The Spread and Development of Islam in Beijing

Transcription

1 Xun, Tong The Spread and Development of Islam in Beijing BIOGRAPHY: Professor Tong Xun is a member of China Religion Institute, Chief officer of Peoples and Religion of Beijing Union University, and Professor of Art and Science College of Beijing Union University. She has researched the relationship between the development of religion and culture in Beijng since In these 14 years, Xun has investigated and researched about 30 temples of Buddhism, temples of Taoism, 17 churches of Catholicism, 8 churches of Protestantism, 68 Mosques in Beijing. Her published books include Buddhism and the Culture of the Temple of Buddhism of Beijing (320,000 words), Christianism and the Culture of the Church of Beijing (300,000 words), Islamism and the Culture of Beijing Mosques (360,000 words), Album of Culture of Beijing Mosques (297 pictures). Her published papers include The Spread of the Orthodox Eastern Church, Olympic Game and Religious Culture, Discussing the Culture of Beijing Church, and Discussing the Reason of Destruction of Catholicism in Yuan Dynasty. Christianism and the Culture of the Church of Beijing received the Second Prize Award of the Sixth Excellence Production of Beijing Philosophy and Social Science in Her book Islamism and the Culture of Beijing Mosques received the Second Prize Award of the Eighth Excellence Production of Beijing Philosophy and Social Science in ABSTRACT: In the nowadays world, Islamism not only is a cosmopolitan religion possessed of 1-billion-Muslim, but also a kind of idea system. Following Islamism came into China, architecture, medicine, literature and art etc. all came into China, then formed a kind of Chinese style Islamism and Islamism culture. There are Mosques whenever there are Muslims. Mosques not only are the material evidence, but also the carrier of Islamism culture. Looking penman s research of more than sixty Mosques in Beijing, every Mosque has its own rich culture meaning. As some scholars said: Mosques are a kind of religionary art which embed in the times and culture frame and including the artistic conception on deep history and religion philosophy of Muslim People. Beijing Mosques are the production of China-Arabia culture exchange, are the crystal of arduous work and brightness of every Muslim peoples. It centralized embodies in history culture of the respects of religion, peoples, education, architecture, handwriting and art etc. This text focus on Mosques, discusses the property of Beijing Mosques culture from the headstream and evolving process of Beijing Mosques culture, character of Beijing Mosques culture, Beijing Mosques the carrier of China-Arabia etc; discovered the rule and character of forming and development of Beijing Mosques culture. The Spread and Development of Islam in Beijing

2 (Translated by Hui Peng) Where there are Muslims, there are Mosques. Mosques not only witness the development of Islam but also reflect Islamic culture. According to the author s research on more than sixty mosques in Beijing, every one of them has a rich cultural connotation. As is said by some scholars, mosques are embedded deeply in the cultural framework of time, involving a religious art concerning the history and religious, philosophical mood of Muslims (China Muslim, : 7). Culture of Beijing mosques is the product of the communication and integration of Chinese and Arabic cultures, the crystallization of hard work and wisdom of Muslims. Since the founding of the People s Republic of China, especially since the policies to reform and to open the door to the outside world were carried out, Beijing Muslims have gained political equality; their material and cultural life has been greatly improved and their religious belief has been held in great respect. By the end of the 20 th century, the population of Beijing Muslims has reached more than 240,000 people according to the statistical data of the fifth national census, which ranks the first in all large cities in China. The components of minority nationalities are quite full and complete in Beijing region in comparison with other large cities of the country. It may be said that for each of the minorities believing in Islam, such as Hui, Uigur, Kazakh, Dongxiang, Khalkhas, Sala, Trajik, Uzbek, Paoan, Tartar, there are always some of them living, working or studying in Beijing region. On the whole, Muslims in Beijing are mainly of Hui nationality. Beijing Mosques and Muslims of all nationalities constitute the main body of the culture of Beijing Mosques. This culture has become a way of life and plays an important role in the formation of Hui nationality and is closely related to the religious beliefs, ethical norms, habits and customs, and food culture of the above-mentioned minorities. The reason why for thousands of years Chinese Muslims have always believed in Islam lies in the establishment of Mosques. Muslims and Mosques are just as inseparable as fish and water. I History of Culture of Beijing Mosques The mosque, also called the place for Muslims to do religious services, is derived from Masjid, an Arabic word meaning Muslim s place of worship, namely, the place where Muslims worship Allah. The name of mosque began in the Yuan Dynasty. In the second year of Yanyou of Yuan Dynasty (1315 AD), Sai Dianchi, the King of Xianyan, rebuilt the temple of western Chang'an under the imperial edict and he presented a memorial to the emperor asking for the name of Mosque to extol the pure and spotless Allah. Since then existed the name of Mosque and it is used habitually as a general name for all Islamic temples. (Ma&Ma, 1997: 368) In China, Muslims of all nationalities refer to the mosque as Allah s house to show

