s advisors changed it to a Protestant kingdom. He died and then his halfsister (Bloody) Mary took over, and tried to turn England back into a Catholic country. She married Philip II (Catholic). When she died Elizabeth I (Protestant) took over, and she converted England back to Protestantism. Her kingdom became the leader of the European Protestant nations and made a world empire possible. She declared herself the supreme governor of both church and state, but was careful to keep non-protestants happy even though they lived in a Protestant country. Philip II attempted to overthrow Elizabeth (Protestant) and return England back to Catholicism, but failed. Economic and social crises ( ) population decline War, famine, and plague continued to affect population levels right after they suffered the Black Death. witchcraft mania Europe s social tensions (especially with the 30 years war) were manifested in an obsession with witches. 100,000 people were accused of being witches, usually women, the poor, and the landless. Both Protestants and Christians believed that it was Christians (as a whole) vs the devil. The devil was invisible but he had followers witches. Many religious leaders believed that these secret followers were woman, who were seen as temperamentally weaker, who were tempted by the devil (who appeared as a different form before the women) to become his follower. Woman who were caught behaving in untraditional ways were often arrested for witchcraft. 100x more trials and executions in continental Europe than in England. Roman law system if the prisoner refused to confess but you were sure they were guilty, it was legal under this system to torture the prisoner to make them confess. In cases regarding witchcraft, the legal norm was to use torture much more quickly because the person was considered a threat to all of society. After getting her confession, they would then the accused to name other witches, leading to more trials and deaths. It began to die down during the 1650s as gov ts grew stronger and disapproved of the uneasiness caused by witch trials. People also began questioning religion and found it unreasonable to believe that they lived in a world haunted by evil spirits. Law, crime, and punishment in early Europe Criminal cases handled differently in early Europe than modern Europe the family of the victim would track down who they think is guilty and take them to the ruler s court each side is heard, and if the family s actions are justified, they receive compensation. Trial by ordeal and then Adversarial system Eventually, crimes are seen as a crime against the State, not just the victim s family state eventually takes over tracking down and trying to the criminal.

12 The truth (to decide a case) was left to God God tells the court if the criminal committed the crime trial by ordeal (example: walk barefoot across bed of coals, if his feet are burned he s guilty). Eventually, it was replaced by an adversarial system 12 men who knew the criminal and was familiar with his personality (trial by jury) summoned to listen to the evidence, decides if they re innocent or guilty. Roman law: inquisitorial system Outside Britain, European countries eventually replaced the adversarial system with Roman law, where the judge took an active part in figuring out who committed the crime, interrogating them, and (if found guilty) punishing them. No juries. Accused could not have a lawyer. The courts were carrying out an inquiry inquisitorial system. Safety check on judge s power he cannot convict the criminal until he had all the information and the accused confessed. Most confessed right away to try to get a lighter sentence. If they did not confess, the judge could extract the confession torture. Torture could be used more quickly when the accused has gang or witchcraft ties. Sentence then given. Being imprisoned was rare (too expensive), but whipping, branding (burn mark into skin) and physical labour was common. Executions took place in public (discourage people from committing crime, showed people that justice was being done). economic trends in the 17th century Mercantilism: dominated 17th century economic practices. It involved: exporting goods of greater value than those that were imported; stimulating and protecting export industries and trades by granting trade monopolies; encouraging investment in new industries; improving the transportation system by building road, bridges, canals; placing high taxes on imports to reduce imports and prevent them from competing with domestic industries; and using colonies for raw materials and as markets for finished goods. The commercial expansion of Europe was made easier by the joint-stock company (invest money for others to decide where it goes, you get return on investments). Despite commercial capitalism, European peasants saw little or no improvement as prices and taxes rose. 17th century crises: revolution and war Many rebellions and civil wars tested the stability of many European governments. The 30 years war in Germany & Europe ( ) Peace of Augsburg allowed German states to decide whether they want to be Protestants or Catholics. In 1618 the Protestants in Bohemia no longer wanted to have a Catholic leader. Led to a revolt that eventually affected the rest of Germany, becoming a war of German Catholics vs German Protestants it appeared that the Catholics were going to win, but then the King of Denmark (a Protestant), decided to help the Protestants. Denmark was defeated, and then the Swedish King (also a Protestant) sent an army to help the Protestants. Sweden was defeated, and then the King of France (Louis 14th who was raised a Catholic, son of King Henry IV) intervened to help the Protestants. Why did help? Geopolitical considerations overruled religion loyalty Louis 14th didn t want the Habsburg family to become so powerful that it would threaten his power. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, where all German states were free to choose their own religion. Also ended the Holy Roman Empire and made France the dominant nation. This was the first major event that focused on the balance of power; we now see power replacing religion as the major reason for war no one country should become the all-powerful country.

