DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH?*

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1 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 1 JOHANNESBRONKHORST DIDTHEBUDDHABELIEVEINKARMAANDREBIRTH?* (publishedin:journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies21(1),1998,pp.1-19) Thetitleofthislecturemayraisesomequestions.Beforewecaneventrytoanswer thequestionwhetherthebuddhabelievedinkarmaandrebirth,wehavetoaddress afewotherones.oneiswhetherkarmaandrebirthnecessarilyformacouple.we willseethatnotallscholarshavelookedupontheseelementsinthisway,andthat somehavesuggestedthatthebuddhamayhavebelievedinonlyoneofthesetwo. Anequallyimportantquestionconcernstheissuewhetherphilological researchcaneverhopetofindoutanythingaboutthehistoricalbuddha. 1 Isn'tit safertosaythattheearlybuddhisttextsinformusabouttheviewsandbeliefsof the,ora,buddhistcommunityduringsomeperiod?andifphilologicalanalysis allowsustoreachfurtherbackintothepast(supposingitcanactuallydoso),does thisnotmerelyleadusbacktoanearlierphaseoftheviewsandbeliefsofthe,ora, Buddhistcommunity?Isitnot,therefore,wisertospeakaboutearly oreven: earliest Buddhism,andleavetheBuddhaoutofthepicture? InearlierpublicationsIwasnotquitecertainaboutthisissue,andhada tendencytospeakaboutearlyorearliestbuddhism,ratherthanaboutthehistorical Buddha. 2 Butcloserreflectionsuggeststhatthisattempttoexpressoneself carefullymayreallyhavetheoppositeeffect.thetextsonwhichwebaseour conclusions primarilythesūtras claimtopresent[2]theteachingsofthe Buddha. 3 Theymayberightorwronginthis,andprobablytheyarepartlyrightand partlywrong,buttheydonotevenpretendtoinformus,exceptperhapsinpassing, aboutthebeliefsandpracticesoftheearlybuddhists.somemodernscholarstryto reachconclusionsaboutearlybuddhism i.e.aboutthebeliefsandpracticesof * SlightlymodifiedtextofalecturedeliveredatRyukokuUniversity(Kyoto)inNovember 1997.IthankEshoMikogamiandFumioEnomoto,aswellasothermembersofthe audience,forachallengingandfruitfuldiscussion. 1 Somescholarsmayfeelthattheverywishtodosobetrays"positivistconcernsfor origins"(see,e.g.,hallisey,1995:36).theyshouldperhapsberemindedthatwithin BuddhiststudiesthestudyoftheBuddhaandhisviewsholdsalegitimateposition,as legitimateasthestudyoftheviewsofdharmakīrtior,indeed,oft.w.rhysdavids. 2 Otherscholarsdidanddothesame;see,e.g.,suchtitlesasThe Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism(Vetter,1988),"Ontheannihilationofkarmaninearly Buddhism"(Enomoto,1989),etc. 3 ThisappearsalsotobeRichardGombrich'sopinion(1993:146),who"assumesthatthe oldesttextsdoreflectwhatthebuddhasaid;allishallsayaboutthathereisthatitisa defensibleassumptionandinanycaseanecessaryoneifwearetoascribeanyviewstothe Buddhaatall."