3 their respect. Islam penetrates its spirit to the minds of Muslims through the medium of mosques. Mosques are holy places for Muslims of the world to do their religious services and to worship Allah. Mosques concentratively reflect Islamic culture, occupying a lofty and holy position in Muslims minds. As is verified by Islamic scholars, the earliest mosque in China was built in the Tang dynasty. As is recorded by the historical data, during the period of Zhenguan under the regime of Taizong of Tang Dynasty, there were already messengers from the country of Dashi(the later Arab) to build friendly relations. The disciples of Mohammed, Wakkas, also went to Guangzhou to spread Islam. According to Biography of Dashi in Book of Tang Dynasty, (651 AD), the third calif of Arabian Empire, Osman, sent messengers to Chang'an in the second year of Yonghui, ruled by Gaozong of Tang Dynasty. From then on, there were frequent contacts between the Arabian Empire and the Tang government and there were more and more Muslims merchants from the western and middle Asia doing business in China. In the early periods of Tang Dynasty, the rulers took a policy of tolerance and acceptance towards Muslims immigrating to China, showing respect for Islam which they believed in, providing a good living condition and building places for the Muslims to do religious services in. According to what Soleyman, an Arabic tourist coming to China in the 9 th century, recorded in his Soleyman s Journey to the East: The place provided by the Chinese commercial port for Arabic merchants to assemble is called Khanfu, the present Guangzhou, where there is an Islamic priest and a church. The Islamic merchants from different places are mostly gathered in Khanfu. The Chinese emperor appointed an Islamic judge to govern the Muslims according to Islamic customs, the Holy Koran and the memorandum of Mohammed. This is highly praised by every Irak merchant coming here. (cited in Zhang, 1977: 201) Some historical documents record that most of the Dashi soldiers who had helped the Tang government to pacify the riot led by An Lushan and Shi Siming later settled down in Chang'an and the Tang emperor built a mosque to satisfy their need for their religious life. Consequently, some scholars hold that during the Tang period, there were already mosques in the capital of Chang'an and along the southeastern coast. The period of Tang dynasty is the developing period of mosque culture in China. Up to the Song Dynasty, the contacts between China and Arabia continued. Muslims kept coming to China, among whom those accompanied by their families increased. The main reason for the increase of Muslims coming to China from Arabia was that wars broke out in various places of Arabia resulting in turbulent societies and intense conflicts at home so that many Muslims were forced to come to China to take refuge. On the other hand, the Song authorities attached much importance to overseas trade and they adopted policies beneficial to Chinese-foreign trade with regard to Arabian and Persian Muslims. The governments during the Northern and Southern Song dynasties not only built hotels and post houses to receive merchants from outside, but they set up special agencies in trading ports along the southeastern coast to take

4 charge of foreign trade and trading affairs. In addition, they allowed Muslim merchants to build mosques and public cemeteries in China. All these policies caused the foreign trade in southern region to increase time and again. At that time, Guangzhou, Quanzhou and Hangzhou had become famous commercial ports at home and abroad. Incoming Arabian Muslim merchants and those who are rich and powerful mostly inhabited in these cities. During the Song Dynasties, there were more foreigners who chose to stay in China forever compared with the Tang Dynasty and their social status was noticeably higher. (Jin, 1987: 338) Thus, many Arabian Muslim rich merchants inhabiting in places of China such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou built luxurious and delicate houses and mosques. It was a common phenomenon to find mosques in Muslim communities during Tang and Song Dynasties. There might be one temple in a lane or several temples in a lane. With the building of mosques in southeastern coastal cities, Chinese culture of mosques began to develop. Culture of mosques developed rapidly in China during the periods of Yuan and Ming Dynasties, when the population of Muslims coming from the middle and western Asia soared and mosques spread all over the country. In the Yuan Dynasty, there was a saying that Muslims existed throughout the world. Among them, some were merchants, some craftsmen, but more of them were armymen, whose social status had changed radically compared with Tang and Song periods. They were no longer foreigners immigrating into China, instead, they had become important members in the family of Chinese nation. Islam not only developed abreast with Taoism, Buddhism and Christianity but also was paid equal attention to by the Yuan and Ming governments. The building of mosques was no longer confined to the capital and havens and ports along southeastern coast, which was the case during the Tang Dynasty, Five Dynasties and two Song Dynasties. Mosques were built in every place of the country and had become a common phenomenon. The practice of referring to Islamic churches as mosques began in the middle of 13 th century and by the middle of 15 th century, the word mosque was widely adopted by Islamic churches. Mosque had become a name of Chinese characteristic. (Feng, 1991: 27) Most of the famous mosques existing in China at present were built in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, during which period, Muslims had formed a national community, and offices in charge of imperial music centered around mosques and organized by Muslims spontaneously were being perfected. (Wu, 1995: 7)In addition, there were teaching staff of their own in those mosques. The Yuan and Ming Dynasties saw a milestone in the formation and development of Islam and culture of mosques in China. At the end of Ming Dynasty and the beginning of Qing Dynasty, many mosques were built on either bank of the Canal and in the northern part of China, owing to the expansion of Muslims from the south along the Canal to the north. Especially during the last years of Qing dynasty, there was a rising tendency of the Muslims in the north. Although Muslims enjoyed a far lower status during the last years of Ming

