The Spread of Buddhisms, Part 1

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1 The Spread of Buddhisms, Part 1 From South Asia to China Tansen Sen Baruch College, The City University of New York

2 Key Issues Many Buddhisms and piecemeal transmissions The economics of Buddhisms State formation and Buddhisms The hopping and circulatory itineraries The Buddhist cosmopolis: multiple centers and peripheries

Basic Timeline c.1500-1000 BCE: Formation of Brahmanism c.1000-500 BCE: Migration towards Ganges, followed by urbanization around River Ganges, and the formation of jatis. c. 400 BCE: Buddha and other critics of Brahmanism c.

3 Basic Timeline c BCE: Formation of Brahmanism c BCE: Migration towards Ganges, followed by urbanization around River Ganges, and the formation of jatis. c. 400 BCE: Buddha and other critics of Brahmanism c. 3 rd century BCE: Reign of King Ashoka and the spread of Buddhism in southern Asia 1 st century BCE-1 st century CE: spread of Buddhism to Han China c. 1 st -3 rd centuries CE: Kushans and the creation of Buddhist networks; spread to Burma c : The Gupta Empire, deurbanization, revival of Brahmanism; spread to Korea 5 th century: The establishment of the Nalanda University c. 7 th century: The emergence of vajrayana (esoteric Buddhism); spread to Japan and Tibet 12 th century: Destruction of Buddhist institutions in parts of India 13 th century: Localization in all part of Buddhist world; spread to Iran

6 The Early Spread of Buddhisms Missionary work State patronage Links to merchant communities The urban-monastic connections: A Parasitic relationship?

7 Caratha bhikkhave ca rikam bahujanahita ya bahujanasukha ya loka nukampa ya... Ma ekena dve agamittha. Desetha bhikkhave dhammam... Aham pi bhikkhave yena Uruvela yena Sana nigamo Go ye now, O Bhikkhus, and wander, for the gain of the many, for the welfare of the many, out of compassion for the world, for the good, for the gain, and for the welfare of gods and men, Let not two of you go the same way, Preach, O Bhikkhus, the doctrine which is glorious in the beginning, glorious in the middle, glorious at the end, in the spirit and in the letter; proclaim a consummate, perfect, and pure life of holiness. There are beings whose mental eyes are covered by scarcely any dust, but if the doctrine is not preached to them, they cannot attain salvation. They will understand the doctrine. And I will go also, O Bhikkhus, to Uruvelā, to Senāninigama, in order to preach the doctrine. Maha vagga

9 A hundred years after my nirvana, there will be a king by the name of Aśoka in the city of Pa ṭaliputra. He will be a cakravartin king and rule over one of the four continents, and he will construct eightyfour thousand stupas for the enshrinement of my relics. 我入涅槃百年後於波吒利弗多城當有王名阿輸柯作四分轉輪王於我舍利廣作供養起八萬四千塔 Ayuwang jing (T. 2043) c. 184BCE/Tr CE

10 Buddhisms and Trade Routes

13 Buddhisms and Trade Urbanization in the Gangetic region, c. 600 BCE The Buddha s association with traders and wealthy individuals Interdepended relationship: donations, spiritual support, transportation, commercial enterprise, trade routes and monastic institutions The development of Avalokitesvara (later, Guanyin) cult, popular among the merchant communities/travelers

14 Site of Nirvana Site of First Teaching Place of Birth Place of Enlightenment

15 Buddhisms in Foreign Lands Royal/ Official Transmissions to Sri Lanka and China King Devanampiya Tissa in Sri Lanka Emperor Wu of Han China The Contribution of Itinerant Traders The Role of Images and Misperceptions Missionary and Translation Work

