Historical Narration of the Ottoman Empire: An Overview

Transcription

1 World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, 3 (2): 66-72, 2013 ISSN IDOSI Publications, 2013 DOI: /idosi.wjihc Historical Narration of e Ottoman Empire: An Overview Suleiman Shammasi Ali and Roslina Oman Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Information and Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia Abstract: This study is a review of various scholarly works at manifest e development of information organization and dissemination in Ottoman Empire between 16 and 17 centuries. It gives a brief political history of e empire in regards to its demographic power and ereafter, outlines various reasons for its fall ranging from economical, religious orodoxy to abuse of scholars. The study focuses more on information organization mechanism previously utilized by scholars to preserve and disseminate scholarly works wiin e empire wi particular focus on codicology, watermarks and dating, manuscripts, ihmal and paleography. It critically analyses e above mechanism and hence, recommends e way forward in regards to its advancement vis a vis current technological advancement. The researchers reutilized on various academically published materials as e source for e analysis. Key words: Manuscripts Ottoman Empire Codicology Islamic Codicology Paleography INTRODUCTION model of its rulers. Ottoman empire was seen by contemporaries as very much part of Europe in e early We are living in e information age where modern period, not only as e successor to e Roman information is very crucial for development. Development Byzantine empire, but also as polity directly involved in of any nation depends on how much information it is e struggle for power and influence in Europe. This getting from its information organizations or institutions. power gets her apogees between e 16 and 17 The study of Islamic manuscripts has become very centuries [2]. important to every Muslim seeking knowledge or Furermore, e empire had profound impact evidence to support his ideas. It provides e evidence in Europe, e Middle East and Nor Africa, on how Islamic civilization acquired and developed especially, during e apogee of its power between e knowledge for more an 250 centuries. 15 and 17 centuries [3]. Besides, most of e of e This paper presents review of several Witkam works Balkans and eastern Europe remained under Ottoman on Islamic manuscripts at present to Islamic Imperial rule for centuries and many of ese countries manuscripts in different centuries wi emphasizes on 16 today still reflects e remnants of e various and 17 centuries in Ottoman Empire. institutional features inherited from e Ottoman n Empire[3]. Thus, between e 14 and 15 centuries, e The Ottoman Empire: For more an half a millennium, e Ottoman Empire was one of e greatest empires of e Ottoman Empire was world power, determining e fate of world, starting from Caucasus to e Balkans to Nor many European, Asian and African regions. The western Africa [4]. border of e Empire was, for quite a while, at e Danube However, from e second half of e 16 century in Eastern Central Europe and e gulf Region was e until e end of e 19 century e empire slowly lost its Eastern frontier [1]. The Ottoman Empire was well momentum, a period referred in e literature as e recognized not only for its power, but also for its role declining period. Corresponding Auor: Suleiman Shammasi Ali, Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Information & Communication Technology, International Islamic University Malaysia. Mob: , shamas_ali@yahoo.com. 66

2 On e oer hand, e Ottoman Empire maybe said a series of gaerings, or quires, of sheets [12; 13]. to be a major factor at contributed to e fall of Codicology studies e physical details of e book, it knowledge power in Islam. Researchers have propounded concerned wi everying at one can know about e different eories in an attempt to explore e ease of e book except its contents. Codicology is a well developed fall of knowledge in Islam. While some suggests at branch of book science. Today, it is used for e science religious orodoxy became hurdle in e way of of e book in all cultures, not only for books from e scientific progress, oers ink at economic system Middle East [11]. and non productivity of science compelled Muslims to The instruments used during ese periods were give up socio-economic and scientific research [5]. like pens known as reed pens and inks made by Tartars invention in e East and Muslims expulsion from certain recipes. The inks were kept ready in e ink wells. Spain deprived