The Nature of Foreign Influence on the First Imperial Art of India : A Critical analysis of the Capital Sculpture of Sarnath

Transcription

1 Since March 2002 F ine Arts An International, Registered & Referred Monthly Journal : Research Link - 131, Vol - XIII (12), February , Page No ISSN RNI - MPHIN Impact Factor The Nature of Foreign Influence on the First Imperial Art of India : A Critical analysis of the Capital Sculpture of Sarnath Ashoka the great, the emperor of Maurya dynasty embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga war, one of the most bloodiest wars ever recorded in the world history. While ruling the country Ashoka devoted his later life for the promotion of the noble thoughts and ideals of Buddhism. Attempting to promote nonviolence and thereby establishing peace in individuals as well as in society, the Buddhist ideals are relevant even today, in the contemporary life of the people. Buddha suggested the Ashtanga Marga or the 8 fold paths to be practiced by each individual to get rid of sufferings from life and also to fulfill the purpose of life. In order to speak of such realities the Buddhist monks employed artists who in turn made visual interpretations to the noble thoughts of Buddhism. The earliest imperial art of India reveals the presence of a shiny or polished effect on the surface of the then sculptures. The sudden appearance of the glossy effect on the Mauryan sculptures and disappearance of the same on the subsequent Indian sculptures seem to be considered as a matter of foreign importation of techniques to the Indian soil. The present paper attempts to stylistically analyze the capital sculpture of Sarnath from Mauryan period. DR. O. P. PARAMESWARAN Introduction : The study of the history of art shows that Buddhist art occupies an important position not only in India but even across the world. The Buddhist art prevailed in India for many centuries. The presence of Buddhism in India through visual art can be traced back as early as to the Maurya dynasty. The Buddhist art flourished through various other dynasties like Shunga, Kushan, Gupta, Palas and Senas, etc. The whole Buddhist art tries to deal with various aspects like the relevance of Buddhism, the noble thoughts of Buddha, compassion, sympathy, empathy, jataka stories, etc. The Buddhists already knew the powerful quality of art to persuade people to accept it and consequently reaching into the heart of the mass. In order to communicate these important aspects of life, the Buddhists used art to reach to the people and consequently created marvelous pieces of art ever produced by the history of art. His noble thoughts were translated into visual art through sculptures and paintings. The materials and medium used for the depiction of the Buddhist art provide a wide range namely varieties of stones, metal, mural painting, manuscript painting, palm leaves, paper, etc. Since the Buddhist art is based on the ideals and principles of his thoughts, obtaining an idea of the Buddhist principles would really enable the spectators to understand and enjoy it very deeply. Addressing issues of human life at a deeper level is one of the aspects of the Buddhist philosophy. Buddha attempts to look at life as suffering. He says that the basic reason for suffering is to be recognized and eliminated at first so as to lead a meaningful life. The very conceptual frame work of Buddhism reveals four noble truths which are very significant