Cultural Background. of Indian Socio-Political Organization. (Part-II) Dr Poornima Jain

Transcription

1 Cultural Background of Indian Socio-Political Organization (Part-II) Dr Poornima Jain

2 Contents 1. Customs 2. Folklore 3. Culture 4. Festivals 5. Caste System 6. Varna & Jati 7. The Four Ashrams 8. Four Purusharthas

3 Customs Customs are generally referred to as traditional practices that are followed by the people of a section of society or by society at large and makeup the foundation structure of a society. Indian society has diverse customs and traditions and they usually bring out the distinctiveness of Indian people. These customs are an out come of the cultural matrix which are followed by the people.

4 Definition K.M. Panikkar (1967) defines culture as, the complex of ideas, conceptions,developed qualities and organized relationships and courtesies that exist generally in a society. He described it as a community of thought, a similarity of conduct and behaviour, a common general approach to fundamental problems, which arrives from shared traditions and ideals. Culture is more general whereas custom is specific, specific to a society, or community.

5 According to MacIver and Page the socially accredited ways of acting are the customs of society. According to Kingsley Davis, custom refers primarily to practices that have often been repeated by a multitude of generation, practices that tend to be followed simply because that they have been followed in the past.

6 Nature of customs Custom is a social phenomenon Customs are created by groups, associations, communities institutions and are considered to be conducive for the integration of society. Customs are followed unconsciously- MacIver and Page opine, we conform to the customs of our society in a sense unconsciously, because they are a strongly embedded part of our group life. We are trained from our infancy to behave in a customary way.

7 contd Customs are varied in nature- Customs are universal in nature but they differ from community to community and society to society. The origin of custom is obscure- It is difficult to ascertain the exact way in which customs emerge. As McDougall writes, The ends and purposes of many customs are lost in the midst of antiquity.

8 contd Customs are relatively durable- In comparison with the folk ways, fashions, customs are more durable. Customs evolve gradually and hence they are obeyed mostly in a spontaneous manner. Once the customs are established they gain grounds to become firm. They are implicitly obeyed with least resistance by the majority of the people

9 Social Importance of customs Customs regulate our social life- Customs act as the effective means of social control. Individuals can hardly escape their grip. They are the self accepted rules of social life. They bind people together, assimilate their actions to be the accepted standards and control their purely egoistic impulses. They are found among the pre-literate as well as the literate people.

10 Customs constitute the treasury of our social heritage Customs preserve our culture and transmit it to the succeeding generations. Add stability and certainty to our social life. Bring people together and develop social relationships among them. Provide for a feeling of security in human society. People normally abide by these and their violation is considered as a sin.

11 Contd.. Customs are basic to our collective life- Customs are found in the communities world over. They are more influential and dominant in the primitive society than in the modern society. As Malinowski writes in the context of the study of Trobriand Islanders that, A strict adherence to customs is the main rule of conduct among our natives.

12 Customs support law Customs also provide the solid foundation for the formulation and establishment of law. Customs become laws when the state enforces them as rules binding on citizens. Laws divorced from customs is bound to become artificial. This happened in USA in the case of prohibition. Customs consolidate law and facilitate its practice.

13 Indian Society - custom of joining hands while greeting a person

14 Folklore Like custom, Folklore is also part of culture and includes stories, music, dance legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs and so forth. It is also the set of practices through which, those expressive genres are shared. The academic and usually ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristic. The word folklore was first used by the English antiquarian William Thomas in a letter published by the London Journal Athenaeum in Smith Thompson made a major attempt to index the motifs of both folklore and mythology, providing an outline into which new motifs can be placed, and scholars can keep track of all older motifs.

15 Contd.. Folkways, mores and customs represent different kinds of social norms. Social norms refer to the group shared standards of behaviour. A social norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behaviour. Norms are the blue prints of behaviour. They are the rules for social living or for social being. They determine, guide, control and also predict human behaviour. Folklore, just like folkways, represent a means of social control.

