Oxford Art Online. Rome, V, 14: Vatican. Rome, V, 14: Vatican. 14. Vatican. Grove Art Online

Transcription

1 Page 1 of 26 Oxford Art Online Grove Art Online Rome, V, 14: Vatican article url: Rome, V, 14: Vatican 14. Vatican. The Vatican City, covering an area of less than half a square kilometre, was created an independent sovereign state under the terms of the Lateran Treaty of Surrounded by a high wall, it includes St Peter s Basilica, with its piazza by Bernini, and the Vatican Palace and gardens, official residence of the pope and administrative centre of the state. Within the Vatican Palace are the world famous Vatican museums. St Peter s Basilica, the most important church of Catholic Christendom, traditionally was first consecrated on 18 November AD 326, built above the tomb of the Apostle Peter. Lavishly decorated with frescoes, mosaics and papal monuments, it drew religious pilgrims from across Europe and was the site of the crowning of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Leo III. The structural deterioration of Old St Peter s became a matter of urgency in the 15th century, and Nicholas V decided it would be rebuilt. Work was sporadic, however, until the reign of Julius II, under whom Bramante began dismantling (and greatly destroying) the old church in Succeeding popes and the artists they employed to continue work on the church proposed conflicting designs (Greek cross vs Latin cross), until in 1546 Michelangelo was summoned by Paul III; he decided to return to Bramante s original Greek-cross plan (see fig. below), with daring modifications; nevertheless, in 1605 Paul V ordered that the nave be lengthened toward the Piazza S Pietro, ensuring that when the church was finally consecrated on 18 November 1626, it was in the form of a Latin cross. The Vatican Palace began as a house built beside Old St Peter s, used for State occasions (e.g. by Charlemagne in 800) but not as the papal residence, which was the Lateran Palace. Repaired and restored by numerous popes, it became the residence of the pope under Gregory XI in 1378, on his return from Avignon. The house began its transformation into a palace in the 12th century and was complete by the papacy of Nicholas V in the mid-15th century, with additions by succeeding popes: Sixtus IV rebuilt the Sistine Chapel (1477 c. 1480); Alexander VI had the Appartamento Borgia decorated and added the Torre Borgia (late 15th century); Julius II began the formation of the Vatican s world-renowned collection of Classical sculpture in the early 16th century, exhibiting it in the Cortile del Statue leading to the Belvedere, now the Museo Pio-Clementino; and Leo X erected the Raphael loggia. The Vatican Palace houses some of the greatest museums in the world, including those devoted to antiquities, mostly sculpture (the Museo Gregoriano Egizio and Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, the Museo Chiaramonti and the Museo Pio-Clementino, for example); the collections of the Lateran are housed in the Museo Gregoriano Profano (opened 1970). Renaissance works can be seen in the Galleria degli Arazzi (tapestries), the Raphael stanze and loggia, the Appartamento Borgia and the Sistine Chapel; the Pinacoteca Vaticana contains paintings from the medieval and Renaissance periods. Other museums are devoted to Early Christian artefacts (mostly from the catacombs), papal

2 Page 2 of 26 artefacts and ethnographical collections. For further discussion of the development of the Vatican museums see DISPLAY OF ART, III, 2 AND 3(I)(A). (i) Old St Peter s. In AD 64 the Apostle Peter was buried on the north-west side of the Circus of Caligula and Nero, where there was already a cemetery. Owing to the circumstances of his death by crucifixion, St Peter s first burial-place would have been an earth tomb. Among the earliest sources, the late 2ndcentury presbyter Gaius, quoted by Eusebios of Caesarea in the Ecclesiastical History (early 4th century), gives an account based on direct knowledge of the tropaea, or glorious burial-places, of both SS Peter and Paul (the latter now covered by S Paolo fuori le Mura). The exact locations must have been known in the early 4th century, when the emperor Constantine decided to build basilicas directly over the sites of their tombs (see EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ART, II, 2(I)(A)). The basilicas were to be martyria, sanctuaries that enclosed the original burial-places and the Apostles remains. Excavations in the grottoes beneath the present basilica of St Peter have confirmed the existence of a tomb early associated with the saint in a pagan Christian necropolis. The tropaeum has been identified as a tabernacle composed of two superimposed niches, with, below them, a trench leading to the tomb itself. The lower niche survives in the present crypt of St Peter s, in the so -called Niche of the Pallium. During the 3rd century two walls were added north and south of it, the northern one bearing graffiti invoking St Peter. The basilica was built between c. 324 and to provide a monumental superstructure for the memorial to the apostle and to encourage the practice of his cult. To accommodate the new building, it was necessary to bury the necropolis and to cut into the hillside to the north, with containing walls on the valley side. (a) Architecture. Although elements remain hypothetical, the appearance of Constantine s basilica can be reconstructed through documentary, archaeological, literary and graphic evidence, in particular the plans drawn up by Bramante (see BRAMANTE, DONATO, I, 3(II)(B)) and Tiberio Alfarano ( fl ) and the drawings of Domenico Tasselli ( fl c. 1610) and Giacomo Grimaldi. Owing to the difficulties of the site, the church was occidented. It had a nave with four aisles, divided by rows of twenty-two reused ancient columns supporting a richly decorated architrave; the nave and each pair of aisles were separately roofed in timber, the nave being particularly well lit, with windows in the façade as well as in the side walls. There was a continuous transept at the west end, internally divided into three by colonnades, and terminating to north and south in projecting exedrae that were lower than the transept itself. The aisles ended in pairs of trabeated columns, but the nave opened to the transept through a triumphal arch. The building terminated to the west in a semicircular apse and to the east with the narthex. The façade was fronted by an atrium ( parodisus), the entrance to which was approached by a flight of steps leading directly from the square in front of the church. Certainly by the 4th century a fountain stood in the centre of the atrium, with the pigna, the bronze pine-cone, crowned by an elegant canopy (Rome, Vatican, Cortile Pigna), all made of ancient materials. The focal-point of the building was the memorial of the Apostle. The tropaeum was encased in a tabernacle in the form of a parallelepiped covered with slabs of Phrygian marble alternated with bands of porphyry. A small door or metal railings fixed to the front allowed worshippers to catch a glimpse of the tomb and to lower into it small pieces of cloth or other objects that, through contact with the tomb, would themselves become relics. A bronze canopy placed above the tomb was supported by spiral columns that were brought by Constantine from Greece; these survive in the niches cut into the piers of the present dome. The building was probably not finished until after Constantine s death in AD 337. Owing to its historical importance, it was frequently modified to suit changes in the cult and in aesthetic taste over the years, culminating in the rebuilding from 1506 (see (II)(A) below). Alterations were made

3 Page 3 of 26 throughout the Middle Ages. Pope Leo I decorated the façade; Symmachus (reg ) built two reception halls next to the entrance steps. Over the centuries mausolea and other buildings were erected around the basilica; two early mausolea were converted to chapels dedicated to St Andrew ( ) and St Petronilla (c. 757). Stephen II (reg 752 7) built the first bell-tower. Inside, the most significant change was made by the future Pope Gregory I, who constructed a confessio crypt around the saint s tomb (see Crypt, fig.) and fixed the main altar directly over the shrine. Both interior and exterior were redecorated during the 13th century (see (B) below). Despite the modifications, however, Constantine s building maintained its structural integrity until the end of the Middle Ages. During the 15th century a new building was urgently needed, and Nicholas V, perhaps with the Holy Year of 1450 in mind, initiated plans to rebuild the church. Once the necessary emergency measures had been taken, Bramante began to demolish the old building in 1506, under Julius II. The last traces were cleared in 1608, when Carlo Maderno began the new façade. Unpublished sources Rome, Vatican, Bib. Apostolica, Archv Capitolare S Pietro, fols 10 13, 17 [drawings by Tasselli] (c. 1605) Bibliography Eusebios of Caesarea: Ecclesiastical History (early 4th century); Eng. trans., ed. K. Lake, J. E. L. Oulton and H. J. Lawlor (London, ), i, p. 182 T. Alfarano: De Basilicae Vaticanae antiquissima et nova structura (c ); ed. M. Cerrati (Rome, 1914) G. Grimaldi: Descrizione della basilica antica di S Pietro in Vaticano (1613; Rome, Vatican, Bib. Apostolica, MS. Barb. Lat. 2733); ed. R. Niggl (Rome, 1972) Liber Pontificalis, 3 vols (Paris, ) [i ii, ed. L. Duchesne ( /R 1955); iii, ed. C. Vogel (1957)] J. P. Kirsch: Beiträge zur Baugeschichte der alten Peterkirche, Röm. Qschr., ii (1890), pp M. Armellini: Le chiese di Roma dal secolo IV al XIX, ed. C. Cecchelli, 2 vols (Rome, 1942) F. W. Deichmann: Frühchristliche Kirchen in Rom (Basle, 1948) B. M. Apollonj-Ghetti and others: Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di San Pietro in Vaticano eseguite negli anni (Rome, 1951) G. H. Forsyth jr: The Transept of Old St Peter s at Rome, Late Classical and Medieval Studies in Honor of A. Mathias Friend, Jr (Princeton, 1955), pp J. Toynbee and J. Ward-Perkins: The Shrine of St Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London, New York and Toronto, 1956) G. Matthiae: Le chiese di Roma dal IV al X secolo (Bologna, 1962) J. Christern: Der Aufriss von Alt-St Peter, Röm. Qschr., lxii (1967), pp