in Buddhism. Among the four noble truths, the first is the truth of 'dukha' that occurs due to sufferings, anxiety and dissatisfaction. Some of the reasons of the human suffering can be due to the facts like the death, growing old, physiological and the psychological illness. Tension derives from fact of trying to keep the present as being without change from the continuously changing life patterns. Suffering mounts up from the understanding of the temporary nature of thing in the world and the incapability to attain to one's own expectations in life. The second is the truth of the origin of 'dukha' (is from ignorance). The third is the truth of the termination of 'dukha'. The fourth is the truth of the path leading to the termination of dukha.(wiki) While attempting to deal with 'dukha', Buddha says that reason of 'dukha' can be find out and 'dukha' occurs due to the human desires and it occurs due to the lack of Assistant Professor (Department of Fine Arts), P. G. Govt. College for Girls,Sector-11, Chandigarh Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XIII (12) February

2 knowledge of the true nature of things. He says that 'dukha' can be stopped or removed. For the same cause he preached the 'noble eightfold path' and these are also known as the path for liberation. The 'noble eightfold path' has been visualized in the form of 'Dharma Chakra'. The 'eight fold path' is a combination of an eight interconnected factors or conditions. Following firmly all the factors together of the 'eight fold path' would only result into the termination of 'dukha'. The first factor of the eight fold path is 'right view' (or right understanding), viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. The second factor is 'right intention' (or right thought), intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness. The third factor is 'right speech', speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way. The fourth factor is 'right action, acting in a non-harmful way. The fifth factor is 'right livelihood', a non-harmful livelihood. The sixth factor is 'right effort', making an effort to improve. The seventh factor is 'right mindfulness', awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness; being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. The eighth factor is 'right concentration', correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first four jhânas(wiki). In order to tackle human suffering, Buddha preached the eightfold path to be followed by each one so as to get rid from the sufferings. Reaching the teachings of Buddha into the inner deep of the people Buddhist monks used art and engaged artists to make great works of art. Even in the history of Buddhist art there were many schools of art existed in different times and different places. The Maurayn art is considered to be the earliest imperial art of India related to Buddhism. 'Stambha' is considered to be an early category of sculpture attempted by the artists of Maurya dynasty. Among the various centers of artistic activity of the Mauyan period, Sarnath occupies an important position in this regard. The earliest examples of artistic activity related to Buddhism seem to be available at the time of Mauryan period (c.324 B.C to C.188 B.C.). This period is also considered to be the earliest examples of imperial art. As part of propagating the Buddhist principles numerous art works have been made during this time. Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, was considered to be one of the excellent emperors of Maurya dynasty. After the Kalinga war, despite the fact of being victorious in the war, Ashoka became upset over the killings and violence in the war which literally killed many, created people with wound, children who had lost their parents, etc. It was a huge horror type situation and the irreversible loss is unimaginable. Feeling agony even amid being victorious was a worst situation. To get rid of all these sufferings Ashoka embraced Buddhism. He spent his later life for the study, practice and propagation of the Buddhist ideals. Stambha : The study of Indian art and architecture reveal that the earliest example of Stambha can be attributed to the Maurya period. Even at the time of king Ashoka, about 30 stambhas were said to be built as part of propagating the dharma and placed at every routs which lead to holy places. Looking at the physical nature of Stambha, it can be viewed that a stamha has got two units which are a shaft and a capital upholding a statue. A monolithic stone is used for the shaft which is looking circular in form and narrowing towards the top. Generally on the top, there will be a statue in monolithic stone. A quality of elegance is evident on the proportion between the height and the form of the pillar as it gradually narrowing towards the top. The capital statue is also generally divided into three parts consists of a Persopolian bell, an abacus, and a finial. The Persepolis bell looks like the form of elongated inverted lotus petals. The Sarnath stambha with 4 royal lions sitting by touching their back to back is a good example to demonstrate the Mauryan stambha. The glossy effect on this sculpture also known as the Mauryan polish is very well seen on this sculpture. The historians argue that this polish is exclusively seen during the Mauryan period in India and after that it disappears. It means that an outside influence is clearly evident in these sculptures. The same statue of four lions has been later adopted as the emblem for the modern Republic of India ( Roy C. Craven). Here Buddha is thought to be a king among the spiritual leaders as how a lion is considered to be the king of a jungle. The four lions facing the four sides of the world are roaring. Some examples of these stambha can be traced to some other places like Rampurva, Basarh Bakhira and Laurya Nandangarh. Capital Sculpture : While looking at the capital sculptures, one can see images of four royal animals and wheels that are carved on the abacus. On the upper unit the images of a quarter of alert four lions back to back carved in the round have been shown. One also needs to acknowledge the presence of a wheel which otherwise is not visible from the lower part as the sculpture has been placed on the top of a pillar. The wheel is seems to be in an incomplete stage. The four lions sit back to back and support the wheel on their shoulders. During the time of Hinayana Buddhism, Buddha was not represented in human form. But he was represented through various signs and symbols. The image of the wheel resting on the shoulders of the lions has been symbolically identified as the wheel of the law (Dharma Chakra). A further attempt in decoding the symbolic significance of the lion shows that it represents Buddha. In a similar manner as a lion was considered to be a king among the other animals in the forest, Buddha was considered as a king among the spiritual teachers. How the roar of a lion establishes its authority in the forest, in the same way Buddha's sermon spread over to the four corners of the world. Images of four animals like an elephant, horse, bull and lion have been made on the abacus. The symbolic significance of these animals seems to be revealed as the extent and the influential command of Buddha's sermon. Further, the images of these four animals can be interpreted as the four quarters of the world. Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XIII (12) February

3 Despite the very fact that these sculptures have been made in India, they shows the presence of a foreign style i.e. the Persian style or more precisely the Acamenind influence. Initially the particular kind of treatment on the elongated petals from the fluting bell and also the realism attempted in treating some other elements like the animals depicted on the abacus seem to establish a close similarity with the Achamenind sculptures. There is realism visible in the treatment of the aspects of figures like the stylized and the strained muscles. The claws of all the lions seem to have very deeply been carved. If we make a comparison of the Achamenid sculptures with the capital city of Persepolis with these Mauryan sculptures, then we can see a close similarity in the treatment of both the figures. The art historians argue that we can sense the presence of the workmanship of the Persian trained Greek sculptors or the Persian sculptors in the Sarnath capital sculptures of Ashoka period. There are other points also to be taken into consideration that all of a sudden, appearing a much matured style in making figures in stone naturally indicates to the outside influence. The period that falls after the Indus Valley Civilization and before the Mauryan period does not provide any example of stone sculpture. It is surprising that during the Mauryan period all of a sudden fully matured sculptures in stone started appearing. This approach in fact has changed the entire outlook of the Indian art with reference to the durability of the materials used. The techniques that were used for making matured sculptures indicate into the possibility of a foreign importation of techniques in the Indian soil. Even though there was an importation of foreign techniques visible during the Mauryan period, the subject matter of these art is entirely Indian based on the story of Buddhism. Conclusion : The Mauryan art provides the earliest examples of the Buddhist art. This period come under the Hinayana Buddhism. In the initial stages as per the Hinayana Buddhism Buddha was not represented in human form. Rather Buddha was represented through various signs and symbols. As a lion was considered as the king of a forest, in a same manner, Buddha was considered as a king among the other spiritual teachers. The study of the history of art reveals that a continuation of examples is missing between the Indus Valley civilization and the Mauryan art. As part of propagating the Buddhist ideals the great Ashoka placed Sthambhas on all the routes that lead to pilgrimage centers. Sudden appearance and disappearance of a certain particular techniques for making stone sculptures in the Mauryan sculptures definitely indicate to the foreign importation of techniques. The nature of influence says that these are sculptural techniques of Acamenind from the city of Persepolis. Even though there is foreign