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1 Chapter 1 : Sri Lanka - Conversion to Buddhism theinnatdunvilla.com Sri Lankan Buddha images are confident and powerful, conveying his spiritual authority with broad shoulders. Most seated Buddha images from the late Anuradhapura period (c) portray Shakyamuni in meditation, with his eyes half closed. Neither historically nor geographically was the Island ever conquered, except in the narration of mythological epic Ramayana. While transiting from mythology to history, it is interesting to note a quote attributed to a Chola Prince who arrived in Sri Lanka. That is a testimony to the belief in the South Indian kingdoms that despite constant invasions of powerful Dravidian armies Sri Lanka could not be conquered. Sri Lanka is of unbroken recorded history of over years. Pre-history of Sri Lanka in an Indo-Aryan perspective, years ago Palaeolithic human settlements by, year old people using quartz tools 34, years ago Balangoda people; Mesolithic hunter gatherers lived in caves 28, years ago According to some expert archaeologists, humans lived in Lanka. Unexcavated caves belonging to Pahurakanda temple bear evidence to this. Stone age factory in Bandarwela, Hill country uses fire to shatter quartz to make tools microliths. Circa BC Beginnings of the astronomical observations takes place in India. Circa BC The emergence of Indian Astrology in India- an Ancient Science Indian Astrology is considered to be one of the oldest, most accurate and consistent form of astrology all over the world. It is a natural cosmic science based on real astronomy. In India, where Astrology is taken very seriously, it is one of the most important gifts to the Indian culture. Indian Astrology is generally regarded to be very predictive in nature and hence, it can help you to face the future in a better way, evading any misfortunes or obstacles that might be laid down in your path to success. The ancient Vedas which are said to be the oldest religious literature available has references to this science. Hindus were the original masters who had the thorough knowledge of astronomy and many rituals and religious rites were related to the position of planets and their motions. Long before Keppler, Copernicus, Brahe, Galilio and other galaxy of astronomers were born, the Hindu sages had already gained much knowledge on the stellar or planetary universe. Indian Astrology has been divided into three main branches of study: Siddantas are those who devote to astronomical study of celestial bodies Samhitas deal with mundane astrology, earth quakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, rainfall, weather conditions economic conditions and effects of sunspots. The next and the very important branch is the Phalitha Jyothisha branch which concentrates on the system of predictions. Apart from these schools of planetary interpretations, Indians have what they call Nadi system which gives pen pictures of life and destiny patterns of people born at 12,24,48 seconds intervals. These have been written on palm leaves. Only very few experts can read and understand these, but the results and predictions are found to be amazingly accurate. Indian Astrology - In a nut-shell The Indian astrology study consists of 27 constellations, in 12 lunar mansions. The extra Saturnine planets like Pluto, Neptune and Uranus are not recognized by the Indian Astrology Above all, Moon is taken as very important planet for predictions though it is satellite of earth. The Moon, at the time of birth is found in a particular position or in a particular star and it will be taken as the star of the person born. This star will be used for finding out the major and sub-periods of the person in his life. Indian Astrology - Utility To predict the future events. To match the birth-charts of the couple at the time of marriage for a successful married life. To find out the Muhurath best time to start any auspicious ceremony. To provide a remedy for your problems. To determine the right Gemstone to be used to become successful in life. Circa BC Aryan immigration into India: Iron arrives, Vedic age in India, composition of the Rig Veda. The bearers of the Vedic civilization, as sometimes called Vedic Aryans or Indo-Aryans were the precursors to modern Hinduism. The term derives from the Sanskrit word "Arya". Sanskrit language is described as "the language of the Gods". It is also argued that prior to Indo-European language Sanskrit, there existed a still older language Proto-Indo-European from which all the Indo-European languages descended. The spread of Indo-Aryan languages has been connected with the spread of the chariot in the first half of the second millennium BC. Most of the languages of the North India belong to a single Page 1

2 language family, the indo-aryan subgroup of the Indo-European family of the languages. The languages of South India belong to a different language family, the Dravidian languages. David Frawley with his"out of India" theory. It is not claimed that India is the Urheimat original homeland of the Indo-Europeans, but rather that "the Aryans could just as well have been native to India for several millennia, deriving their Sanskritic language from earlier Indo-European dialects. Present-day Indo Aryans population: Thereafter, he became a Kevatin or the repository of supreme knowledge, capable of propagating the truth he knew. Jainism, in the same tradition as that of Buddhism, dismisses the interference of so called Supreme Being: Jainsim teaches fourteen stages in the evolution of the soul from impurity to purity or complete liberation. The most notable feature of Jain ethics is its insistence on non-injury to all forms of life. Jainism find that every kind of thing has a soul; therefore strict observance of precept of non-violence ahmisa requires extreme caution in all activity to prevent living beings being killed. That the bridge is man-made, as some archaeologists of India claim, yet to be proven conclusively. While some argue that the bridge is 1,, years old Hindu treta yuga, others announce it is only 3, years old. The bridge was supported on floating rocks but said to have later anchored the rocks to the sea bed, thus creating the present chain of limestone shoals. NASA has distanced itself from such claims: The Archaeological park of Champaner - Pavagad - A World heritage site Champaner, 47 km north-east of Vadodara, is the ancient capital of Gujarat of India that was renamed as Muhammadabad after having been conquered by Sultan Mahmud Begara in The Jami-Masjid built by him is one of the finest mosques of the country. The Pavagad hill with the ruins of an ancient Hindu fort stands in the vicinity of Champaner. Legend