2 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 2 theearlybuddhists,notincludingthebuddhahimself onthebasisofother materials,suchasearlymahāyānasources.oneexampleisthepubliclecture deliveredhereinkyotoafewyearsagobypaulharrison,whichwassubsequently publishedinthejournalofotaniuniversity. 4 Harrisoncriticizestheviewaccording towhichgautamathebuddhabecameprogressivelydeifiedwithtime,andprefers tothinkthathemayhavebecomeavirtualgodevenduringhisownlifetime,and ascribedwithmiraculouspowersandsuperhumanstatusbyhisadoringdevotees. Harrisonmayverywellbecorrectinthis,butitseemsevidentthattheearlytexts wepossesssayrelativelylittleabouttheseearlybuddhists,andagreatdealmore aboutthepersontheyadored,gautamathebuddha,andhisteaching.if,therefore, philologicalanalysisoftheearlybuddhisttextscanteachussomethingaboutthe earliestphasesofbuddhism,thenmostprobablytheycanteachusmoreaboutthe historicalbuddhaandhisviewsthanaboutthebeliefsandpracticesoftheearliest Buddhists. 5 Falsemodestyseemsthereforeoutofplace,andIwillspeakofthe BuddhaincaseswhereIthinkthatthetextsallowustoreachbacktothetimesthey claimtodescribe. Thisbolddecisionshouldnot,however,makeusreckless.Theclaimthatthe earlybuddhisttextsmaytellussomethingaboutthehistoricalbuddhaandhis viewsdoesnotimplythattheywillprovideuswithmanyreliabledetailsaboutthe beginningsofhiscareer.whetherwefullyagreewithharrisonornot,itseems morethanlikelythatthebuddhawasheldinextremelyhighesteembyhis followersatthetimeofhisdeath.itishardtodoubtthattheydidwhattheycould torememberhiswordsandideas,i.e.,thewordsandideasoftheyearsnottoolong beforehisdisappearance.butifindithardtoimaginethat[3]thesesamedevotees knewandmemorizedthewordsandviewsoftheirteachersomefortyyearsearlier (supposingthatthetraditionalinformationaboutthelifeofthebuddhaismoreor lesscorrect),whenhewasstillmoreorlessunknown.thereareadmittedly contradictionsintheoldsūtras,butthereareotherwaystoaccountforthemrather thanseeinginthemearlierviewsofthebuddhahimself,andthesewaysseemto meinfinitelymoreplausible. Yetcertainscholarsclaimtohaveinformationaboutearlierviewsofthe Buddha,whichhethensupposedlymodifiedlater.Frauwallner'sattemptsto distinguishphasesinthelifeandteachingsofthebuddhaareparticularlywell known. 6 Someotherscholars,too,thinkthatitispossibletoreachconclusions 4 Harrison, Iamawarethatsomescholarswillconsiderthis"sociologicallynaïve"(cp.Pyysiäinen, 1996:108). 6 Frauwallner,1953:esp.pp.178,186,197,213.

3 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 3 aboutthebuddha'searlyviews,evenaboutkarmaandrebirth.tilmannvetter,in hisarticle"daserwachendesbuddha",arguesthatthebuddhaatfirstsought,and realized,the death-less (amata/amṛta),whichisconcernedwiththehereand now.onlyafterthisrealization,whenhehadalreadystartedpreachingthis discovery,didhesupposedlybecomeintimatelyacquaintedwiththedoctrineof rebirthheldincertainasceticcircles. 7 Thispositioncontrastsstronglywiththeone Vetterexpressedinanearlierpublication.Thereweread: 8 "TheBuddhistdoctrine ofsalvation...seemsfirmlyboundtotheconceptthatonemustcontinuouslybe rebornanddie.ifthereisnorebirth,thenoneneedsnopathtosalvation,because anendtosufferingcomesatdeath."whydidvetterchangehismind? Vetterhascometoattachparticularimportancetothetextwhichis traditionallyconsideredtocontainthefirstsermonofthebuddha.inthisfirst sermoninitiallytheeightfoldpathistaught,andonlysubsequently andinsome versionsofthetextnotatall thefournobletruths.inanearlierpublicationi drewfromthisthefollowingconclusion: 9 "Thisseemstoindicatethatinitially thosefournobletruthswerenotpartofthesermoninbenares,andconsequently probablynot[4]ascentraltobuddhismastheycametobe.wemaysurmisethat theconciseformulationoftheteachingofthebuddhaintheshapeofthefour NobleTruthshadnotyetcomeintobeing,notnecessarilythatthecontentsofthis teachingdeviatedfromwhattheyweremeanttoexpress."inotherwords,the particularitiesofthetextcanbeexplainedwiththehelpofsomesimple assumptionsabouttheconstitutionandpreservationofthetradition,mostprobably afterthedeathofthebuddha.vetter,aswehaveseen,preferstoexplainthese sameparticularitieswiththehelpofsomealtogetherdifferentassumptions pertainingtodevelopmentsinthelifeofthehistoricalbuddha. Letme,toconcludethissection,recallthatVetterdoesnotstandalonein thinkingthatkarmaandrebirth,thoughacceptedbythebuddhaatsomepointof hislife,arenotessentialtohisdoctrine.anotherscholarwhodoesnotbelievethat rebirthwasanecessarytenetoftheteachingofthebuddhaisakirahirakawa.he adds,however,thatśākyamunididnotrejectrebirth,"becausethebeliefinrebirth isoneofthemostimportanttenetsofindianreligion".hethengoeson: "Śākyamuniwasprimarilyconcernedwithliberationfromthesufferingof 7 Vetter(1996:54)supposes,"dassderBuddhaerstnachderRealisierungund Verkündigungdesschonhierundjetzt...zuerreichenden Todlosen (amata/amṛta)mit derinbestimmtenasketenkreisenlebendenwiedergeburtslehrebekanntwurdeodersich mitihrerstdannwirklichauseinandersetzte,nachdemersiefrüher,wannimmerervonihr hörte,nieernstgenommenhatte";sovetter,1996a:7;1997:42. 8 Vetter,1988:XVI. 9 Bronkhorst,1993:107([101]).