5 Dynasty and early years of Qing Dynasty, Islam was still developed to some degree with the progress of the time. Muslims turned on a new look either in terms of philosophy, religious education, architecture or with regard to their culture and customs. In this way, culture of mosques in China was further developed. II Formation and Development of Culture of Beijing Mosques The oldest mosque in Beijing is the Nuijie Mosque. Mengyang Pan (1993: 41) wrote in his Islam and Muslim: Nuijie Mosque is a mosque of largest scale and longest history in Beijing. It was built in the 14 th year of Tonghe period during Liao Dynasty (the second year of Zhidao in the Northern Song Dynasty, 996 AD) and was rebuilt in the 7 th year of Zhengtong of Ming Dynasty. Nuijie Mosque is a well-known ancient temple of a large scale and with splendid architecture. It has a history of over one thousand years. However, this statement has aroused controversy among scholars. Some scholars hold that Nuijie Mosque was built in the Yuan Dynasty with a history of less than one thousand year. Others tend to think that Nuijie Mosque was built in the Ming Dynasty. Although there is disagreement in the academic field on the year when Nuijie Mosque was built, they all agree that it is the oldest one in Beijing. NUijie Mosque witnesses the formation and development of Beijing Islam and reflects the forming of culture of Beijing mosques. As to the question: when did Islam come to Beijing?, there is no reliable written record up to now. As is mentioned above, Nuijie Mosque is the oldest one in Beijing. Besides the record in A General introduction to epigraphs of Stone Tablets showing the historical events in the order of the years calculated by Muslim Calender, which says it was built in the Song Dynasty, it has been identified by Professor Dunzhen Liu in Nanjing Industrial College that the color paintings and designs of the back Cave Hall in the Prayer Hall of Nuijie Mosque were painted by architectural artists of the Song Dynasty, which can be used as evidence that Nuijie Mosque began to be built in the song Dynasty, and Islam was also introduced during that period.(peng, 1996: 252) Thus, some scholars hold that Islam was introduced into Beijing in the Song and Liao period and mosques were also built. According to some historical data, it is in the Yuan Dynasty that Islam was developed in the Beijing region when there was a large population of Muslims in Beijing indeed and quite a few mosques. According to Complete works of Sir Qiujian vol. 88, in registering residence for all the Muslims in the capital (the capital of Yuan Dynasty), there were 2953 households, counted since the year of Renzi and continued in the fourth year of Zhongtong (1259 AD) (Peng, 1996: 253). Some statistics show that if counted by five people per household, there were people, accounting for more than one tenth of the whole population, and