13 A military revolution? Military became more important as wars became more common in European affairs. The developments in the science of warfare led to the need for bigger and more expensive armies. Heavier taxes and conscription were imposed to upkeep these armies, and the creation of large bureaucracies to supervise military resources led to a more powerful state government. Response to crisis: The search for order after the wars and the practice of Absolutism in Europe Many Kings in Europe had limited power because they didn t have the financial or military resources to rule without the help of others like: Nobles received land in exchange for supporting the King with soldiers during wartime. Merchants Kings tried to get loans of money from merchants Leaders of the church church leaders had moral authority, they were expected to teach Christian followers that God wanted them to obey the King France s legislative body estates general represented 3 estates, (clergy, nobility, and everybody else commons). Many rulers didn t like having to go to the estates general to pass laws/collect taxes, so rulers tried to find ways to rule without having to consult the estates general. There were a few ideas that increased this resentment 1) the idea of the divine right of Kings, 2) Absolutism rulers wanted power concentrated in their hands; the idea of the King s divine right to rule enforced the idea that rulers deserved to hold all the power France under King Louis 14th ( ) One of the best examples of absolute monarchy. After the 9 wars of religion in France, many thought a strong King would stabilize the country, and so Henry Navarre (IV) came to rule. After he was assassinated, his 9 year old son Louis XIII succeeded him, but unlike Henry he was not a strong ruler. His advisor (Prime Minister), cardinal Richelieu, tried to reduce the privileges bestowed on Protestants by the Edict of Nantes (set in by Henry IV). Advised Louis XIII to stop calling on the estates general, and tried to reduce the power of nobles. In 1643, Louis 14th (Catholic) became King, but he was only 5 years old. There were attempts to reduce the power of the monarchy during the time of the weak boy King, but this uprising was crushed. When his Prime Minister died, Louis decided to become his own Prime Minister. Louis decided that he should choose who would make up his government, letting him dominate the gov t. Political institutions Louis dominated the central gov t (since he chose them), giving him the power to make foreign policy, wage war, challenge religious authorities, and impose taxes. Nobles and Princes that he considered dangerous were removed from the royal council (which made policies) and placed in the French Court, away from politics. He filled the council with new nobles who he thought would be more likely to obey him. Important Policies: the economy, military, and religious uniformity Followed mercantilism to increase the wealth and power of France. Encouraged local industries (to decrease imports and increase exports). Since wealth was measured in gold and silver at the time, he exported things scarce in other countries in return for gold and silver. He also placed tariffs on imports to discourage their citizens to buy foreign items.