has it that the hill is in fact a one-fourth chunk of an Himalayan mountainside that was brought by Hanuman, a hero of the epic Ramayana; hence the name pava meaning a quarter. Recorded History of Sri Lanka Where must we begin? All would like begin from the beginning. King Arthur of England, his incest with his sister, adultery by his queen with his first night Lancelot, patricide by the son of King Arthur? There are more than two words now. Indeed, more than two sins. The Mahawamsa itself is actually comprised of three parts, all written at different times in Sri Lankan history. The first entries in the Mahavamsa Great History date from now. About the time that bands of Indo-Aryans were making this island their home, momentous events were taking place in North India. The earliest record of cotton weaving handloom machine: Classical Sanskrit literature refer the settlers in Lanka as Sinhala. The fact that Sinhala has been the speech of the people of this land for years is established by the thousands of inscriptions on stone, the earliest of which belong to the 3rd century BC. Reign of King Pandukabaya. In the third century B. C the capital of Sri Lanka was Anuaradhapura. It was Pandukabhaya BC who developed the original Anuradhapura in to a city.. From the time Anuradhapura was raised by Pandukabhaya to the eminence of a city in the latter part of the fourth century B. C it remained as the capital of Sri Lanka for a about twelve centuries. The Mahavamsa -Tika says that the early Aryans who came to this Island opened up new settlements in areas where water was easily available. Pandukabhaya built a tank to supply water to the city, although there was already a tank built by Anuradha, his grand uncle. Convalescent homes were established. The Aryan Sinhalese embraced Buddhism with such fervour, they began to believe Buddha had entrusted the care of pure Buddhism to the little island. Arrival of the slip of the Bo tree in whose shelter Buddha achieved eternal enlightenment. Victorious King Dutugamunu, who was already tormented by the 15 years of bloodshed in his war against the Dravidian invaders, in spite of the newly gained overwhelming strength gives up pursuing them at Elephant pass, slim strip of land leading to Jaffna. The invaders were" allowed to live as they pleased" ancient scriptures Buddhist teachings continued to be held supreme over the threat of marauding Dravidian invasions. The lack of all religious rites in Buddhism was not keenly felt during the lifetime of Buddha. Personal devotion to him took the place of religious fervour. The translation into Pali of the Sinhalese commentaries of the Tripitaka three books of Buddhism was undertaken. A significant collection of ancient ceramic ware from the periods of six Chinese dynasties has been unearthed in Sri Lanka. The earliest ceramics are from the period of Tang Dynasty A. Pandyan conquest AD. Page 2

3 Chapter 2 : History of sri lanka A GILT COPPER ALLOY FIGURE OF BUDDHA SRI LANKA, LATE ANURADHAPURA PERIOD, 8TH/9TH CENTURYHimalayan Art Resources item no cm (4 in.) high. This study considers how statues of the Buddha evolved in Thailand, focusing on the Sukhothai period â CE, during which a distinctly Thai style developed; this style is still characteristic of Thailand today. The Sukhothai style primarily reflects features of the Pala, Sri Lankan, Pagan, and Lan Na styles, yet contains new stylistic innovations and a refinement over the four successive schools that were subsequently lost in later Thai Buddhist styles. Rather than comparing styles by shifting attention between sample images, the viewer can now appreciate style differences by watching one style metamorphose into another. Common stylistic features remain relatively unchanged and visually ignored, while differing features draw attention. While applied here to the study of Buddhist sculptures, this technique has other potential applications to art history, architecture, and graphic design generally. Southeast Asia, Southeast Asian art, Sukhothai Buddha, sculptural style, visual vocabulary, style analysis, digital animation, blend shapes Introduction As Buddhism spread outward from India to cover much of Asia, both the teachings of Buddhism and the religious art evolved. While Buddha sculptures follow common iconographic conventions Rowland, 12â 14, the artistic style varies across regions and cultures, reflecting the local artistic interpretation of this iconography Leidy This paper focuses on the evolution of the Buddha statue in the Sukhothai period â CE, during which a distinct style developed; this style is still characteristic of Thailand today see Fig. This style was not the first, nor the last, distinctly Thai artistic style, but it remains the most important: Unlike living organisms that evolve from a single precursor organism, artistic style often evolves by blending multiple precursor styles. In a sense, the successor style has the opportunity to borrow features or traits selectively from multiple parents, along with incorporating new features. Conventionally, artistic style is analyzed through a written discourse with reference to illustrations of representative examples e. Differing styles are then compared by a differential analysis. In analyzing Buddha statues, it is conventional to start with the Buddhist iconography that is conveyed by, for example, the pose of the hands; the direction of gaze; and traditional elements of the head and face, including the presence of an ushnisha, the design of the finial e. When comparing two styles, it is common to supplement the written description with images, such as a photograph of a representative example of each style. The reader can then refer to these images, shifting gaze from one to the other to observe the prominent differences between the two. This task is not always easy, as the viewer must attend only to the differences in style and ignore differences in lighting, material composition, physical condition, size, camera perspective, and so forth. The central objective of this research is to explore a technique that allows one to visualize shape change without such distractions. Rather than static illustrations of reference material, digital animation is used to convey style differences. With this method, a viewer can appreciate style differences between two objects, A and B, not by shifting gaze from A to B but by watching A become B. As is traditional, this study begins with a written analysis using a conventional visual vocabulary. A determination of the stylistic features that were potentially contributed by each precursor style is assisted by organizing the descriptors in the form of a matrix of features versus styles. In combination with historical sources, some style features associated with the Sukhothai can be traced back to their origins in precursor styles. Other features can be presumed to be inventions of Sukhothai artists. The complex nature of art history, and the patchwork of borrowing versus invention, however, cannot be easily resolved. What becomes important, then, is visualizing the changes, as much of the stylistic difference is better appreciated visually than by words or tabulations. Overview of Cultures and Artistic Influences on the Sukhothai Style Ancient kingdoms and empires each had a region of influence or power centered in a city Kulke ; Thongchai The geographical arrangement of these city-states is an important starting point to understanding the Sukhothai Kingdom and the neighbors that influenced it. In addition to political power, there were foreign influences from trade from about the first Page 3