importation of workman ship seen in the sculpture, the theme was strictly based on the Buddhism only. The study of Mauryan art clearly shows that it has contributed a lot in the formative stage of Indian sculptures in stone by creating marvelous works of art. References : (1) Calambur Sivaramamurti, The Art of India, India book house, Bombay, ISBN , (2) Edith Tomory, A History of Fine Arts in India and the West, Orient Longman,2002, ISBN (3) Glimpses of World Religions, Jaico Publishing House, Mumabi,2001, ISBN (4) J.C. Harle, The Art And Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, Yale University Press, Pelican History of Art, 1994, ISBN (5) Joseph Campell ( Completed and Edited) Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, Its Mythology and Transformation, 1st Volume, Published for Bollingen Foundation, Patheon Books, New York, (6) Roy C. Craven, Indian Art A Concise History, Thames and Hudson1987, Great Britain. (7) Vincent A. Smith, History of Fine arts in India& Ceylon, third edition revised by Karlkhandalawala, D.B. Tavaporevala sons & co. pvt. ltd. Bombay. (8) (9) Ashoka_.28Ashokstambha.29 Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XIII (12) February

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5 a s s w a nkar ij [kqns nkui= ls ;g lgt fl) gks tkrk gs fd rhljh 'krkcnh bz0 iwoz ls gh nurf'kfyi;ksa dk,d cgqr cm+k leqnk; vflrro es a vk pqdk Fkk tks cks) /kekzuq;k;h Fkk vksj ftlus e/;orhz Lrwi ds nf{k.kh }kj dh izlrj&lhf<+;ks a es a ckjhd uddk'kh dk dke fd;k FkkA ¼3½ punzdkar th us viuh dyk dh 'kq:vkr gkfkh nk r ij uddk'kh ls dh] ijurq 1991 es a gkfkh nkar ij jksd yxus ds dkj.k bugksaus punu dh ydm+h dks ek/;e cuk;k] ijurq punu dh ydm+h eagxh gksus ds dkj.kh bugksaus vc dnac dh ydm+h dks yqhkkous Lo:i esas <kyuk 'kq: dj fn;ka gfj;k.kk esa gkfkh nkar ij v.mjdv uddk'kh dk dk;z lcls igys punzdkar th ds nknk t;ukjk;.k cks anoky us gh 'kq: fd;k vksj ;gh dyk mugks aus vius csvksa rfkk iksrs dks Hkh fl[kkbza vius ifjokj dk uke jks'ku djrs gq, punadkar mqz MksMh dks 2004 es a viuh csgrjhu dykd`fr ds fy, jk"vªh; iqjldkj ls ljdkj }kjk uoktk x;ka punzdkar th us viuh csgrjhu dyk ds }kjk dk"b dyk dks,d u;k Lo:i iznku fd;ka d'ehj es a vc Hkh dk"b dyk bruh fodflr vksj muur gs fd v[kjksv dh ydm+h ij vaydkfjr 'ksyh esa cgqr gh dykred olrq, cukbz tkrh gsa ydm+h ij ipphdkjh dk dke Hkkjr dh,d [kkl vksj cstksm+ nlrdkjh gsa ¼4½ punzdkar th }kjk cuk, x, dqn glrf'kyi tks ydm+h] cknke ds fnyds] is afly dh uksd vkfn dk o.kzu fueufyf[kr gs % cknke ds fnydksa ij uddk'kh % punzdkar th us cknke ds fnydks a rfkk ukfj;y dh [kksy ls vkhkw"k.k cuk, ftlds fy, ljdkj }kjk jk"vªh; 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iqjldkj ds rgr mugsa mudh bl uddk'khnkj vkhkw"k.kksa ds fy, 50]000 :i;s] rkezik=] vaxol=e~ rfkk,d lvhzfqdsv ls uoktk x;ka bu vkhkw"k.kksa dh [kkl ckr ;g gs fd buesas dgha dksbz tksm+ ugha gs] lhkh dks,d,d cknke dh [kksy ij rs;kj fd;k x;k gsa ;g punzdkar th dh eksfyd d`fr gsa bl lsv dks cukus ds fy, mugsa,d eghus dk le; yxka cknke ds fnydksa ij dk;z djus ls igys bugksusa [ktwj dh xqbyh] beyh ds cht ij Hkh dke fd;k ij blls bugsa lurqf"v ugha feyha fqj bugksaus cknke ds fnydksa ij dk;z fd;k rfkk bls ek/;e cuk;ka mugksaus cknke dh [kksy dks lozizfke eghu QkbZy ls fpduk fd;k fqj isafly ls Ldsp cuk;k vksj cgqr gh eghu vkstkjksa dh enn ls uddk'kh dk;z iw.kz fd;ka cq) dh vflfk;ksa dk ckwdl % fnyyh ds jk"vªh; laxzgky; esa j[kh Hkxoku cq) dh ifo= vflfk;ks a ds,d Hkkx dks Jhyadk ys tkus ds