em of eir past position. They caused Also, colored inks were used. These were e mainly e dea like gloom in e centers of learning at Muslims instruments used by e copyist after he has made up his lands. Humans were killed in indiscriminately and books mind concerning e lay-out e book. in libraries were burnt to ashes [6]. Codex is an amount of quires consisting of a number The dispute over e possession of churches in 16 of folded sheets, leaves. After e book had been copied century in Istanbul has been extensively used and abused by copyist, eir leaves are sewn togeer into a quire; in modern scholarship, bo wiin and outside e e quires will be sewn togeer into a volume. discipline of history. Such use and abuse was more These volumes are bound [11]. dependent on eir approach to different version of e The copyist must take a number of measures in order story which is sometimes related to contemporary to ensure at e leaves of e manuscript remain in eir ideology [7]. Whereas, e remnant of Christian proper order wiin e quire and, he must equally take contributed by destruction of intellectual life of e people care at e quires remain in eir proper order wiin e in Spain [6, 8], Ottoman Empire came to e end on book. Manuscripts maker is a person who makes e November 1, 1922 when e Ottoman Sultanate officially manuscript and e copyist is e person who copies e gave up all auority [9]. text. He is usually not e auor of e text. Auor and copyist must be clearly distinguished. There is no fixed Codicology in Scholarship: The discussion on rule or law for e number of sheets in a quire. The copyist codicology, focused on writing surface such as e is free to do as he likes, but he may feel bound in local papyrus, parchment, paper and organization of e codex traditions [11]. instruments. The emphasis was based on e techniques The numbers of sheets differ from one region to of ruling, lay-out craftsmen scripts: paleography, anoer. The number of sheets per quire in e Mashriq is styles, calligraphy ornamentation: illumination, often five, in Central-Asia often four, in e Maghrib often illustration, book-binding and dating of manuscript, ree; it is not rare at one finds oer quantities, even collection of manuscripts terminology in use [12]. wiin one and e same volume. The researcher discusses history of data collection, e The paper shows e importance of e condition of removal of great quantities of manuscripts from e e quires, because ey are e physical make-up e Ottoman capital in e course of 16 century, from where architecture of e book [12]. West African manuscripts some were in turn exported to western collections in e are usually written on single leaves or one sheet, but 17 century [10]. ese are not made into quires. These leaves and sheets Furermore, e paper argues at western classical are put onto a pile and en kept in a satchel. [11]. On e textual criticism cannot automatically be applied to e oer hand andalusia manuscripts are written in a mixed editing of Arabic and oer Islamic texts. Also, it is material such as parchment and paper. This, is, because important to make use of its meodology. e second half of e twelf century seems to be e period in which paper started to be used in al-andalus. Islamic Codicology: Codicology is derived from e Latin word Codex. This is a quire of e codex consisting of The Written Surface of Manuscripts: The written surface units called bi-folium, folio, page sheet, leaf and page and can be one of papyrus, parchment, paper and oers. finally a number of quires sewn togeer form a codex [11]. In e nin and ten centuries, paper has gradually Codicology refers primarily to e study of e material replaced papyrus and parchment. Paper was less cheap aspects of codices at is, manuscripts books comprising an papyrus, but was more stable. At e same time it 67

3 was less stable an parchment, but much cheaper. and 10 centuries found an unprecedented flowering This combination of combined advantages of parchment of sciences and literature in e Middle East. and papyrus made paper e ideal substitute of eier one Also, bureaucracy profited from e wide availability of of em. The papyrus and parchment is made by natural paper. way. The best at can be done wi e restoration of parchment and papyrus is lamination by still and Watermarks and Dating: In e study of manuscripts transparent materials, such as Japanese paper or watermarks and dating plays an important role. purpose-made plastics. On e oer hand, paper is much It observed at water mark allows e place and date of easier to restore and e result of repairs can be production of e paper bearing it and