4 century CE onward, which brought religions, culture, and artifacts to the indigenous people of the region Van Beek and Tettoni, 51; Gutman, The trade was either across sea and land from west to east, primarily from India through Burma to Thailand Gosling, 48, or along the coastlines and up the rivers. Indigenous peoples included the western-central Mon, who spread south down the Malay Peninsula and up the Chao Phraya River valley; the northern Tai, who derived from Chinese migrations from Yunnan Province; and the eastern Khmer Wyatt In terms of political and religious influences in the region of Sukhothai prior to the beginning of the kingdom, the first foreign influences were extremely early, such as the influence of the Mahayana culture of the Indian Gupta Empire â CE on the Dvaravati Nandana, 19; Gosling, While Hinduism and Islam largely replaced Buddhism in India, Buddhism spread rapidly outside of India, and Gupta-style Buddha statues with highly abstract and simplified forms were important in conveying the spiritual message Fisher, 55â Theravada Buddhism spread primarily from the north and west, while Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism spread from the south and east Van Beek and Tettoni, 51; Nandana, 19â Along with the Buddhist religion and iconography, Sanskrit writing was also incorporated in subsequent centuries by the art and religion of the various Dvaravati city-states and Khmer kingdoms Brown, Buddhist monks from lower Burma were also in contact with Haripunchai ibid. The Sukhothai Kingdom was centered in the city of Sukhothai, in north central Thailand. Artistically they displayed early Gupta influences Gosling, 56, 68 and then adopted the Khmer style as they increasingly came under the influence of the Khmer Empire by the tenth century and were finally conquered in the late twelfth century Van Beek and Tettoni, 64; Woodward, The Khmer style continued to persist in Lopburi and surrounding regions well into the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as the U-Thong style Woodward, When the Sukhothai Kingdom became independent, it was at the boundary between two very distinct cultures, the Khmer to the east and south, and the Dvaravati and Tai to the west and north. It grew into a broad band extending from the far northeast near Laos down to the Malay Peninsula. The time line in Fig. Since the capital of the Sukhothai Kingdom was a city that had a long history of Khmer influence, one might expect Sukhothai art to reflect its Dvaravati or Khmer background. A later, more direct, Burmese influence has also been traced to fourteenth-century visits by Sukhothai monks Gutman, The Lan Na influence continued throughout the Sukhothai period: The Sukhothai style reached the apex of its glory during the second quarter of the fourteenth century through to the end of the kingdom in, when Sukhothai was incorporated into the kingdom of Ayutthaya Woodward, The Khmer-dominated Dvaravati cultures were geographically near the Sukhothai but less influential. It is important to note, however, that rather than a single school of style, there were four schools General Group, Wat Trakuan, Kamphaengpet, and the Phra Phutta Chinnarat Group, each with its own distinct characteristics, during the Sukhothai period Fig. Subsequent to the Sukhothai era, the highly refined Sukhothai style was largely replaced by the U-Thong and Ayutthaya styles, which suggest a return to the Khmer style more than a continuation of the Sukhothai style. Artists who followed any one school of style created variations within it; hence, it is not possible to make absolute distinctions between any two styles. Nonetheless, it will become clear that a systematic visual vocabulary can help distinguish the features that comprise a given style, given a few representative examples of each. The Dvaravati style in e, with strong Khmer influences, however, was not incorporated into the Sukhothai style. Description of Buddhist Sculptures The Buddha is believed to have exhibited the physical characteristics of a great man. The texts were known to Sri Lankan as well as Burmese monks and influenced Buddhist imagery and the early Thai aesthetic, especially the features of the Sukhothai style Woodward, 24, 25, as early as the fifth century CE Galloway, Among the many physical characteristics attributed to the Buddha, a few are relevant to the face: These and other descriptions of ideal form have been influential in Buddhist art since the Gupta period in India, but many variations can be found in specific styles. The iconographic features are present in some, but not all, subsequent Buddhist sculptural styles. With the founding of Sukhothai in the mid-thirteenth century, a style emerges that is uniquely Thai Stratton and Scott, 67; Van Beek and Tettoni, 7. Some sculptures show the eyes as downcast, and in others the eyes are opened and directed forward. The lips might form a smile or just assume a serene expression. Details of how the features were sculpted also vary. In Page 4