4 Page 4 of 26 G. Bovini: Edifici cristiani di culto d età constantiniana a Roma (Bologna, 1968) J. Christern and K. Thiersch: Der Aufriss von Alt-St Peter, Röm. Qschr., lxiv (1969), pp J. C. Picard: Le Quadriportique de Saint-Pierre-du-Vatican, Mél. Archéol. & Hist.: Ecole Fr. Rome, lxxxvi/1 (1974), pp H. Geertmann: More veterum : Il Liber Pontificalis e gli edifici ecclesiastici di Roma nella tarda antichità e nell alto medioevo (Groningen, 1975) R. Krautheimer and others: Corpus basilicarum christianarum Romae, v (Rome, 1977) [with early sources] R. Krautheimer: Rome: Profile of a City, (Princeton, 1980) S. de Blaauw: Cultus et decor (Slochteren, 1987) A. Arbeiter: Alt-St Peter in Geschichte und Wissenschaft: Abfolge der Bauten, Rekonstruktion, Architekturprogramm (Berlin, 1988) C. Pietrangeli, ed.: La basilica di San Pietro (Florence, 1989) Mario D Onofrio (b) Decoration. The chief source of information on the decoration of Old St Peter s is the manuscript prepared by the archivist Giacomo Grimaldi (1613; Rome, Vatican, Bib. Apostolica, MS. Barb. Lat. 2733). This records the state of the old basilica at a time when the west end had already been demolished and the decision had been made to tear down what remained. Much of the dating evidence is based on inscriptions that no longer survive (De Rossi, ). The decoration of the original apse, almost 18 m wide and 10 m deep, was attested by an inscription referring to the completion of the basilica by Constantine and his son. Depending on which son is intended, this dates the original mosaic to between AD 337 (death of Constantine) and It was restored by Pope Severinus (reg 640) and completely remade by Innocent III in the early 13th century. The state of this mosaic in 1592 was recorded in a drawing (Rome, Vatican, Bib. Apostolica, Archv Capitolare S Pietro, Album, fol. 50) made by Grimaldi for Clement VIII. It shows a composition arranged in two registers. Above was Christ Enthroned, his right hand raised in blessing and his left supporting a closed book resting on his thigh. He was flanked by standing figures of St Paul (left) and St Peter (right), both identified by inscriptions in Latin and Greek, and by texts on the scrolls each held in his left hand. At the top of the composition was the Hand of God. The figures were set against a starry sky, in a landscape with animals, rustic scenes and small architectural structures, bounded at left and right by two large trees. In the centre of the foreground was depicted a hill from which issued the four rivers of Paradise, with stags drinking from them. The division between the upper and lower zones was marked by the course of the rivers, joining in pairs and flowing to left and right. In the lower zone, flanking a throne occupied by the Lamb and the Cross, were the figures of Innocent III (left) and Ecclesia Romana (head in Rome, Mus. Baracco); Ecclesia Romana was shown holding a book and a banner charged with two keys. Behind the Pope

5 Page 5 of 26 and Ecclesia were two rows of six lambs each, issuing from the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Two further fragments of mosaic survive in the chapel of the Palazzo dei Conti, Poli, Lazio. How far the 13th-century mosaic conserved the composition of the 4th-century original is a matter of dispute. Similar scenes appear on the 5th-century Pula Casket (Venice, Mus. Archeol.), which also depicts the Constantinian shrine of St Peter. On the other hand, it has been suggested that the original subject was a traditio legis, and that the 12th-century fresco in S Silvestro, Tivoli, may have been modelled on this. According to a description by Cardinal Domenico Jacobazzi (c ), which would have been written shortly before 1525, the triumphal arch of the Constantinian basilica (through which the nave joined the transept) once contained a mosaic showing Constantine Offering the Church to Christ and St Peter. Matthiae (1967) has suggested that an existing fragment showing the head of St Peter (Rome, Grotte Vaticane) may have come from this composition. Discussions on the date of installation of the triumphal arch mosaic have turned on the style of this fragment. While Matthiae assigned it to the original scheme, other scholars have placed it in the mid-5th-century pontificate of Leo I. Below the clerestory windows of the nave were two cycles of biblical frescoes: 44 Old Testament subjects in panels on the north wall and 41 New Testament scenes on the south. The difference in numbers is explained by the size of the Crucifixion fresco, which occupied four panels in the centre of the south wall. These were recorded by Grimaldi, who dated them to the time of Formosus (reg 891 6), although they have also been assigned to the pontificate of Leo I on the basis of comparisons with the cycle (destr. 1823) from S Paolo fuori le Mura. Between the clerestory windows on the north wall were pairs of standing figures described as prophets by Grimaldi, although one was certainly drawn as an angel. The series continued between the upper windows of the east wall, level with the nave clerestory, where Grimaldi recorded four more standing figures, one accompanied by a kneeling pope, presumably Formosus. At the level of the lower windows of this wall were shown the Four Evangelists, seated writing. In two registers below the painted panels on each side wall and the east entrance wall were medallions showing popes. The upper series dated from the papacy of Formosus, the lower from that of Nicholas III (reg ). Pope John VII (reg 705 7) built an oratory dedicated to the Virgin at the east end of the north outer aisle. This was originally decorated with at least two cycles of mosaics, each arranged in three registers. One showed seven episodes from the Life of St Peter, and the other thirteen scenes of the Incarnation and Life of Christ arranged around an orant Virgin with a figure of the Pope presenting the oratory. Their style suggests that Byzantine artists worked on the scheme, though little of these scenes survived the demolition of the chapel in 1606: the largest fragment is the Adoration of the Magi now in S Maria in Cosmedin, Rome (further fragments in Florence, S Marco; Orte, Mus. Dioc. A. Sacra). The exterior façade mosaic was dated by an inscription to the papacy of Leo I and consisted originally of a bust of Christ at the apex, flanked by the Four Evangelist Symbols, two on either side, with the Twenty-four Elders of the Apocalypse in a register below, arranged in six groups of four. The bust of Christ was later replaced with an Agnus Dei, probably by Sergius I (reg ), and this was the state recorded in an 11th-century drawing in a manuscript from Farfa (Eton, Berks, Coll. Lib., MS. 124, fol. 122). The façade underwent a major restoration under Gregory IX (reg ), when the Agnus Dei was replaced by Christ Enthroned flanked by two standing saints and a kneeling pope, presumably Gregory himself. The Four Evangelist Symbols also occupied the top register as before, although their order was changed. The upper window register showed figures of the Evangelists; on the lower window level were the Apostles, the two in the centre offering crowns, and the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem.

6 Page 6 of 26 Grimaldi recorded and reproduced two further works of importance in the atrium of the basilica. Of Giotto s Navicella mosaic of c. 1310, only two angels survive (Boville Ernica, nr Frosinone, S Pietro Ispano; Rome, Grotte Vaticane); the mosaic within the portico of St Peter s is a poor copy. There were also fresco cycles of the Lives and Legends of SS Peter and Paul: two fragments showing the heads of the two saints from the Dream of Constantine are now in the Vatican and have been attributed (Hueck) to the artist of the frescoes in the east gallery of the north transept of the Upper Church of St Francis at Assisi, normally dated Bibliography G. B. De Rossi: Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae septimo saeculo antiquiores, 2 vols (Rome, , 2/1915) G. B. De Rossi: Mosaici christiani: Saggi dei pavimenti delle chiese di Roma anteriori al secolo XV (Rome, ) S. Bettini: Pitture delle origini cristiane (Novara, 1942) G. Matthiae: Mosaici medioevali delle chiese di Roma (Rome, 1967) T. C. Bannister: The Constantinian Basilica of St Peter at Rome, J. Soc. Archit. Hist., xxvi/1 (1968), pp I. Hueck: Der Maler des Apostelszenen im Atrium von Alt-St. Peter, Mitt. Ksthist. Inst. Florenz, xiv/2 (1969), pp G. Bovini: Mosaici paleocristiani di Roma (Bologna, 1971) Ronald Baxter (ii) St Peter s. (a) Architecture. Before When, after the return from Avignon, the Vatican became the papal residence (see (III) below), St Peter s acquired the character of a palace church. The building was in urgent need of renovation, owing to the imminent Holy Year (1450), lack of space and deterioration of the structure. NICHOLAS V, probably with the collaboration of Leon Battista Alberti, included St Peter s in his building projects for the whole city, envisaging a reorganized piazza in front of the church, with the Vatican obelisk on the central axis, and an extension of the basilica to the west. An extended transept with squared ends was to be built to the west of the old nave and aisles, the nave width serving as the module for the square of the crossing; this dimension also consequently applied to the long, apsidal-ended arm of the choir. The tomb of St Peter would have lain under the domed crossing. Thus the numerous clergy could be located in the choir and the streams of pilgrims granted better access to the grave site. The extension was conceived in the manner of ancient bath buildings. These provided the model for the columns that, at least in the transept, articulate the massive wall and carry the groin vaults; barrel vaulting was envisaged for the choir. The mighty extension would have stood in