16 The Children of Ashoka and the Conversion of Tissa (c. 250 BCE)

18 The Mahavamsa THE great thera Mahinda, of lofty wisdom, who at that time had been twelve years (a monk), charged by his teacher and by the brotherhood to convert the island of Lañkä, pondered on the fitting time (for this) and thought: `Old is the king Mutasiva; his son must become king. The great Indra sought out the excellent thera Mahinda and said to him: `Set forth to convert Lanka; by the Sam buddha also hast thou been foretold (for this) and we will be those who aid thee there. So truly as the great Bodhi-tree shall go hence to the isle of Lañkä, and so truly as I shall stand unalterably firm in the doctrine of the Buddha, shall this fair south branch of the great Bodhi-tree, severed of itself, take its place here in this golden vase.' Then the great Bodhi-tree severed, of itself, at the place where the line was, floating above the vase filled with fragrant earth. Above the line first (drawn) the ruler of men drew, at (a distance of) three finger-breadths, round about ten (further) pencil-strokes. And ten strong roots springing from the first and ten slender from each of the other (lines) dropped down, forming a net. Thus with a hundred roots the great Bodhi-tree set itself there in the fragrant earth, converting the people to the faith. Ten cubits long was the stem; five lovely branches (were thereon), each four cubits long and (each) adorned with five fruits, and on these branches were a thousand twigs. Such was the ravishing and auspicious great Bodhi-tree.

20 Not only Theravadin Sri Lanka

21 Issue Two: Diffusion or Long-Distance Transmission?

22 Problems with Contact Expansion Evidence for Buddhist practices in China predates the evidence from Central Asia Evidence for Buddhist practices in China predates the evidence from Southeast Asia Evidence of transmission from China to Central and Southeast Asia

23 Networks and Segmented and/or long-distance (trading, migratory, financial, etc.) Circulatory, never unidirectional or one-off Depended on modes of transportation, geographical terrains, navigational knowhow, political patronage, economic feasibility, social or cultural relationship, and other factors Often overlapping with other networks, connected to feeder and auxiliary routes, local and overseas markets, etc. Must be seen as having multiple identities, with regard to people involved, commodities traded, and ideas transmitted

24 Buddhist Networking Use of existing networks, both segmented and long-distance, by monks Facilitated the creation of new networks through pilgrimage, monastic-building, and political/diplomatic activities Supported networks of learning and knowledge May not have received universal support from every network operator

27 BUDDHISMS IN CHINA

28 HISTORY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA: QUESTIONABLE ISSUES The dream of Emperor Ming of the Han Dynasty, leading to the arrival of the first Indian monks, and the establishment of the first Buddhist monastery in East Asia (the White Horse/Baima Monastery) The Role of Central Asia as the staging point of Buddhist transmission to China The use of Daoist terminology in early Buddhist translations The decline of Buddhism in China after 845

29 EMPEROR MING S DREAM: A LATER FABRICATION White Horse Monastery Emperor Wudi Worshiping Buddha

Linking India and China through Buddhisms The early connections between urbanization, trade, and the spread of Buddhisms (artifacts as well as ideas) Translation,

30 Linking India and China through Buddhisms The early connections between urbanization, trade, and the spread of Buddhisms (artifacts as well as ideas) Translation, compilation, reinterpretation activities Pilgrimages and missionary work Networks facilitating long-distance transmission of Buddhism Creating a Buddhist identity for Asia

31 Buddhisms in Han China 1 st Century BCE?: Transmission of images directly from southern Asia to China ( long-distance rather than contact expansion ), in disorganized instead of in an organized way, and perhaps before the chaos marking the end of the Eastern Han dynasty in late-2 nd -early 3 rd century or dissatisfaction with Confucian teachings. 65 CE: Buddhist terms known to the Han court c. 65 CE: Possible presence of Buddhist monks and laypeople in Pengcheng/Luoyang Han China (by the third century CE): Early amalgamation of indigenous and Buddhist ideas, especially at the folk level (Mount Kongwang, Han Tombs)

32 Interior of Cave IX, Ma Hao, Sichuan Province

33 Seated Buddha in Cave IX, Ma Hao, Sichuan Province. Dated to the late 2 nd -first half of 3 rd century

34 Seated Buddha and two attendants, Late Han Tomb at Pengshan, Sichuan Province

35 Buddhist engravings on Mount Kongwang

36 Donor figures, Mount Kongwang The parinirvana of the Buddha, Mount Kongwang

37 Early Buddhist Sites in China

38 The Maritime Buddhist Network: The Land-Sea Connections Mount Kongwang evidence (2 nd -3 rd century CE) Kang Senghui (d. 280), grew up and became a monk in Jiaozhi, and travelled to the court of Sun Quan (222-52). Father a Sogdian seafaring trader who migrated to the Jiaozhi region from India. Travels of South Asian, including Kashmiri, monks to China (Guangzhou and Nanjing): Jivaka and Kumara in the 3 rd century, Buddhajiva, Gunavarman, Gunabhadra and others in the 4 th -5 th century. The pilgrimage of Faxian to India in the 5 th century (and the role of Southeast Asia in the Buddhist interactions between India and China)