4 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 4 existence.ifexistenceconsistedofcyclesofbirthanddeath,thendeliverancefrom thosecycleswashisgoal.thusearlybuddhistsdidnotneedtodismissrebirth." 10 NotallscholarsarereadytofollowFrauwallnerandVetterintheirattempts todistinguishbetweensucceedingviewsheldbythebuddhainthecourseofhis life.manyrathertrytodistinguishbetweenviewsheldbythebuddhaandthose introducedbyhisfollowers.isympathizewiththisapproach,andconsiderits chancesofsuccessgreaterthantheattempttotracethedevelopmentofthoughtof thebuddhaduringhislifetime.thisisnottosaythatitiseasytoidentifytheviews ofthebuddhaintheearlytexts.themanydifferentopinionsthathavebeen expressedduringthelastcenturyorsoontheoriginalteachingofthebuddha shouldmakeusextremelycautious,alsointhisendeavor.herewemust concentrateonsomeeffortsthathavebeenmadetoidentifytheviewsofthe Buddhaonkarmaandrebirth. Thereisatendencyamongsomescholarstoexpectthattheviewsofthe Buddhaonkarmaandrebirthshouldbeclosetothearchaicviewsknownfrom otherearlyindiansources.suchothersourceswepossessin[5]thetextsofthe Veda,andintheJainacanon.PassagesintheearlyBuddhisttextsthataremoreor lesssimilartowhatwefindintheseothertextsinformus,accordingtothislineof reasoning,abouttheearliestformofthedoctrineofkarmaandrebirthin Buddhism. InthisconnectionwemustfirstdealwithTilmannVetter'sThe Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism,publishedin Theauthortriesto reconstructthebuddha'sviewsonrebirthinthelightofbeliefsfoundinvedic texts.referringtoapaperbymichaelwitzel, 12 Vetterpointsout:"Themost ancientplacesfoundinthevedaswhererebirthismentionedshowonlyabeliefin theotherworld...afterastayinheavenapersonisrebornasahumanbeing, preferablyinhisownfamily"(p.78).bycontrastingancientbuddhismwiththese Vedicsources,Vetterbelievesthathecanestablish"thataccordingtoancient Buddhismgooddeedsleadtoheavenandbaddeedstotheunderworld"(p.77). Howdoesheestablishthis? Onp.79VetterreferstoSN3.21,whichhecalls"thesuttaonlightand darkness".itstillreflects,accordingtovetter,"theoldstructurethatgoodorbad 10 Hirakawa,1990:6. 11 Vetterdoesnotwithdrawhisearlierviewsinhismostrecentpublications,sowemust assumethathetakesitforgrantedthatthebuddha,whenatlasthebecameacquaintedwith thedoctrineofrebirth,accepteditintheformpresentedinthisbook. 12 Witzel,1984.