14 Religious uniformity: Louis, a Catholic, wanted all French people to have the same religion, but Protestants still had special rights due to the Edict of Nantes. He revoked the edict and Protestants were given 2 choices: 1) to revert to Catholicism, or 2) leave France. Standing armies In the middle ages, King relied on feudal lords and their servants to make up their army. In the 15-17th centuries, they depend on military enterprisers/mercenaries (hired people to fight for them). Since soldiers were only hired, they often ransacked places they went to try to obtain as much wealth as possible. In the late 17th century onwards, they relied on standing (permanent, year-long) armies, but this was expensive to maintain and manage. Louis thought that he would prove himself a more powerful ruler by winning wars. He waged 4 wars to prove his prestige and secure his military glory (also so that France would dominate European affairs). For a while his battles were successful, but eventually Europe thought Louis was becoming too powerful, so they formed coalitions against France. France lost many allies. The war of the Spanish succession ( ) The King of Spain dies in 1700, and leaving no children, there were arguments about which of his relatives had the right to be the King of Spain. Louis 14th thought it was his right, and many didn t want France to become the King of Spain because they thought it would make him too powerful. The war ended in a compromise Louis grandson would become the King of Spain but the Spanish empire would be reduced in size (so the role of being the King of Spain was made less powerful). When Louis died, his great grandson, Louis XV, became the King of France at the age of 5. France had become so powerful by this point that no one revolted against the boy-king. Many rulers in Europe tried to copy the French model. Absolutism in central and eastern Europe: 3 new powers Prussia, an example of a country trying to copy the French model Ruled by Frederick William the Great Elector. Gathered a large army to defend its vulnerable territory and reduce the influence of representative estates. Created a General War Commissariat to oversee the army and impose taxes instead of using the representative body; it eventually governed the state. It was staffed by aristocracy, and the junkers (army officers). His son Frederick I becomes King of Prussia in Austria The Austrian Habsburgs expanded the boundaries of the Austria empire, taking over parts of eastern and southeastern Europe. Monarchy didn t become a full absolutist state because there were so many national groups. Each region had it own laws and political life. Russia (originally known as the grand duchy of Muscovy) Russia expanded its territory in central and east Asia, which was easy to do since not many people lived there. It was ruled by the Princes of Muscovy who had great power over the tsar (Russian rulers). Ivan IV (the Terrible, ) declares himself tsar and crushes the Russian nobility. Chaos erupted when he died until a new tsar (and dynasty) was established. Peter the Great ( ) tried to make a stronger monarchy (like in absolutist states), using as much force as necessary built a new army and navy using conscription. Also tried to Westernize Russia, making the nobles look and act like European Nobles. Then he divided Russia into provinces to govern effectively and to create a police state well-organized community governed by law. His gov t didn t like

15 it. He waged war against Sweden and won, taking control of the Baltic coast and establishing St. Petersburg, allowing ships from Europe to travel to Russia easily (instead of through ice). England and limited monarchy Not all states were absolutist; in some states Kings and Parliament tried to figure out their roles in gov t. Conflict between King and Parliament Laid the foundation for government used in the modern world Elizabeth I (Protestant) becomes Queen of England. England became a Protestant country, but some people believed that the Protestant Church of England was too similar to the Catholic church (like the titles and rituals associated with Catholicism, i.e. archbishop, mass). They thought the Church of England should get rid of any Catholic influence (these Protestants became known as the Puritans). Although a bit unhappy, Puritans supported Elizabeth because the alternative to Elizabeth was Mary, Queen of Scotland (a Catholic, not bloody). Scotland, a mainly Protestant country, drove Mary out and she went to Elizabeth, who put her under house arrest. Mary secretly planned with others to get rid of Elizabeth, so in 1587, Elizabeth ordered Mary to be beheaded. Mary s son, a Protestant, became King James VI of Scotland. In 1603, Elizabeth dies and James VI of Scotland takes over, becoming James I, King of England. James love for the divine right of Kings (the monarch of the country had a God-given right to rule, and thus whatever James did was considered the will of God) alienates Parliament, who was used to ruling with the monarch. The King s defense of the Anglican Church with its Catholic influences angered Protestant Puritans, many of whom were MP s. Basic political system During James rule, England was ruled under the Parliament of England: House of Lords unelected peers of England (dukes, earls, barons), and the Church Bishops. House of Commons elected members from counties (voters must be property owning men with an income of at 40+ shillings a year) and towns (freemen could vote, like merchants). By convention, the King shouldn t collect taxes or make laws until members of Parliament voted to allow the King to do these things. The King would only carry out laws passed by Parliament. Death of James, Charles comes to rule 1625 James dies, his son Charles I (Protestant) becomes King; his wife was French Catholic. Because of this, Puritans thought that Charles leaned towards Catholicism and wanted to increase the influence of Catholicism in Protestant Churches. Some people also thought that Charles I believed too much in the divine right of monarchy and was unwilling to rule England together with the Parliament (elected by the people of England) Charles dissolved (closed down) Parliament because he thought that Parliament was interfering too much. Since you need Parliament to collect taxes, Charles tried to rule without taxes (i.e. Finding other sources of money that weren t through taxation). One of these ways was ship money citizens paid money to maintain boats kept in the southern ports (these boats were kept there incase the Spanish tried to attack). Charles also wanted a Scottish Church that was separate from the Church of England (which was heavily influenced by Catholicism). The Scottish Church adopted the English rituals and bible; the Protestant citizens were outraged and rebelled.