6 there were 35 mosques at that time (Liu, 1985: 4). These statistics reflect, to some degree, the condition and status of the development of Islam in the capital of Yuan dynasty. It is pitiful that with the conquer of the capital by the Ming soldiers and the construction of the city of Beijing by the emperor of Yongle of the Ming Dynasty, most of the mosques built in the Yuan Dynasty were destroyed. Owing to the fact that Muslims who had contributed to the protection of the country were treated with high respect by the Ming government and considered to be officials who had rendered meritorious service and that Islam was in a special position and enjoyed special advantages in Beijing many mosques were rebuilt and some were built under the edict of the emperor. Most of the old mosques in Beijing were built in the Ming Dynasty, when culture of Beijing mosques was developed. After the downfall of the Ming Dynasty, the Qing government founded by the dignitaries of Manchuria adopted a policy of resorting to both benevolence and severity toward Islam which put Islam in a difficult position in the capital of Qing Dynasty. At the early period of Qing Dynasty, under the high pressure of Qing government, Islam developed from the inner city of Beijing towards the outer city and outskirts. With the expansion of dwelling places of Beijing Muslims, mosques increased time and again in Beijing so that the Qing Dynasty became the developing period of Islam and culture of Beijing mosques. Republic of China underwent an eventful period of time, when Muslims of all nationalities, together with all the people in the country, were plunged into the movement of democratic revolution. During that period, Islam in Beijing developed very slowly. In nearly forty years of time, there were few mosques built in Beijing, with the exception of Gulou, Tianqian and Mishi Mosques. Despite the slow development, history was progressing and the first mosque for female Muslims appeared in Beijing during the period of Republic of China, namely, the one built in Shouliu Lane in Nuijie. However, most of the mosques for female Muslims in Beijing were built on a small scale and didn t exist long. Nevertheless, the number ranked first in the country. It was after the founding of the PRC that Islam was truly developed in China, followed by the rapid development of Islam in Beijing. The population of Muslims living in Beijing ranked first among all the large cities in China. In addition, with regard to the components of nationalities, Beijing Muslims were incomparable. It can be said that for all the minorities believing in Islam, there were some of them living in Beijing with the majority of whom were of Hui nationality. Historically, although there were always many Hui people in Beijing, their development began after the founding of the PRC. As native Beijing people, the population of Hui increased rapidly. In the 30s, there were over 17,000 Muslims in Beijing, accounting for more than one tenth of the whole population of the city. (Guan, 1999: 163) By the end of the 20 th century, Muslims in Beijing had reached over 20,000 (according to the statistical data of the fourth national census). There are relatively more

7 celebrities among Beijing Muslims, who occupy important positions in Islam around the country. After the founding of the PRC, Chinese Islamic Association, initiated and prepared by well-known Muslims such as Erhan Bao, Pusheng Da, Jie Zhang, Yuhuai Ma, and Jian Ma, came into being in Beijing in Encouraged by Chinese Islamic Association, Islamic Association of the city of Beijing was also set up. So far, there are already 68 mosques in Beijing, which indicates the development of culture of Beijing mosque. Each mosque stands for a period of the history, showing not only its unique architectural style, but the historical development of Islam and culture of Beijing mosques. III Characteristics of Culture of Beijing Mosques Mosques reflect Islamic culture and each of them has a rich cultural connotation. The architectural style and structure of the mosque is developed along with the diversification of its religious functions. As is said by some scholars, mosques are embedded deeply in the cultural framework of time, involving a religious art concerning the history and religious philosophical mood of Muslims (China Muslim, : 7). Culture of Beijing mosques is the product of the communication and integration of Chinese and Arabic cultures, the crystallization of the hard work and wisdom of Muslims of all nationalities. It reflects in a concentrated way the historical culture with regard to religion, nationality, education, architecture, calligraphy, and art, and has formed an architectural system and artistic style of its own. Beijing mosques are mostly buildings with Chinese and Arabic styles combined. The entire layout is symmetric and well-knitted with remarkable central axis. The roofs are covered with glazed tiles, giving the mosque a solemn and imperial style. In terms of the shape and structure of the building, a mosque usually consists of spacious and bright yards that are separated from each other. The gates, prayer halls, main matched halls, Mi d hanah and pavilions were all built with strong wood ridges and beams, with a system of tiers of brackets inserted between the top of a pillar and a crossbeam, and upturned eaves, which belong to traditional Chinese palace-style architecture. Outside the gates of some of the mosques, there are screen walls of Chinese style. By a careful observation, the layouts of Beijing mosques are usually flexible and varied. In general, Prayer halls and Cave halls face east, which are quite different from the traditional Chinese buildings facing south. The decorations on the screen walls are different from traditional Chinese patterns. Instead, the style peculiar to Islam is maintained. With regard to the decorations of Prayer Halls of Beijing mosques, a rich and colorful decorative art with Chinese and Arabic styles combined is adopted. It digests traditional Chinese architecture techniques and fine Arabic artistic style, while giving prominence to Islamic religious connotations. This results in a culture of Beijing mosques of Chinese characteristics. Within the prayer halls of the mosques there are no decorations of images and animals. Instead, they are decorated with Arabic scriptures, geometric designs, or flowers and grass designs, thus displaying Arabic culture. Nuijie Mosque is a good example of this. Take the architecture