fy, punu dh ydm+h dk dherh ckwdl punzdkar th }kjk gh cuk;k x;ka bu ckwdl dks cukus esa mugsa,d eghus ls Hkh T;knk le; yxka bl ckdl esa egkrek cq) dh ifo= vflfk;ka j[k dj iwoz iz/kkeu=h eueksgu flag vius lkfk Jhyadk ysdj x, rfkk ogka ds iz/kkuea=h dks HksaV dh rkfd ogka ds djksm+ksa cq) vuq;k;h vius vkjk/; dh vflfkdy'k ds n'kzu dj ldsaa Ng bap yeckbz vksj ikap bap pksm+kbz okys djhc nks fdyks otu ds bl csgn uddk'khnkj vkd"kzd ckdl dh dher 93 gtkj :i;s j[kh xbza punzdkar us bl ifo= ckdl ij egkrek cq) ds iqufuzek.k ls vafre ;k=k rd dk lqj fn[kk;k gsa bl ckwdl ij gkfkh }kjk mudh ifo= vflfk;ks a dks ys tkus dk fp=.k csgn vkd"kzd <ax ls fd;ka ckwdl ds Åij ds Hkkx ij egkrek cq) dk csgn lqunj fp= cuk gs] ftles a mugs a lqir volfkk es a fn[kk;k x;k gsa,slk gh feyrk tqyrk fp=.k ges a FkkbZ cq) fogkj efunj ds ckgjh fglls ij cukbz cq) dh izfrek es a ns[kus dks feyrk gsa ckwdl ds nwljh rjq nks gkffk;ks a dh [km+h vkd`fr;ka gsa] ftlds Åij bugks aus euq"; dks csbk;k fn[kk;k gsa,d gkfkh dh la wm uhps gs rfkk nwljs gkfkh dh ueldkj dh eqnzk es a gsa,slk gh fp=.k gea s Hkjgwr Lrwi dh,d jsfyax ij Hkh ns[kus dks feyrk gsa ¼6½ bl Lrwi es a gkfkh ds Åij rfkk vkl&ikl cunjks a dks fn[kk;k x;k gs tks <ksy uxkm+ a ctk jgs gsaa ¼7½ ckwdl dh ckdh rhuks a nhokjks a ds ckgjh Hkkxks a ij gkffk;ks a ds Åij csbs isuy ifo= vflfk;ks a dks dy'k es a ys tkrs fn[kk,s gsaa bu gkffk;ks a us viuh la am es a jfllk;ks a dks idm+k gqvk gs gkfkh dks?kqvuks a ds cy csbs fn[kk;k gsa,slk n`'; ges a Hkjgwr Lrwi ^Mªhe vkwq Dohu ek;k* uked fjyhq es ns[kus dks feyrk gs* ;g yky irfkj ls cuh xksykdkj /kjkryh; Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XIII (12) February

6 a a vkd`fr egkrek cq) ds isnk gksus ls iwoz dh dfkk dks n'kkzrh gsa ewfrz ds e/; es a egkjkuh ek;k dks fclrj ij lks;k gqvk fn[kk;k gsa fclrj ds ikl rhu nkfl;k csbh gs a ftles a,d dks poj <qykrs fn[kk;k gsa Åij dh rjq lqsn gkfkh fn[kk;k x;k gs tks cq) ds tue dh?kvk ls lecaf/kr gsa ¼8½ gkfkh dh /kkrq ewfrz ges a nf;ekckn ¼egkjk"Vª½ dh dyk es a Hkh ns[kus dks feyrh gs] ftles a gkfkh ¼25x27ls0eh0½ dh yech lw am] dku rfkk iq"v 'kjhj vr;ar dq'kyrk ls vafdr gsa bl gkfkh dks ifg,nkj xkm+h ij [km+k fn[kk;k gs ftlds ifg, vc vizk; gsa ¼9½ cq) dh ekrk egkjkuh ek;k ;g LoIu ns[k jgh gs fd lqsn gkfkh egkrek cq) ds :i es a muds xhkz es a izos'k dj jgk gs] ;g Hkjgwr es,d [kehks ij cuk;k jhfyq gsa ¼10½ punu ls cus bl cdls ds vunj 'kh'ks ls,d fijkfem cuk;k x;k gs] ftles a ifo= vflfk;ka j[kh xbz gsaa punzdkar th us ;s lkjh uddk'kh gtkjks a o"kz iqjkuh mugha izfrhkkvks a ds vk/kkj ij dh gsa] tks iqjkrrokfn;ksa dks [kqnkbz ds nksjku feyh FkhA punzdkar th dks ljdkj dh rjq ls bl ckwdl dh dher dk yxhkx rhu Qhlnh Hkkx 27]900 :i;s fn, x, FksA isafly dh uksd ij uddk'kh % dqn csgrjhu djus dh r`".kk tc fdlh ds eu esa gksrh gs] rks og rue;rk ls ml dk;z dks djus ds fy, vius vki dks lefizr djrk gs] blh dfku dks lr; djrh gsa punzdkar th dh isafly dh uksd ij dh xbz dkjhfxjha tgk,d rjq vius gquj dks punzdkar th us gj rjg dh ydm+h cknke ds fnydksa ij n'kkz;k] ogha mugksua s isafly dh uksd dks uddk'kh ds fy, ek/;e pquka isafly dh uksd ij bugksaus] gkfkh] eksj] rksrk rfkk x.kifr dh vkd`fr;ks dks mdsjka blds fy, bugksusa mugha vkstkjksa dks iz;ksx fd;k] tks ydm+h dh uddk'kh ds fy, djrs FksA bugksaus dsyhxzkqh ds fy, iz;ksx es vkus okyh isafly dks iz;ksx fd;k gsa,d isafly ij vkd`fr mrdh.kz djus ds fy, bugs a nks?k.vs rd dk le; yxka bugks aus pkj isaflyksa ij vkd`fr;k mrdh.kz dh ftles a,d ij bugksuas eksj dks Mkyh ij csbs fn[kk;k