employed in absolutely spectacular. Islamic and Middle Eastern e copying e manuscript to be identified [12]. manuscripts as mostly known are books made by paper. The utility of watermarks in dating a manuscript is often Papyrus and parchment became obsolete after e overrated. Most importantly, at best a watermark can introduction of paper [11]. corroborate or refute a proposed dating. Sometimes it can The oldest invented Chinese paper dates back to provide an approximate date. The illustrations of e Christian era, when ey import /export paper to Middle reference works on watermarks provide us wi an East in e 18 century. The role of paper is well explained overview of trends in watermark design and of e periods in is part, papers have great impact on e development and e places in which ese were used [11]. It was of written culture at can hardly be overestimated. mentioned at e 19 century onwards e number of Thus, development of paper influenced unity of culture. papers wi watermarks became too large for any This is, because of its cheap media which gave rise to meaningful determination [11]. scholarly multiplicity. They made number of numerous During e ten- sixteen century, European paper copies of one and same text by many students and and no-water marked paper coexisted in roughly equal teachers. Many new text were created and gained right of proportion roughout e Ottoman Empire, exactly e dissemination. same manner as e concurrent quire formats of e The Dome of e Rock was a direct beneficiary to quaternion. Also, no congruence has been demonstrated e late Architectural tradition, e 7 century witnessed between e use of quinions and water marked papers astonishing creative moment at led to e transposition [12]. of e same principles to e craft of e scribe working Therefore, e most materials for making books are wi pen and parchment [14]. papyrus and parchment, ese two materials has been Shortly, e discussions of ese principles initiated gradually replaced by paper [12; 13]. The Islamic and in e Classical era found at a continuation in e Middle-East is usually manuscripts on paper. In e earliest Arabic scientific writings, started towards e end history, oer materials have been used for writing text. nd of e 2 century A.H. (8 century A.D). Materials The early collection of e Qur ans consisted of a multiple preferred most for book binding, were leaer such as of materials for instance: textile, palm leaves, bones, sheep, goat, gazelle and cow leaer. Paper seem to have animals leaer and etc. Their determination was as long been used in Islamic manuscripts in a manner very similar as e more or less flat and smoo surface, to write on. to parchment [12; 13]. In e history of writing or paper china was e well The last page of e manuscripts usually has e known before oer countries. Thus, Islam since in early auor s prayers, e names of calligrapher and illuminator age encourages people to seek knowledge even if ey and e date of writing of e manuscript. In some were to travel to china [11]. In e eleven seventeen manuscripts, book name and publication date also appear. centuries, in Turkey, Syria and Egypt, as in e Maghrib, This information on e hatime page is called ketebe e vast majority of manuscripts were being copied on record [15]. watermarked paper [12, 13]. The marbling art, whose history dates back to e 16 century, has an important place in e Ottoman Ihmal in Arabic Manuscripts: The term ihmal is e not- Book-binding art. The edges of marbled binding covers writing of diacritical dots and e use of a whole range of were usually covered wi leaer in order to prevent em signs to indicate e certain letters do not carry dots. from demolition. In e Ottoman manuscripts, marbling Regarding neglect neglected e auor refers to e fact was mostly used in e inner cover as well as book e description and e use of e alamat al- ihmal have protection pockets and boxes [16]. Therefore, e 19 hardly object of scholar research. 68