16 Genres of Folklore Material culture folk art, vernacular architecture, textiles, modified mass-produced objects Music traditional, folk, and world music Narrative legends, urban legends, fairy tales, folk tales, personal experience narratives

17 Genres of Folklore (contd..) Verbal art jokes, proverbs, word games Belief and religion folk religion, ritual, and mythology Food ways traditional cooking and customs, relationships between food and culture

18 Folklore as an Academic Discipline Folklorists focus on the study of human creativity within specific cultural and social contexts, including how such expressions (i.e. stories, music, material culture and festivals) are linked to political, religious, ethnic, regional, and other forms of group identity. The elusive materials of folklore can be best defined through the formal genres into which they fall. Four broad sectors of folklore studies have been outlined by scholars

19 Oral literature Sectors of Folklore Material Culture Social Customs and festivals Performing folk- Art Examples - myth, fairy- tale, romantic tale or novella, religions tale, folklore, legend, animal tale, anecdote, joke, numskull tale etc.

20 Oral Poetry Sub- division of oral literature is oral poetry or folk poetry which has its own family of related forms i.e. folk epics, ballads, folk songs, lullabies, work songs, Deh- bichar songs, Zikirs (with reference to the North East of India) and songs associated with rituals and rites (Samskaras), of birth, marriage, death, etc. commonly found in almost all parts of India. Also included is the rich oral poetry connected with festive occasions, feasts

21 Folklore is a general term for different variation of traditional narrative. The telling of stories appears to be a cultural universal, common to basic and complex societies alike. Even the forms, folktales are certainly similar from culture to culture, and comparative studies of themes and narrative ways have been successful in showing those relationships. Also, it is, considered to be oral tale to be told for everybody.

22 On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative, which has sacred or religious content. In the Jungian view, which is but one method of analysis, it may need to pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, estimates or arched types of the mind. This may or may not have components of the fantastic (such as magic, ethereal beings or the personification of inanimate objects).

23 Material Culture Material culture or folk life responds to techniques, skills, recipes, and formulas transmitted across the generations subject to the same forces of traditions and individual variations as verbal art. Folk architecture, art & craft, designs and decorations of the buildings and utensils and performance of home industries according to traditional styles & methods. Decorative paintings embellishing the walls and entrances of rural/ tribal homes having both ritualistic and aesthetic significance is a pan- Indian phenomenon.

24 Social Customs and festivals Emphasis is on group interaction rather than on individual skills and performances. Verbal & tangible elements are added group behavioral traits such as birth, initiation, marriage, death and similar paraphernalia. Rituals & customs associated with festivals are sometimes related to agricultural activity following a calender cycle. These along with customs associated with religious practices & the concept of Indian world view form an important part of folk life.

25 The religious aspect is multi- dimensional encompassing the most complex caste hierarchy which has a net-work of inter- relations with the religious hierarchy. Besides pan- Indian mode of worshipping Hindu pantheon, there are very ancient and indigenous modes of worship and performance of rites prevalent in tribal belts quite distinguishable from other parts of the country.

26 Performing Folk Art Traditional music, drama and dance passed on to the succeeding generations by ear and performed by memory rather than by the written and printed musical score and relevant literature. The folk- music is functional in the sense that it is not entertainment or of particular aesthetic interest, but is an accompaniment. Both moral and psychological scope to the work, entertainment value, nature of the teller, style of telling, ages of audience and the overall context of the performance.

27 Folklorists generally resist universal interpretations of narratives and wherever possible, analyze oral versions of telling in specific context, rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the writer or editor. Folk literature is but a part of folklore. Customs and beliefs, ritualistic behavior, dances, folk music and other non- literary manifestations form part of the larger study of ethnology.

28 However, these distinctions are of concern to the folklorists. The study of folklore materials was, at the time, being carried on under labels such as Popular Antiquities or Popular Literature. Therefore, he suggested a good Saxon Compound Folk- lore the lore of the people. Besides, the work of Brothers Grimm, particularly German Philologist Jacob Grimm ( ) who published the first volume ( ) of the Kinder Und Mausmarchen (translated as Grimm s Fairy Tales), the scholarly scientific study on folklore was initiated.

29 German scholar, Theodor Ben fey claimed in his introduction to Panchatantra (1859) that India, the seat of an ancient, highly developed civilization that had spread to Europe, was home of the master tales subsequently found in Grimm's collection. Along with language and mythology, these wonder tales had diffused from India to Europe in ancient and historic times along well traversed trade routes.