gsa eksj,d i{kh gs] ftldk ewylfkku nf{k.kh vksj nf{k.kiwohz,sf'k;k esa gsa uhyk eksj Hkkjr dk jk"vªh; i{kh gsa Hkxoku d`".k ds eqdqv ij yxk eksj ia[k bl i{kh ds egro dks n'kkzrk gsa eqxy ckn'kkg 'kkgtgka ftl r[r ij csbrk Fkk] mldh 'kdy eksj dh FkhA nks eksjksa ds chp ckg'kkg dh xn~nh Fkh rfkk ihns ia[k QSyk;sa eksja ghjs iuus ls tm+s bl r[r dk uke ^r[r&,&rkml^ Fkk A ¼11½ ddqehk jkfxuh fp= tks fd t;iqj 'ksyh es a cuk;k x;k gs] ftles a eksj dks ukf;dk ds vklikl fn[kk;k x;k gsa ¼12½ isafly ij mrdh.kz dh xbz bu vkd`fr;ksa dks pkjksa rjq ls ns[kk tk ldrk gsa bu vkd`fr;ksa dh yeckbz 4 ls 6 fefyfevj rd dh gsa punzdkar th dh izsj.kk muds pkpk] firk rfkk nknk jgs ftudh N=Nk;k esa mugksus a,slh d`fr;ksa dk fuekz.k fd;k ftudh rqyuk djuk csgn dfbu gsaa punzdkar th dks vius ns'k ij xoz gsa rfkk Hkkjr dk uke jks'ku djus ds fy, ;s viuh dyk dks fo'o ds gj dksus esa ys tkuk pkgrs gsaa bugksaus vius dke dks jk"vªh; rfkk vurzjk"vªh; Lrj ij n'kkz;k gsaa Hkkjr esa bugksus viuk dk;z lqjtdq.m Qjhnkckn] gfj;k.kk] gsnjkckn] dydrrk] xksvk Hkksiky] csaxyw:] jkaph] ivuk] ukxiqj] iatkc] jktlfkku rdjhcu iwjs Hkkjr esa fn[kk;k gsa vurzjk"vªh; Lrj ij bugksusa viuk dke vkflvª;k] vkseku] bzjku esa fn[kk;k gsa viuh dyk ds }kjk bugksaus u dsoy Hkkjr esa] cfyd fons'kksa esa Hkh igpku cukbz gsa punzdkar th dks bl {ks= esa cgqr ls iqjldkj izkir gsa] tsls us'kuy vokmz 2004] UNESCO vokmz 2004] LVsV vokmz] lwjtdq.m esys esa fn, tkus okys ^dykeuh^ 2005 esa rfkk ^dyk fuf/k^ 2009 esa feyka blds vfrfjdr bugks aus Days of Indian Culture in Iran tks fd rsgjku rfkk f'kjkt esa 10&17 ebz 2011 esa Hkkx fy;ka bugksus a vkhkw"k.k ØkQ~V Exchange Programme 2011, x.kra= fnol ij yxk;s tkus okys Craft Fair 2008, Young craft person jewellery 2004 psuukbz es a Hkkx fy;ka bugks aus bfunjk xk /kh] jk"vªh; ekuo laxzgky; }kjk vk;ksftr ^d`fr&2012* rfkk Daskari Haat Samiti 2006 dh iz;ksx'kkyk esa Hkkx fy;ka panzdkar th viuh bl dyk dks fl[kkus ds fy, odz'kki Hkh yxkrs gsaa punzdkar th }kjk cukbz xbz glrdyk dks ge buvjusv ij Hkh ns[k rfkk [kjhn ldrs gsa rfkk Qslcqd ij cuk, buds ist }kjk Hkh buls tqm+ ldrs gsaa vhkh rd dk dk;z budk csgrjhu jgk gs rfkk vkus okys le; esa ge vk'kk djrs gsa fd os vius dk;z esa caqyafn;ksa ds f'k[kj rd igq psa lanhkz % (1) i.wikip edia.o rg/wiki/%eo%a4%8 9% E O % A 4 % A 4 % E O % A 5 % 8 0 % E O % A 4 % 9 5 % E O %A5%80%EO%A4%80%EO%A5%80%EO%A4%A3% EO% A8%. ¼2½ dyk f'k{k.k] MkW fp=ys[kk flag] izdk'kd] es0 Jh fouksn iqlrd efunj] dk;kzy; MWk0 jkaxs; jk?ko ekxz] vkxjk&2 prqfkz la'kksf/kr laldj.k] 2010] i`"b 89&90- ¼3½ Hkkjrh; dyk dh :ijs[kk] 'kph xqvqz] izdk'k % bykbv ifcyf'kax gkml] 633&635 pwmh okyku] pkom+h cktkj] fnyyh&6] i`"b la[;k 941- ¼4½ Hkkjrh; dyk dh :ijs[kk % 'kph xqvq]z izdk'k % bykbv ifcyf'kax gkml] 633&635 pwmh okyku] pkom+h cktkj] fnyyh&6] i`"b la[;k 145- (5) chishti. (6) s3.amazonaws.com/medias.photodeck.com/e a9b-42c6-5ced395ad354d87/brett-cole-india medium.jpg. (7) defenceforumindia.com/forum/general-mu0849-archaelogical-remains ancient-india-5.html. ¼8½ Hkhe flag csjoky] ewfrz dyk dk ifjp;] izdk'kd vuqi izdk'ku] 1134@18] fglkja ¼9½ Hkkjrh; ewfrz dyk dk bfrgkl] jkekukfk fej] izdkf'kr rfkk fuf/k ystj IokbZ av] fnyyh&32 ls VkbZi lsv gksdj uol fia zfvax iz Sl] fnyyh& (10) 20art/Dreamof_queen_maya.jpg (11) %EO%A4%AE%EO%A5%8B%EO%A4%BO. ¼12½ dyk vksj dye] MkW- fxjht fd'kksj vxzoky] izdk'kd v'kksd izdk'ku efunj] 27,] lkdsr dkyksuh vyhx<+ ¼m0iz0½] i`"b la[;k 276] fp= ua0 30- Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XIII (12) February