8 component of anopia-animal for example. It looks like dragon in shape, but it has no eyes or other organs, and the eyes are replaced by water waves, for Islam avoids the designs of images and animals. Therefore, early Beijing architecture components of mosques are mostly anopia-animal components. Since the policy of freedom of religious belief was implemented as well as the policies to reform and to open the door to the outside world were carried out, many mosques in Beijing have been rebuilt or repaired. In 1979, Nuijie Mosque was regilded and redecorated with fresh paintings and ornamentals. Now this old mosque has taken on an entirely bright and new look. In the rebuilding and repairing, some mosques have adopted or used for reference Arabic architectural structure and style. The green domes and the crescents are the main signs of the newly built mosques of Arabic fashion in Beijing. They have added lustre to the culture of Beijing mosques. Since most of the mosques in Beijing were built after the Yuan Dynasty, especially during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, architecture with Chinese and Arabic styles combined is a major feature of the culture of Beijing mosques. With the development of the society, libraries and computer rooms have been built within some mosques, realizing the modernization of these mosques. Viewed from the organizational system of Beijing mosques, every mosque is the result of the fusion of Chinese and Arabic cultures. IV Beijing Mosques are the Carriers of Chinese and Arabic Cultures Mosques in themselves are palaces of art, and museums exhibiting both Chinese and Arabic cultures. As is said above, Beijing mosques are examples of the fusion of the Chinese and Arabic architectural arts. In the world, Arabic calligraphy has a long history with various styles of chirography, enjoying a high reputation in the field of calligraphy. After it is spread into China together with Islam, Arabic calligraphy has evolving gradually into an Arabic calligraphy with Chinese characteristics. Arabic calligraphy of brush style, of big character, and various inscribed boards with Arabic words appear everywhere in Beijing mosques. Besides, there are also quite a few horizontal scroll in both Chinese and Arabic in them. Hand-written copies of Koran and Saibugai with a history of over a hundred years, engraved Koran, and ancient books on Chinese Islam in Chinese are kept in Beijing mosques. For example, a handwritten copy of Koran in the fifth year of the ruler of Yanyou Emperor in the Yuan dynasty (1318 AD, or 718 according to the Islamic calendar) kept in Dongsi Mosque in Beijing has a history of more than 700 years and is known as the rare treasure in the world. The porcelain tablet with white background and blue Arabic written words of al-kalimah al-tayyibah, which was made in Ming-Qing Dynasties, can be said to be an excellent relic in the world. In Beijing mosques, there are also tablets of Ming- Qing Dynasties, inscribed boards with Chinese words, Koran in different languages as well as arts and hand-crafts. When I was researching into Beijing mosques, I found in surprise that there were Islamic relics of copper teapot and Tabut al-mayyit that were kept in good

9 condition in Yanzhen Mosque and Nuilanshan Mosque in Shunyi district of Beijing. The structure of Tabut al-mayyit is similar to that of traditional Chinese big sedan chair carried by eight men and maybe was inspired by that. The Tabut al-mayyit kept in Beijing Mosque also has stout carrying poles with it and has to be carried by eight men. The discovery of the Tabut al-mayyit in Nuilanshan Mosque in Shunyi renders forceful evidence for the study of the indigenization of Beijing Islamic culture. Meanwhile, it is shown that every mosque in Beijing is a portrait of the fusion of Chinese and Arabic cultures and the objectification of Beijing Islamic culture. Beijing has a long and rich historical culture of distinct features, of which culture of mosques is one important part. Just like the historical culture of Beijing, culture of mosques shows different features in different period of time. With the development of the time, culture of Beijing mosques, like a beautiful flower, will attract more attention in the world. Bibliography Feng, Jinyuan Islam in China. Yinchuan: Ningxia People s Press. Guan, Lixun. ed Miscellaneous Writings on Chinese Culture: Beijing Culture. Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Press. Jin, Yijiu An Introduction to Islam. Xining: Qinghai People s Press. Liu, Zhiping Chinese Islamic Architecture. Urumqi: People s Press. Ma, Xian and Zhongjie, Ma. (eds.) Basic Knowledge of Islam. Shanghai: Oriental Publishing Center. Pan, Mengyang Islam and Muslim. Yinchuan: Ningxia People s Press. Peng, Nian. ed Hui Nationality of Beijing and Collection of Historical Documents on Islam. (Publication for internal circulation.) Wu, Jianwei. ed An Overview of Chinese Mosques. Yinchuan: Ningxia People s Press. Zhang, Xinglang Collection of Historical Documents on Chinese and Western Transportation.Vol.2. Beijing: China Publishing House.