7 Page 7 of 26 extreme contrast, in both dimensions and structure, to the fragile nave and aisles of the Early Christian basilica, which presumably was also meant to be replaced by a monumental vaulted structure. Work began in 1452 under Bernardo Rossellino (see ROSSELLINO, (1), 2). It continued until the Pope s death in 1455 and was briefly resumed under Paul II; only the choir foundations were executed. Nevertheless, Nicholas s project remained important as the first attempt in post-medieval Rome to build a large-scale building based explicitly on Classical architecture and intended to compete with older, ambitious ecclesiastical buildings in Milan, Bologna and Florence. Apart from the general effect on Roman church architecture, certain elements of the planning and the foundation walls had a lasting influence on the subsequent building history of St Peter s The project was resumed by Julius II in connection with his tomb (see ROVERE, DELLA (I), (2)). Bramante was hired to begin a radical reconstruction (see BRAMANTE, DONATO, I, 3(II)(B)), and intensive planning by Bramante, Giuliano da Sangallo and Fra Giovanni Giocondo preceded the laying of the foundation stone on 18 April Bramante s first design unique in its inventiveness envisaged a centralized building erected on a Greek-cross plan, with a dominating main dome and four subsidiary ones (Florence, Uffizi, 1A). The completely symmetrical plan is inscribed within a square, the angles of which are accentuated by corner towers. Only the apsidal ends of the cross arms, squared externally with masonry, project beyond them. The mass of the wall, articulated by pilasters, seems to have been extensively hollowed out by a series of niches. An important innovation was the extension of the dome area into the cross arms by bevelling the piers towards the centre. The design was developed into a structurally realizable second draft (Florence, Uffizi, 20A) after further planning (Florence, Uffizi, 7945A) and criticism by Giuliano da Sangallo (Florence, Uffizi, 8A). This second design again envisaged a centrally disposed group of main and subsidiary domes; but the building was extended by spacious ambulatories round the choir and transepts and a nave and aisles towards the east. The change of plan from a centralized to a longitudinal building therefore must have been made by Bramante himself before the foundation stone was laid. Eventually only the piers (much reduced) and arches of the dome were completed, along with the choir; this element was erected above Nicholas V s foundations at the request of Julius, who wanted to place his tomb in it. The choir as built could not, however, be integrated structurally with further plans for the church, and from 1585 to 1587 it was demolished in favour of Michelangelo s project (see below). Preliminary studies and views show that the main elevation, under the influence of such ancient precursors as the Pantheon and the Basilica of Maxentius (see 8 AND 11 above), was articulated by enormous semicircular windows, which were to be framed by colonnades bearing an entablature. The uncanonical external articulation with Doric pilasters resulted from the existing wall projections of the earlier choir foundations; in consequence, the layout of the triglyphs was idiosyncratic and unclassical. The interior was decorated with Corinthian pilasters on the model of the Pantheon. The coffered barrel vaulting (1514) was interrupted by window penetrations, and the apse terminated by a shell calotte. It is uncertain how Bramante s scheme for the longitudinal extension of the nave and aisles was to be completed. Frommel (1976 and 1977) suggested that Bramante produced a reduced plan in 1506 for the financially hard-pressed Pope of transepts without ambulatories, as in the choir, and an aisled nave of three bays. When Fra Giocondo and Sangallo joined Bramante after Julius s death in 1513, under Leo X, the three men extended the plan to include a double-aisled nave with side chapels and ambulatories round the transepts. Metternich and Thoenes (1987), however, argued that this largescale project (Florence, Uffizi, 7A and 9A; Rome, Vatican, Bib. Apostolica, MS. Barb. Lat. 4424, fol. 64v) was envisaged by Bramante already in After Bramante s death in 1514, and on his recommendation, the young Raphael assumed overall charge of the project (see RAPHAEL, I, 2(II)), along with the experienced Fra Giocondo, and with

8 Page 8 of 26 Giuliano da Sangallo as second architect. Fra Giocondo added the southern sacristy to Bramante s choir fragment. Raphael, however, envisaged subsidiary domes at this point and proposed the demolition of Bramante s choir. Antonio da Sangallo (ii), trained on the site under Bramante, assisted Raphael from the departure of Fra Giocondo and Giuliano in Three stages may be reconstructed for Raphael s plan, which was closely related to Bramante s large-scale design, projecting a composite building with transept ambulatories and a five-bay nave and aisles. Alternatives mainly involved the nature of the façade and the articulation of the exterior. Here Raphael abandoned Bramante s giant pilasters in favour of small Doric half-columns alternating with small aediculae. From 1519 the south choir ambulatory and the pilaster articulation of the pier niches were built, together with the coffered barrel vaulting between the north-west dome pier and its counter-pier to the south-west. After Raphael s death in 1520, Antonio da Sangallo (see SANGALLO, (4)) assumed the supervision of the building works, with Baldassare Peruzzi as second architect. Sangallo criticized Raphael s scheme in the so-called Memoriale (see Giovannoni) and was asked for new plans. He eventually decided on a longitudinal building, but Peruzzi designed numerous variations on a centralized theme, among them a perspective sectional drawing (c. 1534; Florence, Uffizi, 2A) and the plan published by Sebastiano Serlio (Book IV). By starting the ambulatories from the main piers, he reverted to Bramante s original ideas. The most essential characteristic of Sangallo s richly varied alternative schemes is the substitution of a series of domes for the continuous barrel vault in the nave. The last substantial revision was prepared by Antonio in the form of a costly wooden model ( ; Rome, Vatican, Mus. Stor. A. Tesoro S Pietro). Many designs have survived from these years, but owing to the poor financial situation of the papacy and the Sack of Rome in 1527, very little was actually built. Nevertheless, the counter-piers with their pilaster decoration were erected in the south transept, and important, enduring interventions by Sangallo are represented by the closing up of the large pier niches and, in particular, the raising of the floor level by about 3.5 m. As a result of this the pedestals of the pilasters articulating the walls were omitted, and the delicate proportions of the entire building were impaired. Sangallo s wooden model took these alterations into account. It shows a centralized building once again barrel-vaulted over a Greek-cross plan with ambulatories, connected to the distant two-tower façade by a vaulted hall open at the sides, producing a clear directionality. A steeply raised drummed dome crowns the church. The exterior design envisaged, above the Doric order begun by Raphael, a fenestrated intermediate zone, closed off by an arcade of piers faced with Ionic half columns. This motif, derived from the Colosseum, continues in the twostorey drum zone. Although the articulation follows strictly Vitruvian rules, its intricate detail and innumerable pinnacle-like pyramids produce an almost Gothic effect. The appointment of Michelangelo after Sangallo s death in 1546 prevented this monstrosity from being executed (see MICHELANGELO, I, 4). His new design, as presented in the engravings (1569) by Etienne Dupérac, took the form of a centralized building over a Greek cross, in front of which was to be a ten-column portico façade with a pedimented, four-column central projection. Although the absence of ambulatories markedly diminished the extent of the building in plan, the powerful modelling of the exterior wall articulation, with a giant order of pilasters, endowed it with impressive clarity and grandeur. After the demolition (1548 9) of the south ambulatory already erected by Raphael and Antonio da Sangallo (ii), Michelangelo built the south cross-arm (1551 8), followed in the 1560s by the north arm. The external articulation of pairs of colossal Corinthian pilasters alternating with aediculae and smaller niches is in keeping with the structural system of the mass of the building, articulated by curves, chamfers and salient angles. Formally, it was inspired by Bramante s choir, which was still standing. The attic of the south arm was intended to be quite plain and thus divided the main body of the building optically from the dome. Only the windows of the apsidal calotte broke through the smoothly finished attic zone, reflecting outwards through their skewed reveal the coffered vault within, as shown in an anonymous engraving (1564; New York, Met.) published by Vincenzo Luchino ( fl ).

9 Page 9 of 26 From the outset, Michelangelo s drawings show his concern with the problem of the dome. His early designs are reminiscent of Brunelleschi s dome for Florence Cathedral (see fig.), but, as executed, the dome is very substantially articulated (wooden model, ; Rome, Vatican, Mus. Stor. A. Tesoro S Pietro). It has a cylindrical drum, articulated three-dimensionally by the alternation of windows and powerful buttresses faced with paired columns. Above them, volutes in the attic lead up to the double-shell dome, crowned by a lantern. Only the drum had been executed, as far as the entablature, by the time of Michelangelo s death in The inner shell of the dome was intended to be semicircular, the outer one slightly stilted. In 1564 Pirro Ligorio and Jacopo Vignola took over supervision. Although Pius IV instructed that Michelangelo s plans were to be carried out unaltered, controversy immediately arose. On his own initiative, Ligorio completed the attic articulated by pilasters and decorated niches, as it is seen today, and was hence demoted. By designing towering subsidiary domes not envisaged by Michelangelo, Vignola modified the paramount importance of the main dome, as shown by Dupérac. Vignola s successor, Giacomo della Porta, built the smaller domes above the Gregorian and Clementine chapels to his own designs (before 1585 and , respectively). Under his supervision, Bramante s choir was demolished to make way for the western arm of Michelangelo s plan. From 1588 to 1593, together with the engineer Domenico Fontana (see FONTANA (III), (2)), della Porta vaulted the dome, which he markedly stilted on the basis of Michelangelo s model. By raising the apex by some 8 m, he gave the inner shell an ovoid form (see PORTA, GIACOMO DELLA, 3). Compared to Michelangelo s broad dome, this created a much steeper effect for the outer shell. The dome of St Peter s, which dominates the cityscape (see BERNINI (2), FIG.), was widely emulated in Rome, and it was freely imitated in numerous ecclesiastical buildings in Europe. After After Michelangelo s dome had been vaulted, all that remained of his centralized building to be resolved was the problem of the façade. Michelangelo s free-standing portico did not meet the cardinals requirements for a winter choir chapel, sacristy and benediction loggia, which could be accommodated only by lengthening the church. The early designs (by, among others, Carlo Maderno, Giacomo della Porta and Lodovico Cigoli) anticipated the construction of Michelangelo s eastern apse, the retention of the centralized character of the interior and the addition of a spatially distinct fore-building with a narthex. Maderno, a nephew of Domenico Fontana (see FONTANA (IV), (2)), took over the supervision of the building in He built a three-bay, barrel-vaulted nave ( ) that engulfed the consecrated area of Old St Peter s, including part of the ancient atrium. The nave and aisles, flanked by a choir chapel and a sacrament chapel, open directly to Michelangelo s centralized structure, transforming the building into a composite structure. The aisles are vaulted with oval domes set lengthways. Both inside and out, Maderno, who saw himself as continuing Michelangelo s scheme, further carried on the latter s wall articulation. Nevertheless, Maderno s nave contrasts visually with the centralized building because of its slightly greater height and breadth and the rectangular lunettes at the base of the nave vault. The nave is fronted by a broad narthex with the benediction loggia (usable in 1611) in the upper storey. Originally the façade (see MADERNO, CARLO, 1) constituted the backdrop of a cour d honneur formed by two palatial wings, but the plan was radically modified: MARTINO FERRABOSCO and Giovanni Vasanzio (c ) planned two clock-towers, only one of which was built ( ; removed by Bernini in ). At Paul V s behest, bell-towers were built on Maderno s seven-bay façade in 1612; the façade was now widened by the tower substructures and was clearly beyond the line of the nave. Its projecting position also obstructed the view of the main and secondary domes, and it was hence much criticized. Resembling a combination of a palace and church façade, the design adopted Michelangelo s Pantheon-like colossal columns but developed them not as a free-standing portico but in relief; their three-dimensional quality increases from the sides (pilasters) to the centre (almost full columns). On the ground floor, following the model of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (see