30 Various Schools of Study Mythological School Migrational / Benfey s School Anthropological School Historical Geographical School / Finissh School Psychoanalytical School Structural School

31 (contd..) Syntagmatic/ Propp s Morphological School Paradigmatic/ Levi Straussian School Thompsonian Concept of Motif / classificatory analysis- tale- types Functional School Historical reconstructional theory Ideological theory

32 Various Theories Oral Formulaic theory Cross- cultural theory Folk- cultural theory Mass- cultural theory Contextual theory Hemispheric theory

33 In India, we always talk of Margi and Desi, Vedic and Laukik i.e. classical and folk traditions, which is also as Great and Little traditions. Unilinear evolutions and few universals may not explain the variety produced by multi- culture folk traditions. In this sense, the Indian equivalent of folklore, Lokayana coined by Suniti Kumar Chatterji, expresses the real scope of folklore as it signified a way of life (yana) of a people (lok).

34 Caste System Caste is known as jati in common parlance. And in social relations has been a central point in Hindu society for several centuries. It is an all- encompassing system, an ideology, which governs all others relations. Its whole notion is hierarchy based on the ideas of pollution and purity. A Caste is an endogamous group. A man is born in a caste and remains in that for ever.

35 (contd..) A caste occupies a particular rank in the hierarchy of castes, hence some are superior to it, some are inferior. Certain rules regarding eating, drinking and social interaction are followed by all castes. Caste panchayats used to regulate the behavior of its members by implementing these rules. Caste is a dynamic institution; it has changed a great deal in accordance with changes in the wider society.

36 Origin of Caste It dates back to the age of the Rigveda, refered as the word varna i.e. colour. Arya is referred to as fair and Dasa as dark. People of the two Varnas differed not only in their skin colour but also in their worship and speech. Thus the differences were both social and cultural. Brahmanas, Rajanyas (Kshatriyas) and Vaishyas constituted the Arya varna, and the non- Aryans made up the Dasa Varna.

37 The Purusha sukta, a part of the Rig Veda, states that Brahmanas, Rajanyas, Vaishyas and Shudras sprang up from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Purusha (God). Priests and the warriors were above Vaishya and the Shudra. There was interchange of duties as also inter- class marriages. Ban on eating food cooked by shudras did not exist. There was no trace of untouchability.

38 Three main stages in the evolution of caste may be identified; 1. Caste in ancient age (the period up to 1100 AD) which is inclusive of vedic age, post-vedic age and puranic age. 2. Caste in medieval age ( AD) which includes the muslim rule in India. 3. Caste in modern age (post 1757 AD till independence).

39 Changes in caste system in independent India Changes in the traditional features of caste The religious basis of caste has been attacked caste is no more believed to be divinely ordained. It is being given a more social and secular meaning than a religious interpretation. Restrictions on food habits have been relaxed.

40 Distinction between pakka food and kachha food has almost vanished. Food habits have become more a matter of personal choice than a caste rule. Still some taboos are not completely ignored especially in the rural areas. Inter-dinning has not become the order of the day. Caste is not very much associated with hereditary occupations.

41 Caste no longer determines the occupational career of an individual. Even Brahmins are found driving taxis, dealing with foot-wear and running non- vegetarian hotels and bars and so on. Endogamy, which is often called the very essence of the caste system, still prevails. Inter- caste marriages though legally permitted, have not become predominant, especially in rural areas.

42 The Ritual Aspect and the beginning of the Jati System The Varnadharma or code governing the conduct of different varnas received a high degree of elaboration in post-vedic period. The three lower castes are ordered to live according to the teachings of the Brahmins. Lannoy observes that, different specialist tasks among the Brahmins themselves became associated with degree of ritualistic purity and impurity...

43 The Varna and the Jati Vedic theory of varna system is reference to Indian Social Organization for maintaining a subtle balance between Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaish and Sudra. Varna system is uniform throughout the country. It is the classical form of social stratification. The caste system is apparently linked with the varna, but is so different from it.

44 The jati system is an empirical order, verifiable by direct observation of caste ranking and other familiar distinctions. The jati system is not uniform and It varies from region to region. Whatever the nature of ranking, the consideration of pure and impure remains the sole common basis of the jati system. Dumont, according to Lannoy, regards these two systems as homologous and to have interacted with each other.