5 some cases the eyebrows, lips, nose, and other facial features are depicted with natural amounts of curvature and relief, while in other cases the sculpting uses sharp creases and simplified, stylized curves. Many features of the statues in combination create a subtle impression of the gender of the statue. Buddha statues vary in the extent to which they appear masculine. Khmer and Dvaravati styles, for instance, have clearly powerful, masculine features, while the Sukhothai style is androgynous. An androgynous depiction of the Buddha de-emphasizes the male gender of the historic Buddha Stratton and Scott, 51,,, Analysis of Buddha Styles This section provides an analysis of the Buddha styles considered in this study, using a visual vocabulary derived primarily from classical texts and modern descriptions Sawitree The eyebrows are a very important characteristic, with strongly sculpted double contours merged across the bridge of the nose. The overall facial proportions are broad, with moderately to distinctly masculine square jaws. The nose and chin are generally realistically depicted. A suggestion of a well-fed double chin is provided by lines around the neck. The lips are fleshy and vary from realistic to moderately sculpted, with outlined contours. The hair is depicted in neat rows of moderate to large coils. The eyes are generally cast downward, not directed forward. The Sri Lankan sculptures differ significantly from the Pala style in many respects. The topknot or ushnisha is often less prominent, but elaborate finials of various designs are added. The coils of hair vary from moderate to large, with generally more distinct details. The Sri Lankan statues usually have a rounder face, and a longer and narrower nose with a sharp ridge. Unlike the prominent double curve of the Pala eyebrow, the Sri Lankan eyebrows vary from only faintly outlined to sharply creased, and rather than terminate at the bridge of the nose, the curves sometimes merge smoothly with, and continue down, the long central ridge of the nose. The gaze of the eyes is frequently directed outward, not downward. The mouths vary from small to broad, with realistically sculpted lips. These Sri Lankan sculptures suggest a stylistic innovation that would appear in the later Sukhothai style, particularly in the contouring of the eyebrows and nose. Buddha offering protection, Sri Lanka, central plateau, late Anuradhapura-Polonnaruva period, tenth century. More generally, the earlier Mahayana influence was largely ignored; the art evolved from Theravada iconography Stadtner, 58; Galloway, 1â 3, â Compared to the Sri Lankan faces, while both are rounded overall, the foreheads of the Pagan statues are broader and more prominent due to the reduced mouth and chin. The eyes of Pagan-style sculptures have a more obviously downward gaze Galloway, ; and with small, pursed lips and an overall modest demeanor, the Pagan style evolved toward a warm and serene smiling face. While it displays some commonality with the Pala, it is regarded as deriving from the earlier fifth-century Gupta style. The faces of the Dvaravati images are less stylized, gentler, more approachable, and realistic ibid. A finial, if present, is small and cap-like, and the coils of hair are prominent and large. The forehead is short measured from eyebrows to hairline and wide measured from left to right, and dominated by perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Dvaravati style: The ears have very heavy earlobes. The upper eyelids are heavy and blend smoothly and realistically into the eyebrows without a sculpted crease. The eyes are usually downcast. The nose is generally broad with a straight profile. The lips are large and full, and the mouth is expressive and sometimes gently smiling, all consistent with the Khmer cultural influence in this region. The chin is featureless, without the suggestion of a double chin. Lopburi Style The Khmer-influenced Lopburi style, also from current-day Thailand, shares some features of the Dvaravati style. While the overall facial proportions are somewhat more elongated, the depiction represents a similarly trim Buddha. It also shares the broad, full lips of the Dvaravati style, including the use of an inscribed outline for emphasis, but overall it has the more naturalistic and softly rounded sculpting of the Pagan style. Page 5

6 Chapter 3 : Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka Open Library Foreword / Jane Baker --Acknowledgements / John Listopad --The art lover as collector / Victoria Chan-Palay --Reflections in a mirror / Michael Phillips --Images of Sri Lanka --The cult of relics / John Listopad --The cult of the Buddha image / John Listopad --The art of Sri Lanka: the historical context / John Listopad --Buddha images of the. This study considers how statues of the Buddha evolved in Thailand, focusing on the Sukhothai period CE, during which a distinctly Thai style developed; this style is still characteristic of Thailand today. The Sukhothai style primarily reflects features of the Pala, Sri Lankan, Pagan, and Lan Na styles, yet contains new stylistic innovations and a refinement over the four successive schools that were subsequently lost in later Thai Buddhist styles. To analyze this evolution, first a conventional visual vocabulary approach is used, wherein 12 styles precursors, contemporaries, and successors of the Sukhothai style are described and summarized in a style matrix that highlights commonalities and differences. Then a novel application of digital blend-shape animation is adopted to assist in the visualization of differing styles and to better illustrate style evolution. Rather than comparing styles by shifting attention between sample images, the viewer can now appreciate style differences by watching one style metamorphose into another. Common stylistic features remain relatively unchanged and visually ignored, while differing features draw attention. While applied here to the study of Buddhist sculptures, this technique has other potential applications to art history, architecture, and graphic design generally. Southeast Asia, Southeast Asian art, Sukhothai Buddha, sculptural style, visual vocabulary, style analysis, digital animation, blend shapes Introduction As Buddhism spread outward from India to cover much of Asia, both the teachings of Buddhism and the religious art evolved. The central artistic focus in traditional Buddhist practice is a statue that represents the Buddha, the historical figure of Siddhartha Gautama of the sixth to fifth century BCE. This paper focuses on the evolution of the Buddha statue in the Sukhothai period CE, during which a distinct style developed; this style is still characteristic of Thailand today see Fig. This style was not the first, nor the last, distinctly Thai artistic style, but it remains the most important: A remarkable image, which combines Thai ethnic features with yogic tranquility and inner power Like organic forms that evolve over time, an artistic style can be viewed as undergoing an evolution from its precursors, with moments of innovation and periods of stability. Unlike living organisms that evolve from a single precursor organism, artistic style often evolves by blending multiple precursor styles. In a sense, the successor style has the opportunity to borrow features or traits selectively from multiple parents, along with incorporating new features. Conventionally, artistic style is analyzed through a written discourse with reference to illustrations