4 The sciences in which e form of e word (lafz) is as important as was its meaning ere was a concern for orography. God s word (Qur an) and at of e Prophet (Hadi) should be written correctly and unambiguously. The professionals who would have most concern over e exact orography of ese texts were grammarians, Qur anic scholars and Traditional scholars [11]. There are many grammarians in Islamic manuscripts for instance Ibn al-sarraq. An example of a Qur anic scholar is al-dani, wi his works al-muhkam fi Naqt al-masahifand his al-muqni fi Rasm al-masahif al-amsâr, Kitâb al-naqt. Traditional scholars often write about e making of books and usually about ihmal signs as well: al-ramahurmuzi, in his al-muhaddi al-fasil and Ibn al-salah al-shahrazuri in his Muqaddima, Later use of ihmal has lost its original functionality. In some regions of Yemen, ihmal signs remained in use up till e transition from manuscript to printed book in e 19 and 20 centuries. In oer areas, e ihmal signs completely disappeared at a much earlier date. By eir very nature, ey are redundant, provided e copyist is careful in his punctuation [11]. The ihmal signs were commonly used by calligrapher as a graphic asset. Therefore, e ihmal signs are presented in many calligraphic samples, but ey seem to serve more as space fillers, raer an really differentiating between homographs. In ese samples, ey are not different from oer reading marks, such as hamza, shadda, vowels, sukun, etc. Sometimes later, calligraphers even expanded e existing ihmal system by using ihmal marks where ese were originally not used for him ihmal was never necessary [11]. The shifting of manuscript to printed book is e main cause of ihmal disappearance. Calligraphers lost eir attention on use of ihmal in essence at it has noing to do more an space filler [11]. This has affected not only e beauty of manuscript but also e difference between e words wi e same meaning. Palaeography: Reading scripts is someing for which one must have a talent, or else one will never be able to do it well. Talent is important not only in paleography but in all walks of life. It is a craft at can be learned by everyone who can read and write [11]. Palaeography is e study of e history of scripts, eir adjuncts such as abbreviation and punctuation and eir decipherment. It is e science of deciphering and determining e date of ancient documents or systems of writing. Arabic palaegraphy is e study of e development of Arabic script rough time and place [11]. Paleography is defined as e science or art of deciphering and determining e date of ancient documents or systems of writing [13]. The study of palaeography, codicology and epigraphy ey will usually end up as bibliographers, auors of manuscript catalogues, historians of e handwritten book, librarians. The study palaeography and codicology and epigraphy as auxiliary sciences will usually end up as a philologists, editors of texts, historians, antiquarian booksellers, etc. [11]. The differences between e modern printed Arabic and e manuscript sources. Copyist of manuscripts has an enormous repertoire in letter shapes. Copyists use a great number of ligatures. A ligature is e linking of two or more letters into one graph, in which e original letter forms have been altered. Palaeographer s work is based largely on comparative analysis. Technology at emerged during e nineteen century has extended e amount of documentation available for e search for parallels and toady scope is very large [13]. Following is, [11] observes at most students have not idea of e constituent elements of letter. Therefore, ey should be made aware of what ey actually write and read. The knowledge at acquired it makes sense only if ey wish. Paleographers are specialists whose knowledge and meods should in eory make it possible to identify e date and origin of a given piece of writing [13]. Teaching Palaeography in Practice: In real work practicing, [11] states at student should first concentrate on e script at he sees; only later he may satisfy his curiosity by trying to find out what e next means. The student is unable to exactly copy a text. This has been taken away from e school curriculum. It means at, he will make many copying errors while writing. It necessitates at he gives much of his time and efforts to correcting his own work. He should collate several times, till he is sure at his copy is free of error. The copyist should make exercises from paleographical atlases and similar teaching aids [11]. The study of e history of scripts, eir adjuncts such as abbreviation and punctuation and eir decipherment is very important for understanding and acquiring knowledge from Islamic scripts. It was very important to learn and teach how to write and read Arabic scripts not only acquiring and seeking knowledge for e current generation but also to preserve and to transmit knowledge for e future generation. Now, we still need to know is knowledge in order to preserve and transmit e knowledge from our libraries in an automated form. This requires e knowledge and skills of Islamic manuscripts to our librarians. 69