45 Jati and its Transformation The Dharma Shastras, the law books of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Vishnu throw considerable light on the contemporary social institutions. The Manu Smriti, which is pre- Buddhist in composition, maintains a distinction between the Arya and non-arya called Dasa. This term was also used for Chaandaals, Savapakas and others, who were considered inferior to Sudras.

46 Jati and its Transformation (contd..) According to Manu Smriti, as indicated in the Hindu Civilization, There were mixed castes (antar-prabhavah) springing from adultery, marriage and ineligible women, and violation of the duties of caste... Inter-marriage between castes produced a crop of unclassified progeny who were all branded as Sudras..and described by their occupations (svakarmabhih).

47 Caste in Urban and Rural Society In Urban society too, caste differentiation became rigid. Orthodox, avoided not only the new settlers but also the converts for consideration of personal hygiene and pollution and using the word malechha for them. The expediency of social intercourse, later did bring the people closer, and the belief in chhoot- chaat got relaxed.

48 In rural India a dominant caste continues to exist with three characteristics, 1. It should be land owning class 2. Land owners should be of higher caste 3. They should be numerically strong. In case of more than one dominant caste, one of them had to give in to another. This according to M.N. Srinivas happened occasionally even in pre-british India, and has been and important aspect of rural social change in the twentieth century.

49 Brahman was the supreme arbitrator in religious matters. Temporal disputes were settled by within a caste. Lannoy states, Internal affairs of each middle or law caste were governed by its own caste panchayat, and by Sabhas. Caste Council covering the affairs of a caste within a readily accessible region also existed, though some were rarely convened; in many cases, particularly among middle and low castes, these still survive.

50 New Socio-Economic Force & Caste Buddha, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Chaitanya, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand, Mahatma Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda, all spoke against caste system. The caste system is opposed to the religion of Vedanta - Swami Vivekananda. The Arya Samaj repudiates caste by birth - Lala Lajpat Rai.

51 English language, Modern Education and Caste prejudices Introduction of English language, as the language of administration made the first serious breach in the caste system. It weakened the position of the Purohit, his ritual sanction authority, traditionalism and encouraged social mobility since to learn the English language one had to go to the town or to the city; one needed no initiation in the orthodox manner or any other help from the purohit Brahman.

52 It caused power disequilibrium in the social group; may be even in the village. The English learning progressed under the government patronage and progressed independent of influence of Brahman. Those who got the benefit of this education secured the position of prestige and worked in the towns, and earned a good salary. This added significance, prestige and power to the caste group ofthe individual.

53 Caste Stabilising Factor We have primitive tribes and progressive communities, the custom and practices of unknown antiquity and also a long tradition of resentment against them. We are a pluralistic society with much pluralism at every level of our social order. We are a structural society with many knots within the social structure; there are insular caste minded groups who do not seem to take into account the changes that influence communities.

54 We are also a society of contradictions; there are primitive practices which everybody talks of eradicating, yet all along these are accommodated. We are instinctively and constitutionally a secular society, yet there is a commission to look after the interests of minorities. We are a society, yet one of the least integrated. Much of the past hinders our progress.

55 Varna- ashrama Dharma, Purusharth and the system of Samskaras imparted individuals and social discipline, inculcated tradition and culture and helped in acculturation. The varna system insisted on a certain cultural standard which others were expected to follow. The internalization of norms and values was effected on one hand by ashrama system and on the other by performance of the sanskaras.

56 Role of Brahman- Purohit was singularly significant. He put, as Lannoy indicates, the stamp of sacred approval on any unavoidable change..on the one hand they (Brahmins) were the most rigid the authoritarian of dogmatists, on the other they were extremely flexible if it suited their interests. The jati system developed in response to changing social conditions.

57 By the beginning of the 8th century A.D., the society was again a crucible. The political India had broken up and the society was in disruption. Brahman had lost the intellectual leadership, priestism had become dominant, and the caste rigidities had compartmentalized the society and killed the community sense. The Turks, Afghans and Mughals in succession gained political ascendancy.

58 While retaining their strong sense of belonging to the Islamic west, they followed the policy of Dar- ul - Islam, imposed jajiya on the people, effected conversions to Islam, which in consequence developed situation extremely unusual, like of which the society had never confronted before. Caste system failed for the first time to bring these people within the social fold. The society got divided.

59 Varna Mobility Social Mobility The varna ashram dharma was the social structure based on this understanding that social mobility is a social necessity. This pluralistic arrangement was expected to facilitate the social mobility of individual or of a group on the Varna basis, which meant choosing one s vocation according to one s qualification.