10 Page 10 of 26 MICHELANGELO, I, 4), a minor order of Ionic columns flanks the three rectangular main entrances. Windows in the mezzanine above light the narthex vaulting. The façade is completed by the fenestrated upper storey with the benediction loggia. The tetrastyle central projection is crowned by a triangular pediment resembling a temple façade and is completed by the attic zone, adorned with colossal statues. The wings projected by Maderno at the ends of the façade but abandoned on Paul V s death were taken in hand by Bernini, who, after Maderno s death, took overall charge; his scheme, featuring two highly perforated three-storey towers, failed due to structural instability in 1646 (see BERNINI, (2), I, 3(I)). The existing crowns with clocks (1786) were designed by Giuseppe Valadier. Between 1656 and 1667 Bernini laid out the Piazza S Pietro, enclosed by colonnades to protect pilgrims from sun and rain, thereby definitively solving the problem of the forecourt, which had been discussed since the 15th century (see fig.; see also BERNINI, (2), I, 3(IV)). The broad, transverse oval piazza is linked to the trapezoidal forecourt of the church. This is flanked by two winged buildings that take the form of projecting arms. The porticos constitute a vaulted pilgrims way, with side colonnades of monumental coupled Doric columns. The piazza gently ascends towards the façade of the church; this has an independent monumentality that is underlined by the colonnades. The last architectural addition to the church was the sacristy ( ) built by CARLO MARCHIONNI on the south side, replacing the circular mausoleum (2nd century AD; destr. 18th century) known as S Maria della Febbre. Bibliography General M. Ferrabosco: Libro de l architettura di San Pietro nel Vaticano (Rome, 1620); ed. G. B. Costaguti (Rome, 1684) C. Fontana: Il tempio Vaticano e sua origine con gli edifici più conspicui antichi e moderni (Rome, 1694) H. von Geymüller: Die ursprünglichen Entwürfe für St. Peter in Rom, 2 vols (Paris, 1875) C. A. Jovanovits: Forschungen über den Bau der Peterskirche zu Rom (Vienna, 1877) P.-M. Letarouilly: Le Vatican et la basilique de Saint-Pierre de Rome, 2 vols (Paris, ; Eng. trans., London, 1963) K. Frey: Zur Baugeschichte des St. Peter: Mitteilungen aus der Reverendissima Fabbrica di S Pietro, Jb. Kön.-Preuss. Kstsamml., xxxi (1911), pp. 1 95; xxxiii (1913), pp ; xxxvii (1916), pp [suppl. vols] D. Frey: Bramantes St. Peter-Entwurf und seine Apokryphen (Vienna, 1915) O. Pollak: Ausgewählte Akten zur Geschichte der römischen Peterskirche, , Jb. Kön.-Preuss. Kstsamml., xxxvi (1915), pp [suppl.] T. Hofmann: Entstehungsgeschichte des St. Peter in Rom (Zittau an der Saale, 1928) T. Magnusson: Studies in Roman Quattrocento Architecture, Acta U. Upsaliensis: Figura, 9 (1958) [whole issue] C. Galassi-Paluzzi: S Pietro in Vaticano, Chiese di Roma, lxxiv lxxviii (Rome, 1963)

11 Page 11 of 26 C. Thoenes: Studien zur Geschichte des Petersplatzes, Z. Kstgesch., xxvi (1963), pp G. Urban: Zum Neubau-Projekt von St. Peter unter Papst Nikolaus V., Festschrift für Harald Keller (Darmstadt, 1963), pp F. Graf Wolff Metternich: Die Erbauung der Peterskirche zu Rom im 16. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1972) C. Galassi-Paluzzi: La basilica di S Pietro (Bologna, 1975) C. L. Frommel: Die Peterskirche unter Julius II. im Licht neuer Dokumente, Röm. Jb. Kstgesch., xvi (1976), pp F.-E. Keller: Zur Planung am Bau der römischen Peterskirche im Jahre , Jb. Berlin. Mus., xviii (1976), pp E. Francia: : Storia della costruzione del nuovo San Pietro (Rome, 1977) L. H. Heydenreich: Studien zur Architektur der Renaissance: Ausgewählte Aufsätze (Munich, 1981), pp. 43 7, C. Thoenes: St Peter: Erste Skizzen, Daidalos, v (1982), pp M. Guarduci: San Pietro in Vaticano (Rome, 1983) C. L. Frommel: San Pietro: Storia della sua costruzione, Raffaello architetto (exh. cat., ed. C. L. Frommel, S. Ray and M. Tafuri; Rome, Pal. Conserv., 1984), pp F. Graf Wolff Metternich and C. Thoenes: Die frühen St.-Peter-Entwürfe, , Röm. Forsch. Bib. Hertziana, xxv (Tübingen, 1987); review by H. Hubert in Z. Kstgesch., liv (1990), pp C. Thoenes: S Lorenzo a Milano, S Pietro a Roma: Ipotesi sul piano di pergamena, A. Lombarda, 86 7 (1988), pp H. Saalman: Die Planung Neu St. Peters: Kritische Bemerkungen zum Stand der Forschung, Münchn. Jb. Bild. Kst, xl (1989), pp C. L. Frommel: San Piero, Rinascimento: Da Brunelleschi a Michelangelo la rappresentazione dell architettura, ed. H. Millon and V. M. Lampugnani (Milan, 1994), pp Specialist studies H. Brauer and R. Wittkower: Die Zeichnungen des Gianlorenzo Bernini, Röm. Forsch. Bib. Hertz., x xi (Berlin, 1931) D. Frey: Berninis Entwürfe für die Glockentürme von St. Peter in Rom, Jb. Ksthist. Samml. Wien, xii (1938), pp J. Coolidge: Vignola and the Little Domes of St. Peter s, Marsyas, ii (1942), pp G. Giovannoni: Antonio da Sangallo il giovane (Rome, 1959)

12 Page 12 of 26 H. Siebenhüner: Die Architektur-Entwürfe des Ludovico Cigoli zu St. Peter in Rom, Kunstchronik, xv (1962), pp R. Wittkower: La cupola di S Pietro di Michelangelo (Florence, 1964) C. Thoenes: Bemerkungen zur Petersfassade Michelangelos, Munuscula discipulorum: Festschrift für Hans Kauffmann (Berlin, 1968), pp H. Millon and C. H. Smyth: Michelangelo and St. Peter s, I: Notes on a Plan of the Attic as Originally Built in the South Hemicycle, Burl. Mag., cxi (1969), pp F. Graf Wolff Metternich: Bramante und St. Peter (Munich, 1975) H. Saalman: Michelangelo: S Maria del Fiore and St. Peter s, A. Bull., lvii (1975), pp H. A. Millon and C. H. Smyth: Michelangelo and St. Peter s: Observations on the Interior of the Apses, a Model of the Apse Vault, and Related Drawings, Röm. Jb. Kstgesch., xvi (1976), pp C. L. Frommel: Capella Julia : Die Grabkapelle Papst Julius II. in Neu St. Peter, Z. Kstgesch., xl (1977), pp F. Borsi: Bernini architetto (Milan, 1980) A. Bruschi: Problemi del S Pietro bramantesco, Saggi in onore di Guglielmo De Angelis d Ossat (Rome, 1987), pp H. Hubert: Bramantes St. Peter-Entwürfe und die Stellung des Apostelgrabes, Z. Kstgesch., li (1988), pp H. A. Millon and C. H. Smyth: Michelangelo architetto: La facciata di San Lorenzo e la cupola di San Pietro (Milan, 1988), pp C. Thoenes: I tre progetti di Bramante per S Pietro, Quad. Ist. Stor. Archit., n. s., ( ), pp H. Hubert: Bramante, Peruzzi, Serlio und die Peterskuppel, Z. Kstgesch., lxi (1992), pp C. Thoenes: Madernos St. Peter-Entwürfe, An Architectural Progress in the Renaissance and Baroque: Sojourns in and out of Italy. Essays in Architectural History Presented to Hellmut Hager on his Sixty-sixth Birthday (University Park, PA, 1992), pp C. Thoenes: Neue Beobachtungen an Bramantes St-Peter-Entwürfe, Münchn. Jb. Bild. Kst, xlv (1994), pp C. L. Frommel: Il San Pietro di Nicolò V, Quad. Ist. Stor. Archit., xxv xxx (1995 7), pp H. Günther: Als wäre die Peterskirche mutwillig in Flammen gesetzt: Zeitgenössische Kommentare zum Neubau der Peterskirch und ihre Maßstäbe, Münchn. Jb. Bild. Kst, xlv (1997), pp Hans Hubert