5 Scientific Manuscripts: The scientific manuscripts in Unani tibb is a system of medicine practiced today in e collections of Leiden University Library, Jacobus e Sou Asian country of India, Pakistan and Golius was primarily looking for Islamic books of Bangladesh. Unani Tibb provides medical care in bo manuscripts which could be useful for his research and urban and rural communities along wi biomedicine, e academic research imperatives in Renaissance Europe homeopay and oer traditional systems based on [17]. ancient and classical doctrines of medicine such, as Jacobus Golius had a keen eye for works related to Ayurveda and Siddha in India and folk and tribal medicine Classical antiquity, more specifically, scientific works [18]. There were numbers of scholars at contributed in which were direct translations from Greek into Arabic, or e development of unani tibb in different centuries. It is scientific works by Muslim scholars which contained observed at in its origins in Greek medicine, e eories elaborations of Greek works and original contributions by of Galen are cited as most influential to e system's Muslim scholars to fields of science. The auor explored eories. Contemporary Unani practitioners in India and some of e manuscripts which Golius collected in e Pakistan, cite e importance of Hippocrates as well for Levant. All manuscripts shown have been preserved in contributions to e eories of Unani. As e system Leiden for almost four centuries and have been important developed in West Asia- e Middle East, e sources for European research on Oriental languages and contributions of e Per-sians, Ibn Sina (Avincenna, cultures [17] A.D.) and Rhazes (ar-razi, Muham- mad Some of e very important manuscripts on e work ibn-zakariyya, A.D.) were central to e system's of e Aleppo for instance, include: e beginning of e development [18]. fif maqala of e Arabic translation of e Book on Scholars such as Ibn sinas book titled al-qanun fil- Conic Sections (Kitab al-makhrutat) by Apollonius of Tibb, wi commentary by Al-Nafis. Ibn al-nafis is known Perga (c BC). The Arabic version gave text at as e discoverer of e smaller blood circulation, was lost in e Greek tradition. Golius had privately centuries before it was discovered again in Europe by acquired a magnificent manuscript of e text. This copy Willian Hervey. The second book of Ibn Sina s Qanun he had made to serve as a working copy. It was copied by was pharmacopoenia which has often been copied a scribe in Aleppo, Derwish Ahmad, e illustrations were separately [11]. The study of Greek-Islamic medicine in e drawn by Golius himself [17]. subcontinent is part of e history of medicine, but There are various copies such as e copy of Algebra because of e fact at it is still in use and at even by e maematician Umar Khayyam: Maqala fil-gabr hospitals exist (in Hyderabad, Deccan, among oer wal- Muqabal and oer copies from different disciples places) in which is type of medicine is practiced. and scholars gives clear understanding of how much e It occupies a special place and cannot be considered as flourish of Islamic civilization survived in various just one of e many types of popular medicine, which are centuries. It gives e proof at Islam is e source of practiced all over e world [11]. knowledge and how knowledge was seeking and The Yunani Tibb consists of original medical heritage transmitted in various regions in Islamic state [17]. (Hippocrates, Galen autonomous Islamic Arabic and Therefore, it is glaring at Muslim scholars Persian) developments in medicine in e pre-modern contribution to e development of knowledge affects period; Prophetic medicine, a medical approach, derived positively e enter world. The study of Islamic from Qur an and Hadi; Specific sub-continental Manuscripts gives e evidences to prove at Islam is contributions to medicine and pharmaceutics; Modern e sources of various aspect of knowledge. additions and techniques, such as Ayurveda and modern western medicine [11]. Medicine Heritage in Manuscripts: Greek-Islamic Prophet medicine is a medical approach derived from medicine as it is presently used in Pakistan and India is Quran and Hadi. It is a typically based on Quran and one of e rare instances in which e manuscript tradition Sunnah. Natural medicines like Islamic medicines are most is still very much alive. Handwritten notebooks of medical suitable for treatment since ey produce little or no practitioners form a main source of knowledge in e field. harmful side effects. It does not disturb humeral These notebooks (bayaz) were privately compiled by equilibrium [18]. e hakim s and en, collected, excerpted, expanded, The Yunani Tibb was a branch of medicine at was photocopied and sometimes also published, but e suitable to self help (in contrast to surgery) and at fact manuscript element is its most conspicuous feature [11]. too may explain e great numbers of publications in 70