of representative examples e. Differing styles are then compared by a differential analysis. However, an appreciation for these differences requires the reader s visual imagination, and this is particularly challenging when analyzing style changes over time, wherein the reader must construct, from the chronological sequence of images, a sense for both the style and how it evolved. In analyzing Buddha statues, it is conventional to start with the Buddhist iconogra- 3 Visualizing the Evolution of the Sukhothai Buddha phy that is conveyed by, for example, the pose of the hands; the direction of gaze; and traditional elements of the head and face, including the presence of an ushnisha, the design of the finial e. Such a visual vocabulary has been used to broadly distinguish Buddha styles across cultures, such as Subhadradis s, 19 use of these phrases when comparing the Indian Pala style with the later Sukhothai style, or to make finer distinctions in the development of the Buddha style across periods within a given culture see Galloway, regarding the Burmese. When comparing two styles, it is common to supplement the written description with images, such as a photograph of a representative example of each style. The reader can then refer to these images, shifting gaze from one to the other to observe the prominent differences between the two. This task is not always easy, as the viewer must attend only to the differences in style and ignore differences in lighting, material composition, physical condition, size, camera perspective, and so forth. It would be preferable if all those irrelevant factors were removed and one could focus only on how the Buddha s form and style changed. The Page 6

7 central objective of this research is to explore a technique that allows one to visualize shape change without such distractions. Rather than static illustrations of reference material, digital animation is used to convey style differences. With this method, a viewer can appreciate style differences between two objects, A and B, not by shifting gaze from A to B but by watching A become B. As is traditional, this study begins with a written analysis using a conventional visual vocabulary. A determination of the stylistic features that were potentially contributed by each precursor style is assisted by organizing the descriptors in the form of a matrix of features versus styles. In combination with historical sources, some style features associated with the Sukhothai can be traced back to their origins in precursor styles. Other features can be presumed to be inventions of Sukhothai artists. The complex nature of art history, and the patchwork of borrowing versus invention, however, cannot be easily resolved. What becomes important, then, is visualizing the changes, as much of the stylistic difference is better appreciated visually than by words or tabulations. Overview of Cultures and Artistic Influences on the Sukhothai Style Ancient kingdoms and empires each had a region of influence or power centered in a city Kulke ; Thongchai The geographical arrangement of these city-states is an important starting point to understanding the Sukhothai Kingdom and the neighbors 4 Sawitree Wisetchat that influenced it. In addition to political power, there were foreign influences from trade from about the first century CE onward, which brought religions, culture, and artifacts to the indigenous people of the region Van Beek and Tettoni, 51; Gutman, The trade was either across sea and land from west to east, primarily from India through Burma to Thailand Gosling, 48, or along the coastlines and up the rivers. Indigenous peoples included the western-central Mon, who spread south down the Malay Peninsula and up the Chao Phraya River valley; the northern Tai, who derived from Chinese migrations from Yunnan Province; and the eastern Khmer Wyatt In terms of political and religious influences in the region of Sukhothai prior to the beginning of the kingdom, the first foreign influences were extremely early, such as the influence of the Mahayana culture of the Indian Gupta Empire CE on the Dvaravati Nandana, 19; Gosling, While Hinduism and Islam largely replaced Buddhism in India, Buddhism spread rapidly outside of India, and Gupta-style Buddha statues with highly abstract and simplified forms were important in conveying the spiritual message Fisher, 55 Theravada Buddhism spread primarily from the north and west, while Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism spread from the south and east Van Beek and Tettoni, 51; Nandana, 19 Along with the Buddhist religion and iconography, Sanskrit writing was also incorporated in subsequent centuries by the art and religion of the various Dvaravati city-states and Khmer kingdoms Brown, It is particularly difficult to separate the Sri Lankan contribution, because the monks who spread Theravada Buddhism traveled broadly for centuries and influenced not only the people across much of Thailand except the far eastern regions that were under the influence of the Khmer and Mahayana Buddhism but also inhabitants of Burma before the Pagan Empire CE ibid. Buddhist monks from lower Burma were also in contact with Haripunchai ibid. The Sukhothai Kingdom was centered in the city of Sukhothai, in north central Thailand. The Dvaravati, who were primarily Mon, practiced Theravada Buddhism. Artistically they displayed early Gupta influences Gosling, 56, 68 and then adopted the Khmer style as they increasingly came under the influence of the Khmer Empire by the tenth century and were finally conquered in the late twelfth 5 Visualizing the Evolution of the Sukhothai Buddha Fig. The Khmer-dominated Dvaravati cultures were geographically near the Sukhothai but less influential. The Sukhothai influenced the Lan Na and Ayutthaya cultures. The Khmer style continued to persist in Lopburi and surrounding regions well into the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as the U-Thong style Woodward, The city of Sukhothai was originally under Khmer influence, but it became independent in to form the Sukhothai Kingdom. When the Sukhothai Kingdom became independent, it was at the boundary between two very distinct cultures, the Khmer to the east and south, and the Dvaravati and Tai to the west and north. The Sukhothai Kingdom became allied with its neighbors to the northwest particular the Lan Na Kingdom and fought with its Khmer-influenced neighbors to the southeast Wyatt ; Stratton and Scott,. It grew into a broad band extending from the far northeast near Laos down to the Malay Peninsula. While they fought with the Pagan Empire to the north, the Sukhothai were followers of Theravada Buddhism and were closer culturally to Page 7