60 It was open also to the people outside the structured system who had to be brought within the social order. There was thus a two fold social mobility, the internal and external: from lower to the higher varna and from non-varna order. It was obviously expected to be a continuous process.

61 De- Tribalization Process of de-tribalization was co-extensive with development of structural society. It gained momentum during the Magadha Maury Satvahana period, when great urbanization was in progress. The process began by insisting on personal moral conduct, the svadharma, social ethical system, the ethical system of the Varna, the Varna dharma & submission to the eternal and the universal, the Sanatan Dharma.

62 Aryanization, Brahmanization or Culturalization and Sanskritization The continuous process of caste mobility and detribalization has been described as Aryanization, Brahmanization, Culturalization. In view of the fact, that much of our culture is prevedic in origin, use of the expression Aryanization would be inadequate. Brahmanization gives the impression that detribalized had to accept Brahmanical system.

63 Moreover, as indicated by M.N. Srinivas, Brahmans alone did not work in the direction. Culturalisation is too vague as the effort was not to enforce a well defined system, pluralism was never intended to be eliminated. The intention was not to enforce uniformity but to effect harmony. Sanskritization has come to be accepted as the suitable term. It is coined by M.N.Srinivas.

64 There does not exist any fixed model for Sanskritization. It proceeds in terms of reference group. The local dominant caste is mediated by the non- Brahman caste. The life style of the merchant and peasant have been taken as models in localities where these groups are dominant. At times, the groups enjoying the political patronage and power may be mediated.

65 In secular matters Mughals and the British at various times have provided a standard by which secular prestige is gauged. In this process of mobility, the cultural content, which differs form caste to caste, is the attraction. Among the twice born, Brahmins are most particular about the performance of Vedic ritual and donning of the sacred thread and they may therefore, be regarded as better models of Sanskritization than the other.

66 Ashram Vyavastha Traditional Hindu Social Organization The traditional social organization is based on Varnashrama- dharma and Purushartha. The Indological approach to the Indian society directly brings us to analyse and to understand the Varnashrama-dharma and the Purushartha system which is the foundation of our social order. It deals with individuals and society in all its comprehensiveness.

67 An individual must contribute his best. But his role is not the end of his doings. He is not just be sacrificed for the social order. He must have also his inner fulfillment. The way to it is by Purushartha. Purusasukta hymn of rigveda compares Society as a giant organism having Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaish and Sudra as its head, arms, trunk and feet respectively; each Varna being functional like each organ, and all make together the society as the organs make the organism.

68 All like the organs perform the co-equal functions, It is expressly stated in the text that no part of the whole may claim exclusive importance and superiority over the others; collaboration and exchange of services are the essence of this organismic theory. The various organs of the projected Purusha body- image are related in structural consistency.

69 The four Ashramas The Ashrama system has four stages of life, Brahmacharya, Grahastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyas, in succession. Ashrama means making an effort. It implies that for the fulfillment of ones life, one has to make an effort, at every stage to have the best of it. On an average, life span was taken to be hundred years and each Ashrama was assigned a period of twenty- five years.

70 The Brahmacharya It is also known as Indriyasamyama - the period of self- control. It is the first of the Ashramas. It began with the Upanayana that is, with the investure of the sacred thread, the yajnopavita. Initiating the pupil-brahmachari, Acharya- the teacher, whispered in the ears, Ta t savitu r V areniam Bhargo deva sya dhimahi Dhiyo yo nah prachodayat

71 May we attain that excellent glory of Savitur the God that he may stimulate our thoughts. With it, the Brahmacharya entered upon the second birth, which it was assumed, he got endowed with in consequence of the ceremony, as distinguished from the physical, given to him by his parents. With this spiritual birth, the twice- born now began his educational career.

72 It commenced for the Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaish in the 8th, 11th & 12th years. During Brahmacharya the pupil lived with his teacher for studies. Period of studentship varied. One could cease to be a student after a particular standard, proficiency in a discipline or remain a student all one s life. Education imparted was both literary, technical, and spiritual. The aim was, to prepare one, to play ones role in life.