6 existence. Many will have found eir way into e 2. Manners, I., European Cartographer and e home-pharmacies of e Indian and Pakistani middle-class. Ottoman World e oriental institute Much may be presumed lost [11]. The analysis of all is museum of e University of Chicago. Oi. material still has to begin. Even e most basic Uchicago.edu, pp: bibliographical control is absent. 3. Iyigun, M., Lesson from e Ottoman Harem (On Enicity, Religion and war) IZA Discussion CONCLUSION Papers Series, 3556: Heper, M., The Ottoman Legacy and Turkish The paper has reviewed some Islamic manuscripts Politics, Journal of International Affairs, 54: 1. and some issues in e 16 and 17 centuries in regards to 5. Salma, M.A. and Abul Hassan, Rise and fall of e Ottoman Empire. From e reviews and literature we knowledge power: an in- dep investigation, Journal conclude at Islamic manuscripts were very important of Humanomics, 24(1): not only for e flourishing of Islamic civilization, but 6. Hitti, P., History of Arab, Macmillan and most importantly ey act as evidence for knowledge Company, London. power in Islam. Most of Islamic manuscripts were written 7. Hasan, C., Co-existence and conflict between in Arabic language at e early era and en were written Muslims and no Muslims in e 16 century in different languages. Arab Islamic heritage came into ottoman Istanbul. Master esis Bilkent University focus as Arabs transmitted to Europe e sciences of Ankara. philosophy, logic, medicine, chemistry, astronomy and 8. Ahmad, A.S., Discovering Islam: Making sense sociology [19]. Therefore, e paper gives evidence to e of Muslim history and society. New York: NY reader on how Islamic manuscripts were utilized as tools Rutledge. for knowledge power to enhance eir civilization to e 9. Gerald Brown, Ed.D. The End of Ottoman Empire. extent of impacting a great deal of demographic space of Retrieved on 15 March 2011 from: e globe for centuries. It takes place in early Islamic era Sermons/ Misc/brown-ottoman_empire.pdf as secondary sources of information, how it is transmitted 10. Witkam, J.J., Beyond e codex Codicolgy in and survived. Scholarship, The Levantine Foundation Museology & Conservation Training Program, e paper RECOMMENDATIONS presented in Cairo. Retrieved on 3rd April 2011 from: The above historical study of previous powerful 11. Witkam, J.J., Islamic Codicology, Making e Islamic civilization on how information can be stored and Arabic manuscripts, e Levantine Foundation transmitted to advance knowledge of various disciplines Museology & Conservation Training Program, e can be useful in today's world if serious initiative is paper presented in Cairo. Retrieved from developed to establish institutions of higher learning. on 10 April,2012 This will have multiple associations bo academic and 12. Deroche, F., Islamic Codicology: an cultural for preserving and advancing research to share Introduction to e study of manuscripts in Arabic knowledge. This will be possible if bo political zeal and Script, London: Al-Furqan Heritage Foundation. academic efforts are applied by various stakeholders. 13. Deroche, F., Islamic Codicology: an Since e end results would be to proof evidence of Introduction to e study of manuscripts in Islamic manuscript and to also develop a strong urge Arabic Script, London: Al-Furqan Heritage among various stakeholders in establishing civil ummah Foundation. rough knowledge power. 14. George, A., On e rise and meaning of Islamic Calligraphy. The journal of Dar al-aar al- REFERENCES Islamiyyah, 33: Demiriz, Y., Tezhip sanat. Retrieved from 1. Hovari, J., Ottoman trade routes from e Istanbul.edu.tr /Bolum ler/ guzelsanat/ Arabian Gulf to Central Europe in e tezhip.htm. Centuries. Accessed on 13 March 2012 from: 16. Odabas, Z.H. and C. Polat, The Ottoman Manuscripts and e Projects Of Digitization e 2011-Routes.pdf Manuscripts in Turky. 71

7 17. Witkam, J.J., Silver is silver, books are gold 19. Osama Abu Taleb, Dialectics of Arab Thinking: Scientific manuscripts from Aleppo in e collections Drama and Arab intellect. of Leiden University Library. 20. Hadee ad-dar. 33: Retrieved on 12 April Helen E. Sheehan and S.J. Hussain, Unani Tibb: from: darmuseum.org.kw/ english/ wp.../ 10/ hadee- History, Theory, an Contemporary Practce in Sou 33-English-final.pdf Asia. Annals of e American Academy of Political and Social Science, Global Perspectives on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Vol. 583 pp Retrieval form stable/ on 5 march