5 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 5 conductintheworldofmankindleadseithertoheavenortotheunderworld".a briefsummaryofthecontentsofthesuttaismeanttoshowthis.itreads: 13 Therearefourkindsofpersons(puggala);onewhofromthedarknessgoes tothedarkness,onewhofromthedarknessgoestothelight,onewhofrom thelightgoestothedarkness,andonewhofromthelightgoestothelight. Thepersonwhofromthedarknessgoestothedarknessisreborn(paccājāto) inalowerclassfamilyofcaṇḍālas,basketmakers,hunters,etc.,inapoor familywithlittlefoodandclothing;moreoverthepersonisuglyanda cripple.andthispersonleadsanevillifewithhisbody,hisspeechandhis thoughtsandafterdeathhegoestotheunderworld.thepersonwhofrom thedarknessgoestothelightisalsoreborninalowerclassfamilyof Caṇḍālas,etc.,isuglyandacripple,butleadsagoodlifewithhisbody,his speech,andhisthoughtsandafterdeathgoestotheheavenlyworld.the personwhofromthelightgoestothedarknessisreborninanupperclass familyofwealthywarriors,brahmans,orcitizenswherethereareallthe luxuriesoflife;moreoverthepersonisbeautiful.thispersonleadsanevil lifewithhisbody,hisspeechandhisthoughts,andafterdeathhegoestothe underworld.finally,thepersonwhofromthelightgoesto[6]thelightis reborninanupperclassfamilyofwealthywarriors,brahmansorcitizens wheretherearealltheluxuriesoflife;moreoverthepersonisbeautiful.this personleadsagoodlifewithhisbody,hisspeech,andhisthoughtandafter deathhegoestotheheavenlyworld. HowisthispassagesupposedtoestablishVetter'sthesistotheextentthat "accordingtoancientbuddhismgooddeedsleadtoheavenandbaddeedstothe underworld"?sure,theycanleadthere,too,butpersonallyiwouldbeextremely hesitanttoconcludefromsomesuchpassagethattheycanonlyleadthere.ifindit veryplausiblethatinsuchdiscussionsparticularformsofrebirthmaybe highlighted,occasionallyeventotheexclusionofotherformsofrebirth,depending oftheparticularpointthisorthatsermonisintendedtomake. 14 Isthereanyother evidenceinsupportofthethesisthatheavenandtheunderworldaretheonly destinationsatdeath? Vettercontinuesonthesamepage80withthewords:"Passagesinthecanon whichmentionthe divineeye arealsogroundsforassumingthatintheearliest periodtheideaofkarmawasonlyconnectedwithheavenandtheunderworldand notwithafuturehumanexistence"(myemphasis,jb).unfortunatelyforvetter, 13 Vetter,1988: OneishereremindedofthestatementattributedtoŚāṭyāyaniinJaiminīyaUpaniṣad Brāhmaṇa (ed.B.R.Sharma):"Thisworldismuchafflictedwithdisease.Butthey talkandexertthemselvesoutofloveforthat[otherworld](i.e.,heaven).whowoulddo awaywiththat[otherworld]andcomebackhere?"

6 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 6 the divineeye passagesdonotprovemuch,andvetterishonestenoughtoshow intowhatquandarytheygethim.considerthefollowingpassagefromhisbook: 15 Thedivineeyeisidenticaltothesecondofthetwotypesofknowledge whichinthedetaileddescriptionofthedhyānapathhavebeeninserted betweentheattainmentofthefourthstageofdhyānaandtherealizationof thefournobletruths.thissecondtypeofknowledgeisdescribed(cf.e.g. MN27,Ip.183)asfollows(abridged): "With(his)divineeyeheseescreaturesdisappearingand reappearing,thelowlyandtheexalted,beautifulandugly,witha blessedexistenceoramiserableexistence.heunderstandsthatthey returninaccordancewiththeirdeeds.somecreaturesdoevilwith theirbody,theirspeechandtheirthoughts.theycondemnthenoble (ariya),theyhavewrongviewsandconductthemselves[conformable tothese]wrongviews;afterdeaththeyreappearintheunderworld. Butothercreaturesdogoodwiththeirbody,theirspeechandtheir thoughts.theydonotcondemnthenoble,theyhavetherightviews andconductthemselves[conformabletothese]rightviews;after deaththeyreappearintheheavenlyworld" [7] Thetheoreticiansofthedhyānapaththoughtthatalsoaremembranceof one'sformerexistencesbelongedtotheenlightenmentandreleaseofthe Buddhaandhisbetterdisciples.Buttheformulaoftheremembranceof formerexistences,whichisperhapsalsoveryoldbutcomesfromadifferent source,doesnotmentionaheavenandanunderworld,norkarmic retribution,itisonlyconcernedwithrebirthintheworldofman.itstates (e.g.inmnip.22,abridged): "Irememberoneformerexistence,two,three,...ten,twenty,thirty,...ahundred,athousand,ahundredthousand,numerousaeonsin whichtheworldapproachesdestruction,numerousaeonsinwhich theworldexpands...thereihadthisname,belongedtothisfamily, thiscaste,hadthislivelihood,experiencedthishappinessandsorrow, livedsolong;havingdisappearedfromthereireappearedhere,had thisname..." Whatconclusionsshouldonedrawfromthissituation?Oftwosupposedlyveryold passagesoneonlymentionstheunderworldandtheheavenlyworld,theotherone "isonlyconcernedwithrebirthintheworldofman".vetter'sowncommentis(p. 83):"Thejuxtapositionofthetwoformulasallowedpersonstomentallycombine themandreadinthemwhattheyexpectedtofindthere,namelythatthequalityof humanexistenceisalsotheeffectofkarma."butthisavoidstheissue.ifwe assume,withvetter,thatthetwopassagesareincontradiction,thepreferencefor oneofthetwoasrepresentingthepositionofancientbuddhism,orevenofthe Buddha,ispurelysubjective.Butthereisnoreasontoseeacontradictionbetween 15 Vetter,1988:82-83.