13 Page 13 of 26 (b) Decoration. Before Little of the 15th-century decoration of St Peter s has survived; most of the monuments were moved to the Grotte Vaticane, transferred to other churches or left dismantled in the so-called octagons of the basilica. The oldest surviving monument is the large bronze door made by Filarete (see FILARETE AND FIG.), which was moved to its present position in St Peter s in It is signed Ant[o]nius Petri de Florentia and dated Die ultima Iuli 1445 on the right-hand valve, on the back of which is an image of the sculptor and his assistants (see III, 3 AND FIG. above). The decorative frieze shows Greek myths curiously mingled with episodes from Roman history and characters drawn from the fables of Phaedrus and Christian iconography. The influential tomb of Eugenius IV (?before 1453; Rome, S Salvatore in Lauro) was executed by Isaia da Pisa in the form of an architraved cell with a conch-shaped top. Eugenius s nephew, Cardinal Pietro Barbo (later Paul II), commissioned Isaia da Pisa to create the altar of SS Peter and Paul (1451); the relief of the Virgin, traditionally known as the Orsini Madonna (Rome, Grotte Vaticane), has been plausibly attributed to this commission. Also in the Grotte Vaticane are the surviving fragments of the tomb of Nicholas V, which was modelled on that of Eugenius but executed by a less talented local sculptor. Two large statues depicting St Peter and St Paul (both ; Rome, Vatican, Aula del Sinodo), attributed to Paolo Romano and his workshop, were carved for the steps of the basilica. In collaboration with Isaia da Pisa he also created the S Andrea Chapel (1463 4); fragments of the saint s tabernacle survive in the Grotte Vaticane. The complex monument to Pius II ( ) was erected in the S Andrea Chapel and rebuilt (1605) in S Andrea della Valle, next to the very similar tomb of Pius III (1503). It is thought that the former was designed by Paolo Romano and completed after his death by Nicolò della Guardia and Pietro Paolo da Todi. The most grandiose tomb was that of Paul II (1474 7; fragments in Paris, Louvre; Rome, Grotte Vaticane), designed, according to Vasari, by Mino da Fiesole and GIOVANNI DALMATA. Above and behind the sarcophagus and effigy was a relief of the Resurrection, above which was the Last Judgement in a lunette, the whole surmounted by the Eternal Father in Glory, while the base had images of Faith, Hope (signed by Dalmata) and Charity (signed by Mino), alternating with the Creation of Eve and the Tree of Life. An imposing ciborium (1470s; dismantled 17th century) built for the main altar incorporated corner reliefs, attributed to Paolo Romano, of the Trials of SS Peter and Paul (Rome, Grotte Vaticane) taken from a simpler ciborium commissioned c by Pius II. The other reliefs were carved in the 1470s, perhaps by a Florentine sculptor associated with Bernardo Rossellino. The tombs of Sixtus IV (1493; Rome, Vatican, Mus. Stor. A. Tesoro S Pietro) and Innocent VIII (completed 1598; Rome, Vatican, St Peter s) were both designed by Antonio Pollaiuolo (see POLLAIUOLO, (1), 3); the latter is the only tomb that was reinstated in St Peter s (see INNOCENT VIII). Michelangelo s marble Pietà ( ) was commissioned for the rotunda of S Petronilla; in 1749 it was moved to the first chapel to the right of the entrance and after. Until the third quarter of the 16th century, while building work on the new basilica continued (see (A) above), most of the few decorative commissions were intended for temporary arrangements. A series of small painted altarpieces was needed, for example, after the so-called temporary wall was

14 Page 14 of 26 built and the altars in the transept area were moved. These included Ugo da Carpi s St Veronica (c ) and the Virgin and Child with SS Anne, Peter and Paul (Rome, St Peter s, Sagrestia dei Canonici), now generally attributed to Jacopino del Conte. The Feed My Sheep (1574; destr. 1608) by Donato da Formello and Riccardo Sassi ( fl ), over the central portal, was among the works lost with the demolition of Constantine s basilica. The tomb of Paul III, commissioned from Guglielmo della Porta c (see PORTA, DELLA, (3)), was permanently erected c with fewer allegorical figures than originally intended. A mosaic workshop was established by Gregory XIII to carry out the decorative programme. Technical innovations developed here included the use of oil putty, which allowed longer periods for the application of the tesserae. The cupola of the chapel of Gregory XIII was decorated ( ) to designs by Girolamo Muziano, assisted by Cesare Nebbia and Paolo Manenti; the mosaics were renewed ( ) to designs by Niccolò Lapiccola and Salvatore Monosilio. The mosaic decoration of the central dome began under Clement VIII: the Evangelists ( ) in the pendentives are by Giovanni de Vecchi and Nebbia, and the angels on the sides by Cesare Roncalli. The Cavaliere d Arpino produced the cartoons (1603 9) for the intrados of the dome, with bishops and patriarchs in the lunettes and then Christ and the Virgin and St John the Baptist and the Apostles. Above these are angels, including the series with the Instruments of the Passion, and the Eternal Father in Glory in the lantern. Christoforo Roncalli prepared cartoons (1601 4) for mosaics in the chapel of Clement VIII: the Doctors of the Church in the pendentives and the Visitation, Malachi and the Angel and Daniel in the Lions Den in the lunettes. Clement also commissioned a series of large altarpieces on slate (1600; see ALDOBRANDINI, (1)). Work on the interior decoration ceased after the competition (1606) for the façade of the basilica and only resumed under Urban VIII (see BARBERINI, (1)), who employed Bernini in an extensive range of projects, notably the bronze baldacchino over the high altar ( ; see BERNINI, (2), I, 1(II); see also BORROMINI, FRANCESCO, I, 1) and the arrangement of the relics in the tribune ( ), including eight solomonic columns from the ancient basilica and statues by him and François Du Quesnoy, Andrea Bolgi and Francesco Mochi, set into the niches in the four great piers that support the dome. Bernini also designed the tombs of Urban VIII ( ; see [not available online]) and Countess Matilda of Tuscany (1633 7). Giovanni Lanfranco decorated the chapel of the Crucifix (now chapel of the Pietà) in with frescoes of the Life of Christ and the Triumph of the Cross. PIETRO DA CORTONA painted the Holy Trinity ( ) for the main altar of the chapel of the Holy Sacrament. Altarpieces originally intended for the north transept included Poussin s Martyrdom of St Erasmus (1628 9), Valentin de Boulogne s Martyrdom of SS Processus and Martinian (1629; both Rome, Pin. Vaticana) and in the south transept Andrea Sacchi s St Gregory and the Miracle of the Corporal (1625 6). Sacchi s work and four others ( ) painted for the new chapels under the piers of the transept are housed in the chapter house of the sacristy (see SACCHI, ANDREA). The tomb of Leo XI (commissioned 1634; completed 1644) by ALESSANDRO ALGARDI echoes Bernini s design for that of Urban VIII in its pyramidal composition. The mosaic decoration also resumed under Urban VIII with a Marian iconographic programme in the Colonna Chapel: scenes from the Litany of Loreto on the ceiling, Old and New Testament episodes in the lunettes (cartoons by Giovanni Francesco Romanelli) and saints below by Lanfranco ( ) and Sacchi ( ); the execution of the mosaics ( , ) was entrusted to Giovan Battista Calandra ( ). The designs of saints for the chapel of SS Pietronilla e Michele were by Sacchi ( ), Romanelli and Carlo Pellegrini (both ); the mosaics were executed by Calandra in and by Guido Ubaldo Abbatini (c ) in St Michael the Archangel (1627 9; now Macerata Cathedral), executed by Calandra to a design by the Cavaliere d Arpino, was the basilica s first altarpiece in mosaic; the other altarpiece in the chapel was Guercino s Entombment of St Petronilla (1623; Rome, Protomoteca Capitolina). The decoration of the piers in the choir, transept and aisles began under Gregory XIII, but in 1645 Innocent X commissioned Bernini to complete the task. For each pier the artist designed two pairs of