39 Factors Contributing to the Successful Spread of Buddhist ideas to China Misconceived notion of the Buddha and Buddhism Early amalgamation with folk beliefs and art Political support by rulers such as Liang Wudi Flexibility with which Buddhism could be practiced and the doctrines modified The multiethnic nature of transmission and amalgamation Timing and circumstances: Long-distance trade and interest in immortality

40 Timeline: Buddhisms in China 1 st century BCE-1 st - Century CE: Introduction of Buddhist images and ideas 3 rd Century CE-581CE: Translation of Buddhist texts, missionary work of foreign monks, Chinese pilgrimage to southern Asia, political support for Buddhism by rulers in China (Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty), popularity of apocryphal texts 6 th century onwards: Domestication/sinification/localization of Buddhism, founding of Chinese schools, Chinese pilgrimage sites, the emergence of China as one of the central realms of Buddhism, reverse transmission of Buddhism (Manjusri on Mount Wutai) 18 th -19 th centuries: Spread of Chinese Buddhism to India with Chinese immigrants

41 Early Translation and Translators Recitation of Buddhist Text Oral Translation Writing Down of the Chinese Translation Editing of the Chinese Translation Parthians: An Shigao & An Xuan Indo-Scythians: Zhi Loujiachen (Lokaksema?) & Zhi Qian Sogdians: Kang Mengxiang & Kang Senghui Indian: Zhu Shuofo Chinese: Yan Fotiao

42 Problems with Geyi the English translation of geyi as matching the meaning is incorrect since the Chinese character ge 格 rather than meaning matching stands for lattice ; geyi was meant to deal with the numerical categories of Buddhist doctrines (shishu 事數 ), lit. enumeration of items ); geyi was not a translation technique but an exegetical method; and geyi was an extremely short-lived phenomenon. ----Victor H. Mair

43 Daoist Terms in Buddhist Translations [T]here is no indication that this was a part of a systematic, conscious policy to appropriate Daoist terminology that was allegedly known as geyi. Furthermore, wuwei is used to render more than half a dozen different Sanskrit terms, and the negative wu is used at the beginning of more than two thousand words translated from Sanskrit. It would be ludicrous to insist that any Buddhist text which used the terms wu or wuwei be branded as Daoistic simply because they also occur in Daoist texts Victor H. Mair

44 POWER OF IMAGES AND ARTIFACTS

45 Dunhuang Cave Painting

46 Yungang Caves

47 Buddhist Relics and Images in China

48 From (a male) Avalokitesvara to the (female) Guanyin

49 Emperor Wu and East Asian Buddhism Reign: (Liang Dynasty) First powerful Chinese ruler to employ Buddhism for political legitimacy The Chinese Ashoka Buddhist contacts with India, Southeast Asia, and Korea Model for later Chinese rulers interested in employing Buddhism for political legitimacy The development of Chan Buddhism

51 Faxian and the Land-Sea Connection

52 Faxian s Pilgrimage to India Dates of Travel: Route: Land route from China to India Maritime route from India to China Translations: Legge, Li Rongxi Annotation: Max Deeg s Das Gaoseng- Faxian-Zhuan als religionsgeschichtliche Quelle.

53 Faxian: Significance First Chinese monk to provide eyewitness account of the Buddhist holy land Search for Vinaya texts, indicating their importance for Chinese Buddhism Contributions to the development of relic and Asoka cults in China The notion of borderland complex Routes to India, overland and maritime Decline of Buddhism in India?

Basic Timeline. c BCE: Formation of Brahmanism

Basic Timeline. c BCE: Formation of Brahmanism Basic Timeline c.1500-1000 BCE: Formation of Brahmanism c.1000-500 BCE: Migration toward Ganges, followed by urbanization around River Ganges, and the formation of jatis. c. 400 BCE: Buddha and other critics