8 the Pagan Empire than to the Khmer cultures of Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism. The time line in Fig. Since the capital of the Sukhothai Kingdom was a city that had a long history of Khmer influence, one might expect Sukhothai art to reflect its Dvaravati or Khmer background. In fact, however, when the kingdom became independent, it shifted away from the Khmer style and adopted cultural influences from Sri Lanka 6 Sawitree Wisetchat Woodward, as well as the early Lan Na Kingdom ibid. A later, more direct, Burmese influence has also been traced to fourteenth-century visits by Sukhothai monks Gutman, The Lan Na influence continued throughout the Sukhothai period: During the 13th and 14th centuries AD, there occurred significant artistic interaction between Lan Na and Sukhothai, although the exact nature of this interaction has yet to be studied Van Beek and Tettoni, The Sukhothai style reached the apex of its glory during the second quarter of the fourteenth century through to the end of the kingdom in, when Sukhothai was incorporated into the kingdom of Ayutthaya Woodward, It is important to note, however, that rather than a single school of style, there were four schools General Group, Wat Trakuan, Kamphaengpet, and the Phra Phutta Chinnarat Group, each with its own distinct characteristics, during the Sukhothai period Fig. Subsequent to the Sukhothai era, the highly refined Sukhothai style was largely replaced by the U-Thong and Ayutthaya styles, which suggest a return to the Khmer style more than a continuation of the Sukhothai style. Artists who followed any one school of style created variations within it; hence, it is not possible to make absolute distinctions between any two styles. The Dvaravati style in e, with strong Khmer influences, however, was not incorporated into the Sukhothai style. Description of Buddhist Sculptures The Buddha is believed to have exhibited the physical characteristics of a great man. A listing of characteristics is described in the ancient writings of the Digha Nikaya, or Collection of Long Discourses, part of the Pali Canon or Tipitaka scriptures of Theravada Buddhism Shaw, The texts were known to Sri Lankan as well as Burmese monks and influenced Buddhist imagery and the early Thai aesthetic, especially the features of the Sukhothai style Woodward, 24, 25, as early as the fifth century CE Galloway, Among the many physical characteristics attributed to the Buddha, a few are relevant to the face: These and other descriptions of ideal form have been influential in Buddhist art since the Gupta period in India, but many variations can be found in specific styles. The iconographic features are present in some, but not all, subsequent Buddhist sculptural styles. For instance, the nose like a parrot s beak applies to the Sukhothai style but not to the U-Thong and Dvaravati styles. With the founding of Sukhothai in the midthirteenth century, a style emerges that is uniquely Thai Stratton and Scott, 67; Van Beek and Tettoni, 7. Arthur Griswold regards the Sukhothai as reshaped in accordance with their recollection of other things, including the descriptions from the Pali texts. Some sculptures show the eyes as downcast, and in others the eyes are opened and directed forward. The lips might form a smile or just assume a serene expression. Details of how the features were sculpted also vary. In some cases the eyebrows, lips, nose, and other facial features are depicted with natural amounts of curvature and relief, while in other cases the sculpting uses sharp creases and simplified, stylized curves. Many features of the statues in combination create a subtle impression of the gender of the statue. Buddha statues vary in the extent to which they appear masculine. Khmer and Dvaravati styles, for instance, have clearly powerful, masculine features, while the Sukhothai style is androgynous. An androgynous depiction of the Buddha de-emphasizes the male gender of the historic Buddha Stratton and Scott, 51,,, The eyebrows are a very important characteristic, with strongly sculpted double contours merged across the bridge of the nose. The crisp lines of the eyebrows are etched into the otherwise flat forehead. The overall facial proportions are broad, with moderately to distinctly masculine square jaws. The nose and chin are generally realistically depicted. A suggestion of a well-fed double chin is provided by lines around the neck. The lips are fleshy and vary from realistic to moderately sculpted, with outlined contours. The hair is Fig. Buddha offering protection, Sri Lanka, central plateau, late Anuradhapura-Polonnaruva period, tenth century. The hairline shows little evidence of a widow s peak. The eyes are generally cast downward, not directed forward. The Sri Lankan sculptures differ significantly from the Pala style in many respects. The topknot or ushnisha is often less prominent, but elaborate finials of various designs are added. The coils of hair vary from moderate to large, with generally Page 8

9 more distinct details. The Sri Lankan statues usually have a rounder face, and a longer and narrower nose with a sharp ridge. Like in the Pala style, the Sri Lankan forehead is narrow to moderately wide with only a suggestion of a widow s peak. Unlike the prominent double curve of the Pala eyebrow, the Sri Lankan eyebrows vary from only faintly outlined to sharply creased, and rather than terminate at the bridge of the nose, the curves sometimes merge smoothly with, and continue down, the long central ridge of the nose. Page 9

10 Chapter 4 : Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka ( edition) Open Library The widespread production of copper-alloy Buddha and Bodhisattva images in Sri Lanka was first seen in the beginning of the late Anuradhapura period (Listopad Listopad, J. "Buddha images of the early Anuradhapura period.". O Zagoramordji czytajcie np. Zeilan, Ceilan i Seylon oraz ang. Abu Rihan Muhammad bin Ahmad X w. Od tej nazwy, Horace Walpole, 4. Obywatel Sri Lanki to Lankijczyk, obywatelka to Lankijka. Ilankai, Javanese and Indonesian: Alengka or Ngalengka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the legendary king Ravana in the great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known as the Trikuta Mountains. The ancient City of Lankapura is thought to have been burnt down by Lord Hanuman. His descendants ruled the kingdom even during the period of the Pandavas. According to the epic, the Mahabharata, the Pandava Sahadeva had visited this kingdom during his southern military campaign for the Rajasuya sacrifice of Pandava king Yudhisthira. W Ramakien, tajskiej wersji eposu nazywany Tosakan, w jawajskiej Dasamuka [1]. Dambulla W polsko-katolickiej