15 Page 15 of 26 white marble putti surmounting oval medallions with portraits of popes against a polychrome ground, and a third, central pair with different ornamental elements. The many collaborators on the project (completed 1648) included Bolgi, Ercole Ferrata, Giacomo Antonio Fancelli ( ), Cosimo Fancelli, Lazzaro Morelli, Giacomo Balsimelli, Matteo Bonarelli, Francesco Baratta and Giovanni Maria Baratta. In 1652 mosaics were commissioned for the chapel of the Holy Sacrament (completed 1662) and the chapel of S Sebastiano (completed 1663). The former, to designs by Pietro da Cortona, has the Apocalypse in the vault and Old Testament scenes alluding to the Eucharist in the pendentives. Pietro da Cortona also designed most of the cartoons for the S Sebastiano Chapel: Old Testament scenes, prophets and, in the vault, the Vision of the Apocalypse with the Lamb and Blessed Spirits ( ). Four cartoons for the lunettes were by Raffaelle Vanni, with Ciro Ferri among the assistants. The mosaics in the dome of the chapel of the Crucifix were executed from 1669 to 1677 by Fabio Cristofari (d 1689) to designs ( ) by Ferri. Bernini s first plan for the Cathedra Petri was approved by Alexander VII in 1657, and a wooden model was built in situ. It was worked on by Ferrata, Raggi, Morelli, Peter Verpoorten (d 1659) and Johann Paul Schor, with castings by Giovanni Artusi ( fl ) and Angelo Pellegrini, and was presented in its final form in 1666 (see [not available online]). Bernini s later work included the equestrian statue of Constantine the Great ( ), the tomb of Alexander VII (1671 8; see BERNINI, (2), I, 1(VI)) and the altar (1673 4) for the chapel of the Holy Sacrament. The mosaic decoration of the chapel of the Presentation and the baptistery began under Clement X. The lunettes and pendentives in the former, depicting Old Testament stories, were designed by Carlo Maratti from 1675 and executed from 1683 to He prepared the vault cartoons for the Fall of Lucifer and the Eternal Father in Glory in 1704, and the mosaics were completed from 1714 to The mosaic altarpiece (1726 8) was executed by Pietro Paolo Cristofari ( ) to a cartoon by Luigi Vanvitelli, based on Romanelli s Presentation of the Virgin ( ; Rome, S Maria degli Angeli). The decoration of the baptistery was entrusted to Giovanni Battista Gaulli in He was succeeded by FRANCESCO TREVISANI, and the mosaics were completed in In the Canon s Choir (Cappella del Coro) the mosaics in the pendentives and the apsidal semidome ( ) are by Ferri and Maratti, and those in the vault and lunettes ( ) by Marcantonio Franceschini; the wooden choir-stalls were built to a design by Bernini, and the screen (1628) is by FRANCESCO BORROMINI. From 1681, when Innocent XI ordered Sacchi s altarpieces to be replaced by mosaic copies (1682 9) by Fabio Cristofari (d 1689), owing to damp in the chapels under the transept piers, all of the basilica s paintings (on canvas, walls and slate) were similarly treated. Domenichino s Last Communion of St Jerome (1614; Rome, Pin. Vaticana; see [not available online]), for example, was replaced in The monuments in St Peter s include those of Queen Christina of Sweden ( ), built by Carlo Fontana (see FONTANA (V), (1)) with Jean Théodon and Lorenzo Ottoni; Innocent XI (1701) by Pierre-Etienne Monnot; and Alexander VIII (1704 6), apparently designed by Carlo Arrigo di San Martino (d 1726) with a relief of the Canonization of Five Saints (c. 1702) by Angelo de Rossi. PIETRO BRACCI assisted on the tomb of Maria Clementina Sobieska ( ) and designed that of Benedict XIV (1763 9). ANTONIO CANOVA was responsible for the tomb of Clement XIII ( ), the cenotaph to the House of Stuart ( ) and the tomb of Pius VI ( , unfinished; Rome, Grotte Vaticane). Other papal tombs include those of Pius VII ( , by Bertel Thorvaldsen), Pius VIII ( , by Pietro Tenerani), Pius XII (1964, by Francesco Messina ( )) and a bronze relief in memory of John XXIII (1965 7, by Emilio Greco). After 1950 new doors for the basilica were designed by Vico Consorti (b 1902), Giacomo Manzù, Venanzio Crocetti (b 1913) and Luciano Minguzzi (see [not available online]).

16 Page 16 of 26 Bibliography A. González-Palacios: Giovanni Battista Calandra: Un mosaicista alla corte dei Barberini, Ric. Stor. A., 1 2 (1976), pp F. R. Difederico: The Mosaics of Saint Peter s: Decorating the New Basilica (University Park, PA, 1983) For further bibliography see (II)(A) above and BERNINI, (2). Fabrizio Mancinelli (iii) Palace. After their exile in Avignon, the popes moved their official residence to the Vatican from the old Lateran Palace (see 15(I) below), which had been badly damaged during their absence (see II, 3 above). Since then, the Vatican has served primarily as the official and administrative seat of the popes and as their private living quarters. The secretary of state, high-ranking prelates and numerous court officials also live there. Many important architects were involved in expanding the papal residence into a huge palace providing the accommodation necessary for the enactment of papal ceremonial (e.g. the Sala Regia, Sala Ducale, Cappella Magna, Cappella Parva, Camera Paramenti and Camera Papagalli), government affairs, the administration of justice and the various court offices. The building s history, architecture and, not least, its incomparable artistic furnishings, supplemented by inscriptions, views and vast archival material on the palace s origins, role, history and function, have conferred on it a unique historical and art-historical importance. As the most important secular building in Rome, it was a frequent source of inspiration and had particular influence on the Mannerist architecture of villas and palazzi in Rome and other Italian cities. The Palazzo del Quirinale (see 26 below) became the official papal residence c. 1592, and the popes returned to the Vatican only after the unification of Italy in (a) Architecture. Vatican Palace, plan: (a) Portone di Bronzo; (b) Scala Regia; The Vatican Palace comprises an enormous, extremely irregular complex of buildings successively appended to one another (see fig.). The range of buildings, which cannot be seen in its entirety from any one point, is some 460 m in length and roughly 230 m at its widest, spreading northwards from St Peter s over the uneven terrain of the Vatican Hill. The relatively insignificant main entrance (Portone di Bronzo; 39a) is located on the Piazza S Pietro, where the north colonnade meets an enclosed passageway. The Scala Regia (39b), a continuation of the passageway, leads into the oldest, southernmost part of the palace, an irregular building consisting of four wings around an inner courtyard (Cortile del Pappagallo; 39c). This is linked with the Belvedere (39d) at the northernmost point of the complex by Bramante s Cortile del Belvedere (see fig. below; see also ), an extended court with several terraces, enclosed on both of its long sides by gallery-like corridors several storeys high (39e). To the south-east it joins the loggia architecture of the Cortile di S Damaso (39f), which leads across to the blocklike palace built by Sixtus V (39g); these are the only two elements of the palace that can be seen from the Piazza S Pietro.

17 Page 17 of 26 The earliest, unpretentious buildings in the vicinity of St Peter s Basilica are mentioned in mid-5thcentury documents from the reign of Leo I. Excavations have revealed the remains of the Carolingian triclinium of the palace, lying south of the church and dating from the pontificates of LEO III and Gregory IV (reg ). Leo IV (reg ) fortified the whole hill area (the Città Leonina) by building a wall around it as protection against the Saracens; papal buildings later spread on to the hilly ground north of the basilica, a strategically more advantageous position. The palatium novum, with aula and loggia, built by Eugenius III (reg ) on the north side of the atrium of St Peter s, is thought to have been the origin of the present residence. Innocent III (reg ) rebuilt Eugenius s palace and extended it into a genuine residence by means of domus novae and business and administrative buildings. According to A. M. Voci (1992), he also established the first palace chapel, the predecessor of the current Sistine Chapel (see (B) below). The donjon with a tower, previously associated with Innocent IV (reg ), may also date from the time of Innocent III. Nicholas III, whose family (the Orsini) owned the Castel Sant Angelo, which controlled the only crossing of the Tiber, had a passageway built linking his castle with the Vatican Palace; he also laid out gardens protected by walls with watch-towers, eventually enabling the forerunner of the Belvedere to be built in a protected position on the highest point at the north of the site. Nicholas also enlarged the existing buildings on the hill, erecting another chapel (the Cappella Parva or chapel of S Niccolò; destr.) and the north-east wing of the palace, with monumental storeys and loggias that overlooked the surrounding area. Urban V (reg ) completely renovated the palace when he returned from Avignon. A wooden loggia overlooking the Piazza S Pietro, from which the Pope could give his blessing, is also attested from this period. It is assumed that Boniface IX (reg ) had the palace extended by adding a great hall (the Sala dei Pontefici) to the north. Extensive renovations were initiated in the reign of NICHOLAS V, probably acting on the advice of Leon Battista Alberti (see (II)(A) above). A residence with four wings and an inner courtyard was projected, but all that was completed before the Pope s death was the three-storey north wing with a few staterooms (39j), and the fortified wall with its round tower shielding the palace s secret garden on the north-east side. In 1460 Pius II started work, employing FRANCESCO DEL BORGO to renew the atrium front with a benediction loggia that dominated the whole of the Piazza S Pietro; in front of it was a broad, external flight of steps. Of the eleven arcades planned, only the four at the north end were executed; the third storey was not added until the early 16th century. The motif of arcades with half columns, as used in the Colosseum, was here copied for the first time in a monumental style. Paul II constructed a small courtyard loggia on the south side of the Cortile del Maresciallo, which was altered by Paul III (see below). Sixtus IV established the public library (see [not available online]), renovated the large palace chapel (39i) and started work on a crenellated wing some 75 m long on the north side of the atrium containing the Sacra Rota audience hall; this was completed by his successor, INNOCENT VIII, who also constructed the Villa di Belvedere (completed 1487 by Giacomo da Pietrasanta) on the most northerly of the Vatican hills, looking on the Monte Mario. The main storey of the Belvedere, set on a high substructure, has an arcaded loggia articulated by pilasters, above which is a mezzanine floor with a crenellated parapet. Alexander VI added the massive Torre Borgia (39k) to provide the missing corner tower of the four-wing palace (see BORGIA, (2)). For Julius II (see ROVERE, DELLA (I), (2)), who wanted to link the range of buildings near St Peter s with Innocent VIII s Belvedere, Bramante designed the Cortile del Belvedere, an enormous courtyard framed by parallel loggias of brick (completely altered; see BRAMANTE, DONATO, I, 3(II)(A) AND FIG.). The hilly terrain was originally laid out in three tiered terraces, linked by stairs and ramps. One of the uses of the lower courtyard (now the Cortile della Biblioteca; see fig. above) was as the setting for plays and tournaments, while the broad steps served as seating for the audience. The loggias, three storeys high at the lowest point, were enclosed and structurally reinforced with boldly projecting