73 The Grihastha It began with marriage & family, obligations to parents, children & society. The three rinas (debts) implied release self from debt of gods by yajna (Sacrifice), to pitas (ancestors) by raising off springs & to rishis by observing continence on parvan days. One was expected to acquire wealth and remain engaged in all activities incidental to one s varna. It has for this been described as the most important to the Ashrama.

74 The Vanaprastha Stage of progressive retirement. After children had settled and needed no more parental care and attention, one left every thing to enter Vanaprastha stage. He retired with his wife to a quiet place to lead a life of inquiry, meditation and work out within himself the truth of his being in an atmosphere of freedom from social strife. He lived a simple life to subsist on corn, fruit and vegetable.

75 The Sanyasa Sanyasi is one who abandoning truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain, the Vedas, this world and the next, seeks only the Atman. Sanyasi is, a super social man a privrajaka, a wandering teacher who influences spiritual standard though he may live apart form Society. This supreme ideal of life has been described by Kalidas as owning the whole world while disowning one self.

76 The Four Purusarthas The full scope of the Varnashrama-dharma would be more clear, once the underlying aims of life as signified by the Purusarthas: Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksha are taken into consideration. They are intended to guide one to achieve a high standard of living and also a high standard of life. Hindu social order kept positive ends in view.

77 The Four Purusarthas Fulfillment of desire, the Kama; Economic enrichment, the Artha were the aims to be realized in accordance with Dharma, the righteous way of living. The Trivarga, triple pursuit, as it is called, were recognized to be interdependent. Their fulfillment alone could make the Moksha possible. Social action for this was to be tested on the touchstone of Dharma, the highest aim set before an individual, was the realization of moksha, the spiritual freedom.

78 The Dharma The righteous way of living. One is expected to live and act in a manner that is good for all. It is recognized as the foundation of all good action and hence the stabilizing factor in life. It is intended to provide guidelines, in all social action, and to harmonise relation between Kama and Artha, to work as a check on self indulgence and to eliminate exploitation of weak and helpless. It is corrective of social evils. Dharma tells us that while our life is in the first instance for our own satisfaction, it is more essentially for the community and most of all for that universal self which is in each of us and all

79 The Artha It means acquiring wealth by honest means. Without Artha, no desire (Kama) can be satisfied. The object of Kama would not be achieved and the purpose of life would remain unrealized without economic well being. Living is not mere existence. Economic insecurity & individual attainments do not go together. Economic security is the basis of social stability, individual advancement and spiritual attainment.

80 The Kama It springs in humane mind, the moment one is born. It is the essence of life. These influence and determine social actions in various ways. The desire to live and enjoy becomes foremost and remains strongest. Varnashrama-dharma provides the direction to the Kama, the fulfillment of desire. It is an wrong belief that the pleasure of living need be discarded for the other world.

81 The ancient sociologists and men of religion, appreciating the purpose of life, studied it in all its aspects. For success in life and goodness, sacrifice was given importance. It remained with them the motivating force. Desire to have children and riches was always prayed for; emphasis on home décor, use of ornaments, celebration of festivals, and going on pilgrimage to the distant places for pleasure and success in life respectively was most cherished.

82 It means self realization The Moksha Life is not the grant to prepare for the next world. We do not live only to die. To be shut up in one s own ego, to rest in the apparent self and to mistake it for the real, is the root of all unrest to which man is exposed by reason of his mentality. The Sociologists have held that there is nothing higher than individual.

83 The aim of living is to enjoy and to attain fulfillment and at the same time to inquire into the truth of life, its purpose and aim. It is the transcendental movement from approach to real, from ignorance to bliss of enlightenment, and from destruction of death to eternal living. This dispels the possibility of frustration in life, and the alienation from society. Moksha is the freedom.

84 Asrama as a Place and as a Way of life Ancient Indian literature reveals two meanings of the term Asrama. 1. A residence where holy people live and perform religious austerities (the term is commonly translated as hermitage ). 2. A religious or holy way of life(a technical usage as it occurs exclusively in Brahmanical literature and mainly within the context of the asrama system.

85 Asram System -a Social Institution Originally, the four asrams were treated as four legitimate modes of life open to adult male. In the classical formulation, the system became prescriptive. It was associated with the performance of sacraments. It was desirable for an adult male to follow it. In the later Hinduism, the asram system assumed the function of regulating the life of individual members of society and in this way it became a social institution.

86 Thank You