Wikipedii i na polskich oficjalnych stronach internetowych po polsku tylko tyle: Major attractions of the area include the largest and best preserved cave temple complex of Sri Lanka, and the Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium, famous for being built in just days. The area also boasts to have the largest rose quartz mountain range in South Asia, and the Iron wood forest, or Namal Uyana. Ibbankatuwa prehistoric burial site near Dhambulla cave temple complexes is the latest archaeological site of significant historical importance found in Dambulla, which is located within 3 kilometers of the cave temples providing evidence on presence of indigenous civilisations long before the arrival of Indian influence on the Island nation. The area is thought to be inhabited from as early as the 7th to 3rd century BC. Statues and paintings in these caves date back to the 1st century BC. But the paintings and statues were repaired and repainted in 11th, 12th, and 18th century AD. The caves in the city provided refuge to King Valagamba also called Vattagamini Abhaya in his 14 year long exile from the Anuradapura kingdom. Buddhist monks meditating in the caves of Dambulla at that time provided the exiled king protection from his enemies. When King Valagamba returned to the throne at Anuradapura kingdom in the 1st century BC, he had a magnificent rock temple built at Dambulla as a gratitude to the monks in Dambulla. Ibbankatuwa Prehistoric burial site near Dhambulla, where prehistoric years old human skeletons were found according to scientific analysis gives evidence on civilisations in this area long before arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Evidence of ancient people living on agriculture have been detected in this area for over years according to archaeological findings. Dambulla cave temple Main article: Dambulla cave temple It is the largest and best preserved cave temple complex in Sri Lanka. The rock towers m over the surrounding plains. There are more than 80 documented caves in the surrounding. Major attractions are spread over 5 caves, which contain statues and paintings. This paintings and statues are related to Lord Buddha and his life. There are a total of Buddha statues, 3 statues of srilankan kings and 4 statues of god and goddess. The latter 4 include two statues of Hindu gods, Vishnu and Ganesh. Time line of the Caves 7th to 3rd century BC: Early inhabitants 1st century BC: Paintings and statues 5th century AD: The stupa was built 12th century AD: Addition of the statues of Hindu gods 18th century AD: Most of what we see today 19th century AD: An additional cave and some repainting 20th century AD: Dambulla Rock Temple Dambulla from: It has five caves under a vast overhanging rock, carved with a drip line to keep the interiors dry. In the architecture was embellished with arched colonnades and gabled entrances. Inside the caves, the ceilings are painted with intricate patterns of religious images following the contours of the rock. There are images of the Lord Buddha and bodhisattvas, as well as various gods and goddesses. The temple is composed of five caves, which have been converted into shrine rooms. The caves, built at the base of a m high rock during the Anuradhapura 1st Century BC to AD and Polonnaruwa times to, are by far the most impressive of the many cave temples found in Sri Lanka. Access is along the gentle slope of the Dambulla Rock, offering a panoramic view of the surrounding flat lands, which includes the rock fortress Sigiriya, Page 10

11 19kms away. Families of friendly monkeys make the climb even more interesting. Dusk brings hundreds of swooping swallows to the cave entrance. The largest cave measures about 52m from east to west, and 23m from the entrance to the back, this spectacular cave is 7m tall at its highest point. These statues and paintings are representative of many epochs of Sinhala sculpture and art. The Buddha statues are in varying sizes and attitudes â the largest is 15 metres long. One cave has over 1, paintings of Buddha covering the ceiling. The Dambulla cave monastery is still functional and remains the best-preserved ancient edifice in Sri Lanka. This complex dates from the 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC, when it was already established as one of the largest and most important monasteries. King Walagambahu is traditionally thought to have converted the caves into a temple in the 1st century BC. Exiled from Anuradhapura, he sought refuge here from South Indian usurpers for 15 years. After reclaiming his capital, the King built a temple in thankful worship. Many other kings added to it later and by the 11th century, the caves had become a major religious centre and still are. King Nissanka Malla gilded the caves and added about 70 Buddha statues in During the 18th century, the caves were restored and painted by the Kandyan Kings. This cave is dominated by the meter statue of the Buddha, hewn out of the rock. It has been repainted countless times in the course of its history, and probably received its last coat of paint in the 20th century. In the second and largest cave, in addition to 16 standing and 40 seated statues of Buddha, are the gods Saman and Vishnu, which pilgrims often decorate with garlands, and finally statues of King Vattagamani, who honored the monastery in the first century B. There is also a dagoba and a spring which drips its water, said to have healing powers, out of a crack in the ceiling. In addition to the 50 Buddha statues, there is also a statue of the king. The fourth and fifth caves are smaller; they date from a later period and are not of such high quality. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings frescos,[1] which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees of the Buddhist Sangha. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Cambridge, Sigiri Graffiti and also Story of Sigiriya. It stands high above the surrounding plain, visible for miles in all directions. The rock rests on a steep mound that rises abruptly from the flat plain surrounding it. It is elliptical in plan and has a flat top that slopes gradually along the long axis of the ellipse. Fearing an attack from Moggallana, Kashyapa moved the capital and his residence from the traditional capital of Anuradhapura to the more secure Sigiriya. Most of the elaborate constructions on the rock summit and around it, including defensive structures, palaces, and gardens, date back to this period. Kashyapa was defeated in by Moggallana, who moved the capital again to Anuradhapura. Sigiriya was then turned back into a Buddhist monastery, which lasted until the 13th or 14th century. After this period, no records are found on Sigiriya until the 16th and 17th centuries, when it was used as an outpost of the Kingdom of Kandy. When the kingdom ended, it was abandoned again. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kashyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered to be rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kashyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kashyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. It is said that being too proud to surrender he took his dagger from his waistband, cut his throat, raised the dagger proudly, sheathed it, and fell dead. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex. Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kashyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kashyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine; in others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. This site may have been important in the competition between the Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist traditions in ancient Sri Lanka. The earliest evidence of human habitation at Sigiriya was found from the Aligala rock Page 11

12 shelter to the east of Sigiriya rock, indicating that the area was occupied nearly five thousand years ago during the Mesolithic Period. Buddhist monastic settlements were established in the western and northern slopes of the boulder-strewn hills surrounding the Sigiriya rock, during the 3rd century BC. Several rock shelters or caves were created during this period. These shelters were made under large boulders, with carved drip ledges around the cave mouths. Rock inscriptions are carved near the drip ledges on many of the shelters, recording the donation of the shelters to the Buddhist monastic order as residences. These were made within the period between the 3rd century BC and the 1st century CE. Archaeological work at Sigiriya began on a small scale in the s. Bell was the first archaeologist to conduct extensive research on Sigiriya. Page 12

13 Chapter 5 : CSEAS Journal, Southeast Asian Studies View all references) who sets out the following four major developmental periods of Late Anuradhapura (ca AD), Polonnaruva (late 10th to early 13th century), Divided Kingdoms (13th to. Conversion to Buddhism According to Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka by a mission sent out from eastern India during the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka c. Mahendra and his colleagues traveled to the Mihintale hill the site of some of the earliest inscriptions, 8 miles 13 km from Anuradhapura. There they chanced to meet the Sinhalese king Tissa, to whom they delivered a sermon on Buddhism. The king was brought into the Buddhist fold, and he invited Mahendra and his followers to the city. The missionaries were settled in a royal pavilion in the city park of Mahamegha, where they preached first to members of the royal family and then to the common people. Many embraced the new religion, some taking holy orders and joining the Buddhist sangha community of monks. The king donated the Mahamegha park to the sangha. Meanwhile, the monastery of Mahavihara was established, and it became the prime centre of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Mahendra sent for his sister Sanghamitta, who arrived with a branch of the Bo tree at Bodh Gaya, under which the Buddha had attained enlightenment. The sapling was ceremonially planted in the city. Sanghamitta founded an order of nuns, and a stupa shrine, the Thuparamacetiya, was built by the king for popular worship. Thus, with the founding of these and other institutions, Buddhism became an established religion in Sri Lanka. Through the conversion of King Tissa and the missionary activity of monks in the villages, by the 2nd century bce the Sinhalese had accepted Buddhism, and this faith helped produce a unity and consciousness on which subsequent political and economic strength was founded. However, it should be recognized that while the monastic chronicles accord the pride of place to Buddhism, other religions also were practiced on the island. Jainism, for instance, probably represented another major religious tradition, and a Jain monastery is mentioned in the Mahavamsa. The chronicle also indicates the presence of Brahmans â Hindus of the highest social rankâ in Sri Lanka. Early growth and political centralization, c. The ruler of Anuradhapura, Duttagamani Abhaya reigned â bce, was preeminent among these chiefs, and, as Buddhism spread, the Anuradhapura kingdom extended its political control over the rest of Sri Lanka. The Anuradhapura period The Vijaya dynasty of kings continued, with brief interruptions, until 65 ce, when Vasabha, a member of the Lambakanna royal family, founded the Lambakanna dynasty. The Lambakannas ruled for about four centuries. Their most noteworthy king was Mahasena reigned â, who constructed many major irrigation systems and championed heterodox Buddhist sects. A stupa of the ancient Abhayagiri shrine, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, c. Dhatusena reigned â defeated the Pandyas and reestablished Sinhalese rule with the line of Moriya kings. His son Kashyapa I reigned â moved the capital from Anuradhapura to the rock fortress of Sigiriya. Painted figure of a celestial dancer apsara, Sigiriya, Sri Lanka, 6th century. Manavamma, a Sinhalese royal fugitive, was placed on the throne in with the support of the Pallava rulers of south India. Manavamma founded the second Lambakanna dynasty, which reigned in Anuradhapura for about years. The dynasty produced a number of distinguished kings, who consolidated and extended Sinhalese political power. During this period, Sinhalese involvement with southern India was even closer. Sinhalese kings were drawn into the dynastic battles between the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Colas. Invasions from south India to Sri Lanka and retaliatory raids were a recurrent phenomenon. The conquest was completed in, when the Colas seized the southern province of Ruhuna. The Polonnaruwa period The Colas occupied Sri Lanka until, when Vijayabahu liberated the island and reestablished Sinhalese power. He shifted the capital eastward to Polonnaruwa, a city that was easier to defend against south Indian attacks and that controlled the route to Ruhuna. The capital remained there for some years. The most colourful king of the Polonnaruwa period was Parakramabahu I reigned â 86, under whom the kingdom enjoyed its greatest prosperity. He followed a strong foreign policy, dispatching a punitive naval expedition to Myanmar Burma and sending the army to invade the Pandyan kingdom; however, these initiatives achieved no permanent success. After Parakramabahu Page 13