18 Page 18 of 26 buttresses. Only the topmost corridor carries on to the more elevated Cortile della Pigna (39m). The courtyard walls are articulated by a Classical order of superimposed pilasters in travertine marble; the external façade is undecorated. Until it was later altered (see below), the focal-point of the longitudinal axis was a large exedra at the northern end (39n) with semicircular steps in convex and concave curves. Behind, and set at an angle, is the Cortile Ottagono (39o), intended for Julius s collection of antiquities. This leads to the Belvedere, which can also be entered by a spiral staircase (that can be negotiated on horseback) built on to the exterior in 1510 (39p). This stair is ornamented with 36 free-standing columns; the four orders are disposed in an alternating manner from Tuscan to Corinthian. The south side of the courtyard was formed by the slanting outside wall of the papal palace with the Torre Borgia, which was not positioned axially. Bramante capped this tower with an octagonal cupola (1510). He also proposed (Florence, Uffizi, 287A) a spacious council hall, a round chapel constructed on top of Nicholas V s tower and riding stables east of the Belvedere, but these were never built. Despite later drastic alterations, this range of buildings, partly inspired by the newly discovered Domus Aurea (see 5 above) and the Temple of Fortuna in Praeneste (now Palestrina), substantially determined the appearance of the palace and embodied Julius s imperial pretensions. Bramante and his successor, Raphael, replaced the medieval garden loggia on the Cortile di S Damaso with a wide, four-storey loggia façade. In 1516 Raphael installed an apartment with a bathroom and a richly decorated, west-facing loggia for Cardinal Bernardo Bibbiena. Paul III employed Baldassare Peruzzi and Antonio da Sangallo (ii) to complete the unfinished parts of the east gallery (see FARNESE, (1)), although Bramante s wall articulation was not retained, and the superimposed Classical orders were altered. Antonio da Sangallo together with Jacopo Meleghino also regularized and renovated the Scala Regia and the state apartments (Sala Ducale, Sala Regia; 39h). He demolished the medieval chapel of S Niccolò to make room for the broader steps from the Cortile del Maresciallo, replacing the old chapel with the Pauline Chapel (completed 1540). Under Julius III, Girolamo da Carpi added a storey to the great exedra at the north side of the Cortile della Pigna, and Michelangelo replaced Bramante s flight of circular stairs in the exedra with a double ramp. In 1558 Pirro Ligorio started to build a villa for Paul IV in the secluded slopes west of the Cortile del Belvedere. The building was completed under PIUS IV and named after him; it consists of a pavilion and a loggia linked by a transverse oval courtyard. The whole group is over-lavishly decorated with stucco, mosaics and shells (see LIGORIO, PIRRO AND FIG.). In 1560 Ligorio started work, based on Bramante s proposals, on the three-storey corridor wall at the western side of the Cortile del Belvedere and vaulted over Bramante s exedra at the Belvedere end with a large calotte (1562) topped by a semicircular peristyle structure. Ligorio s architectural alterations show his interest in archaeology and antiquity and do not always fit in happily with Bramante s strict Classical architecture. An exception is the faithful copy of the Bramante Raphael loggias on the north side of the Cortile di S Damaso. This was begun in 1563 and continued by Martino Longhi the elder; the loggias and the apartment behind were completed c The top gallery of the western Belvedere corridor, the Galleria delle Carte Geografiche, was finally completed after 1578 by Ottaviano Mascherino for GREGORY XIII. Mascherino planned a large, two-storey exedra at the south end of the courtyard, corresponding with the northern focal point, but only the first storey was built. Facing the gardens he also built a tower observatory, the Torre dei Venti (1576 9; see OBSERVATORY, 2). Longhi and Mascherino probably envisaged extending the loggias on to the third (east) side of the Cortile di S Damaso, although this was not done until 1589, when Domenico Fontana (see FONTANA (IV), (2)) began both the eastern loggia façade and a large regular palace for Sixtus V, with apartments for the Pope and the Secretary of State. The early Baroque building is articulated by large windows with alternately triangular and segmental pediments loosely based on the Palazzo Farnese, with a powerful cornice running along the top. It was completed by Taddeo Landini in Sixtus s other great building project was the library wing by Domenico Fontana (completed 1588),

19 Page 19 of 26 which replaced the theatre across the Cortile del Belvedere (39q) and spoiled the superb view over the tiered inner courtyards. Vatican, Scala Regia by Gianlorenzo Bernini, ; photo credit: Scala/Art Later popes increasingly lived (until 1870) at the Palazzo del Quirinale and undertook relatively little new building at the Vatican Palace. An important exception was Alexander VII, who, in conjunction with the creation of the Piazza S Pietro (see (II)(A) above) commissioned Gianlorenzo Bernini to redesign the Scala Regia (1663 6; see also BERNINI, (2), I, 3(IV)). This begins as a continuation of the colonnades near the narthex of the church with a Serlian motif. The central passageway is barrel-vaulted, while the lateral ones have flat ceilings. In conformity with the minor order in the portico, the staircase is articulated with Ionic columns and richly decorated with stuccowork. By placing the columns on the upper flight closer to the wall and reducing their height, the effect of ordinary perspective foreshortening is created, concealing the fact that the space available for the stairs was in reality wedge-shaped. Many of the later additions to the palace were made in the late 18th century by MICHELANGELO SIMONETTI and the CAMPORESE family to provide suitable accommodation for the Museo Pio- Clementino. The last important addition was Raffaele Stern s Neo-classical Braccio Nuovo ( ; see fig. above), built to house the Museo Chiaramonti (for discussion and illustration see STERN, (2)). This wing shuts off the south side of the Cortile della Pigna, with a Greek temple façade inflecting the centre. Bibliography A. Taja: Descrizione del Palazzo Apostolico Vaticano (Rome, 1750) G. P. Chattard: Nuova descrizione del Vaticano, 3 vols (Rome, ) P.-M. Letarouilly: Les Bâtiments du Vatican (Paris, 1882/R London, 1963) W. Friedländer: Das Kasino Pius des Vierten (Leipzig, 1912) E. Panofsky: Die Scala Regia im Vatikan und die Kunstanschauungen Berninis, Jb. Preuss. Kstsamml., xl (1919), pp H. Voss: Bernini als Architekt an der Scala Regia und an den Kolonnaden von St. Peter, Jb. Preuss. Kstsamml., xliii (1922), pp F. Ehrle and H. Egger: Der vatikanische Palast in seiner Entwicklung bis zur Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts, Stud. & Doc. Stor. Pal. Apostol. Vatic., ii (Rome, 1935) J. Hess: Le logge di Gregorio XIII: L architettura ed i caratteri della decorazione, Illus. Vatic., vi (1935), pp J. Hess: La Bibliotheca Vaticana: Storia della costruzione, Illus. Vatic., ix (1938), pp J. S. Ackerman: Bramante and the Torre Borgia, Rendi. Pont. Accad. Romana Archeol., xxv xxvi ( ), pp J. S. Ackerman: The Belvedere as a Classical Villa, J. Warb. & Court. Inst., iv (1951), pp

20 Page 20 of 26 J. S. Ackerman: The Cortile del Belvedere, Stud. & Doc. Stor. Pal. Apostol. Vatic., iii (Rome, 1954) T. Magnusson: The Project of Nicholas V for Rebuilding the Borgo Leonino in Rome, A. Bull., xxxvi (1954), pp A. M. Frutaz: Il Torrione di Niccolò V. in Vaticano (Rome, 1956) E. Battisti: Il significato simbolico della Cappella Sistina, Commentari, viii (1957), pp T. Magnusson: Studies in Roman Quattrocento Architecture (Rome, 1958) J. Wasserman: The Palazzo Sisto V in the Vatican, J. Soc. Archit. Hist., xxi (1962), pp C. L. Frommel: Antonio da Sangallos Cappella Paolina: Ein Beitrag zur Baugeschichte des Vatikanischen Palastes, Z. Kstgesch., xxvii (1964), pp J. Hess: La Biblioteca Vaticana: Storia della costruzione, Kunstgeschichtliche Studien zu Renaissance und Barock, 2 vols (Rome, 1967), i, pp , D. Redig de Campos: I palazzi vaticani, Roma Cristiana, xviii (Bologna, 1967) H. H. Brummer: The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere (Stockholm, 1970) C. W. Westfall: In this Most Perfect Paradise: Alberti, Nicholas V, and the Invention of Conscious Urban Planning in Rome, (University Park, PA, 1974) C. W. Westfall: Alberti and the Vatican Palace Type, J. Soc. Archit. Hist., xxxiii (1974), pp C. L. Frommel: Bramantes disegno grandissimo für den Vatikanpalast, Kstchronik, xxx (1977), pp C. L. Frommel: Francesco del Borgo: Architekt Pius II. und Pauls II., Röm. Jb. Kstgesch., xx (1983), pp K. B. Steinke: Die mittelalterlichen Vatikanpaläste und ihre Kapellen: Baugeschichtliche Untersuchung anhand der schriftlichen Quellen, Stud. & Doc. Stor. Pal. Apostol. Vatic., v (Rome, 1984) C. Pietrangeli, ed.: Il palazzo apostolico vaticano (Florence, 1992) A. M. Voci: Nord o sud? Note per la storia del medioevale Palatium Apostolicum apud Sanctum Petrum e delle sue cappelle (Rome, Vatican, 1992) C. L. Frommel: I tre progetti bramanteschi per il Cortile del Belvedere, Il Cortile delle Statue: Der Statuenhof des Belvedere im Vatikan: Akten des internationalen Kongresses zu Ehren von Richard Krautheimer: Rome, 1992 (Mainz, 1998), pp F. E. Keller: Die Umwandlung des Antikengartens zum Statuenhof durch das architektonische Ornament Pirro Ligorios, Il Cortile delle Statue: Der Statuenhof des Belvedere im Vatikan: Akten des internationalen Kongresses zu Ehren von Richard Krautheimer: Rome, 1992 (Mainz, 1998), pp Hans Hubert

21 Page 21 of 26 (b) Decoration. Sistine Chapel. Dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin, the Vatican Palace Chapel was created to meet the requirements of the ceremonial calendar of the pope and his court, and the conclave for the election of a new pope is still held there. The present structure is a palimpsest, created by the remodelling carried out under Sixtus IV, after whom it is named (see ROVERE, DELLA (I), (1)). Up to the level of the windows it incorporates the perimeter walls of a large palace chapel, first mentioned in documents from 1368, which was probably built after Urban V s return to Rome from Avignon. None of the old chapel s decoration survives, but documents indicate that in 1369 an important project was carried out there by Giottino, Giovanni da Milano and others, including frescoes of the Four Evangelists. Sixtus IV began the reconstruction of the chapel in early 1477 and entrusted the project to Giovannino de Dolci (d before 1486) as superstans sive commissarius fabrice palaci apostolici. According to Sixtus s secretary, Andrea da Trebisonda, the architectural work, including the replacement of the original coffered wooden ceiling with the present low barrel vault, continued throughout the conflict with Florence; thus it must have been finished around the end of The pictorial decoration began immediately on the altar wall. Its execution, following a plan that was later extended to all the chapel walls, was entrusted to Perugino and his workshop (see PERUGINO, I, 2). At the top were portraits of the First Four Popes, in the centre the Nativity and the Finding of Moses, and at the lowest level two painted draperies framing a frescoed altarpiece depicting the Assumption of the Virgin. The ceiling, the lunettes below (which were also ornamented in some way) and probably the whole series of popes also must have been finished or near completion by the autumn of The ceiling decoration is known from a wash drawing (Florence, Uffizi) by Piermatteo d Amelia (c /8) and from Vasari. The first four scenes of the Life of Christ on the north wall were already painted by 17 January 1482, on which date they formed the basis of a settlement fixing a payment of 250 scudi per painted section. The programme for each section was to include two popes, a narrative scene and painted drapery below. The contract for the remaining ten scenes from the Lives of Moses and Christ was signed on 17 October 1481 by Cosimo Rosselli, Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who undertook, with the help of their bottegas, to complete the work by 15 March 1482, with a penalty of 50 ducats if they failed to meet the deadline. The work was probably coordinated by Perugino, who was the first artist to work on the project and is the only one whose signature appears (Opus Petri Perusini Castro Plebis) on one of the frescoes, namely on the frame of the Baptism, but the overall decorative plan may be the work of Melozzo da Forlì. Of the narrative scenes, Perugino painted the Journey of Moses, the Baptism (see PINTURICCHIO, BERNARDINO, 1) and Christ Giving the Keys to St Peter. Botticelli painted the Flight of Moses from Egypt, the Temptations of Christ and the Punishment of Korah, while Rosselli painted the Giving of the Law, the Sermon on the Mount and the Last Supper. Ghirlandaio (see GHIRLANDAIO, (1), I, 2(I)(B)) was responsible for the Calling of SS Peter and Andrew and the Resurrection, which was completely repainted between 1571 and 1575 by Hendrik van den Broeck (see BROECK, VAN DEN, (3)). The Crossing of the Red Sea is thought by some critics to be a collaboration between Rosselli andghirlandaio, while others attribute it to Ghirlandaio and his workshop. The papal portraits were painted by Perugino, Botticelli, Rosselli and Ghirlandaio. (The portraits of Marcellus and Sixtus I are unattributable, as they were completely repainted in the 16th and the 20th century, respectively.) Despite the heavy penalty, the decoration was not completed by the signatories of the contract, and perhaps not within the stipulated time: the last scenes, the Testament of Moses (originally assigned

22 Page 22 of 26 to Perugino) and the Dispute over the Body of Moses (completely repainted by Mateo Pérez de Alesio in 1571) were actually the work of Luca Signorelli, who had earlier collaborated with Perugino on Christ Giving the Keys to St Peter (see SIGNORELLI, LUCA, I). Work continued well beyond the spring of 1482, at least in regard to the Cosmatesque mosaic pavement and Mino da Fiesole s reliefs on the chancel railing (moved to its present position perhaps in the late 1550s). The chapel was used for the first time on 9 August 1483, the anniversary of the election of Sixtus IV. In May 1504 a large diagonal crack split the ceiling, causing such serious damage that the chapel could not be used for half the year. Julius II s plans to commission Michelangelo to redecorate the ceiling were first spoken of in 1506, but work did not begin until 10 May 1508 (see MICHELANGELO, I, 2). The initial contract specified 12 Apostles in the pendentives and, on the rest of the surface, a certain division filled with adornments. Later, as Michelangelo felt that the plan was a poor thing, the Pope told him to do whatever he liked in the ceiling and to carry the decoration down to the histories on the lower part. The sum agreed for the first project was 3000 ducats; the exact fee for the second is not known, but Michelangelo said that it came to roughly the same. In the centre of the ceiling are nine scenes from Genesis: five, beginning from the altar wall, are dedicated to the Creation: the Division of Light from Darkness, the Creation of Heavenly Bodies and Vegetation, the Separation of the Waters, the Creation of Adam and the Creation of Eve. The Fall and Expulsion, serves as a cesura, and Noah s Sacrifice, the Flood and the Drunkenness of Noah close the sequence near the entrance wall. At the side of the smaller panels he painted pairs of Nudes, with chiaroscuro medallions and festoons of oak-leaves, a reference to the punning arms of the della Rovere family; in the pendentives, instead of the Apostles, are seven Prophets and five Sibyls. In the lunettes and spandrels are groups of Christ s ancestors, while in the large corner spandrels are four miraculous salvations of the elect: Judith and Holofernes, David and Goliath, the Chastisement of Haman and the Brazen Serpent. Between May and July 1508 a suspended scaffold was erected that allowed the chapel to be used for services, the existing plaster was removed, and the floating coat applied. Decoration began in the autumn with the central framework and the Flood. Michelangelo called a series of assistants from Florence, mostly pupils of Ghirlandaio, including Francesco Granacci, Giuliano Bugiardini, Bastiano da Sangallo, Agnolo di Domenico di Donnino ( ) and Iacopo di Sandro ( fl ); the last left the project in January 1509 and was replaced by Jacopo di Lazzaro di Pietro Torni ( ). Beginning with the Fall and Expulsion Michelangelo drastically reduced the number of assistants, limiting them to the purely decorative parts, and carried on the work practically alone. By August 1510 he had finished half the ceiling, including the lunettes, up to the Creation of Eve. Julius s departure for Bologna delayed the work because Michelangelo had no money and needed approval to continue. When Julius returned the scaffold was dismantled, and on 15 August 1511 he was shown the painted half and gave his consent to continue. Work resumed with the Creation of Adam, probably in October, and Vespers was finally celebrated in the newly decorated chapel on 31 October Michelangelo s frescoes made an enormous impression on contemporary artists, notably Raphael and the so-called Florentine Mannerists. The chapel was further enriched under Leo X, who in 1515 (or a little earlier) commissioned Raphael to provide cartoons for ten tapestries illustrating the Acts of the Apostles (seven now in London, V&A), executed between June 1515 and October 1516; the tapestries (Rome, Vatican, Gal. Arazzi) were woven in the workshop of Pieter van Edingen Aelst (d after 1532; see TAPESTRY, II, 2) and exhibited for the first time at the pontifical mass of 26 December Clement VII first discussed the commission for the Last Judgement with Michelangelo in September 1533, although the project actually started in April 1535 under Paul III; painting began in the late spring or early summer of The work was unveiled in 1541, arousing great wonder and admiration but also disputes, for all the previous decoration of the altar wall had been demolished, including two lunettes Michelangelo had painted in 1512 and Perugino s Assumption. The position of

23 Page 23 of 26 the Virgin alongside Christ in Judgement was iconographically irregular, as was the representation of the Last Judgement behind the altar; Clement VII had expressly specified this as a warning of punishment for the Sack of Rome (1527) and an indication of his horror and anguish at the changing times. Michelangelo: Last Judgement ( ), fresco, Sistine Chapel, Vatican; Photo credit: In his representation of the theme Michelangelo was accused of paganism, and the painting provoked violent reactions even during its execution: Michelangelo punished the papal Master of Ceremonies, Biagio da Cesena, who had made particularly sharp criticisms, by depicting him as Minos. Pietro Aretino, whose iconographic plan Michelangelo had rejected, was later savagely critical. Under Paul IV, there was even talk of destroying the work, and finally, on 21 January 1564, the Congregation of the Council of Trent decided to censor it. In 1565 Daniele da Volterra frescoed the first braghe (breeches) and repainted the whole of St Blaise and part of St Catherine. When Daniele died, Girolamo Gambatelli continued his work, painting the first of the numerous braghe in tempera; others were added in later centuries. Immediately after the intervention of Daniele and Gambatelli, the ceiling was restored by Domenico Carnevali ( fl ) and the walls beside the entrance by Hendrik van den Broeck and Mateo Pérez de Alesio. Under Urban VIII the chapel was restored (1623 8) by Lagi, and under Clement XI by Giuseppe Mazzuoli, between 1710 and The Last Judgement does not seem to have been touched on these occasions, although Paul III appointed a mundator (cleanser) as early as The plaster was repaired in 1903 by Ludovico Seitz and during the 1920s and 1930s by Biagio Biagetti ( ). Work in the late 20th century included the cleaning of the Lives of Moses and Christ ( ), the frescoes on the entrance wall ( ), the series of popes and Michelangelo s frescoes in the lunettes ( ), the ceiling ( ) and the Last Judgement ( ). Bibliography E. Steinmann: Die sixtinische Kapelle, 2 vols (Munich, ) D. Redig de Campos: Il giudizio universale di Michelangelo (Rome, 1944) C. de Tolnay: Michelangelo: The Sistine Ceiling (Princeton, 1945) R. Salvini and E. Camesasca: La Cappella Sistina in Vaticano (Milan, 1965) Michelangelo e la Sistina: La tecnica, il restauro, il mito (exh. cat., Rome, Vatican, Braccio Carlo Magno, 1990) P. Crenshaw: Face to Face with the Last Judgment, A. & Ant., xvii/4 (April 1994), pp C. Gilbert: Michelangelo: On and Off the Sistine Ceiling: Selected Essays (New York, 1994) C. Pietrangeli and others: Sistine Chapel: A Glorious Restoration (New York, 1994) M. Franklin: Forgotten Images: Papal Images in the Sistine Chapel, A. Crist., lxxxix/775 (July Aug 1996), pp