7 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 7 thetwo.thefactthatoneconcentratesonheavenandtheunderworld,andtheother onhumanexistences,mayindicatethatthedoctrineofrebirthwasgiven interpretationsthatfittedthesituation,orthemoodofthespeaker.butboth passagesfitinwithageneralconceptofkarmaandrebirthwhichconcerns existencesbothamonghumanbeingsandinheavenandtheunderworld. 16 Thesuppositionthatthedoctrineofrebirthwasgiveninterpretationsthat fittedthesituation,orthemoodofthespeaker,seemstofindconfirmationinthe circumstance,emphasizedbylambertschmithausen(1992:138),that"inthe Aśokaninscriptions,thereisnomentionofrebirthasananimalorpretanoreven ofareturntotheworldofmen,noristhereanyinstanceofrebirthor transmigrationterminology.theonlythingwefindisthat...aśokacontrasts,with thisworld,theyonder[8]world...,andthatheseemstoequatetheyonderworld moreorlesswithheaven...whichwillbeattainedbythosewhozealouslypractise hisdhaṃma,i.e.moralbehaviour."schmithausencomments:"providedthatthe informationtheinscriptionsyieldonaśoka'sviewonman'sdestinyafterdeathis tolerablycomplete,thisviewdoubtlesslooksfairlyarchaic.insofarasitdoesnot mentionanunderworldorhellasaplacewhereevil-doersgoafterdeath,norreturn fromheaventothehumanworld,itclearlylooksevenmorearchaicthanwhat appearstobetheoldestrebirththeoryinthebuddhistcanon."thislastremark about"whatappearstobetheoldestrebirththeoryinthebuddhistcanon" refers tovetter'sviewswhichwehavebeendiscussing.butschmithausen'ssuggestion aboutaśokacanbedealtwithinthesamewayasvetter'sviewsaboutearly Buddhism.Schmithausenhimselfobserves(p.139):"[Aśoka's]silencemaybe understandableiftheseideaswere,inhistime,not,ornotyet,currentorprominent incertaincircles(e.g.,brahmanism,oramongkṣatriyas,orcommonpeople)and henceignoredbyhiminfavourofakindofcommondenominator,orifhehimself, andperhapseven(someormost?)laybuddhistsathistime,stillstucktoaview closertothevedicorkṣatriyaconethantothosedocumentedbythebuddhist canon."onewouldliketoaddthataśoka'ssilencemaybeequallyunderstandable ifhe,orsomeormostbuddhistsathistime,preferredtoconcentratetheirefforts onrebirthinheaven,ratherthanoccupyingthemselveswithalltheotherpossible formsofrebirth,without,forthatmatter,rejectingthebeliefinthoseotherformsof rebirth. 16 Interestingly,VetterascribesthispositiontothelateryearsoftheBuddha(1988:83): "...somedevelopmentsmaybeexpectedwithinthelonglifetimeofthebuddha,especially thatdifferencesinhumanexistenceareexplainedbykarma...andthatafterdeathonedoes notalwaysgotoheavenortheunderworld,butthatonebecomesdirectlyahumanbeingif onehasnoextremelygoodorbadkarma."

8 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 8 LetusnowreturntoVetter'sviewsaboutearliestBuddhism.Beyondthe argumentsjustdiscussed,nofurtheronesaregiven,asfarasicansee,insupportof theview"thatgooddeedsleadtoheavenandbaddeedstotheunderworld".andif Ievaluatethesituationcorrectly,byfarthemostimportantargumentinsupportof thisviewispreciselytheoneaccordingtowhich"[t]hemostancientplacesfound inthevedaswhererebirthismentionedshowonlyabeliefintheotherworld".the situationofthebuddhaisevidentlylookeduponasadevelopmentoftheonefound intheearliestrelevantvedictexts.sincetheearlyvedicpassagesshowonlya beliefintheotherworld,passagesinthebuddhistcanonthatremotelysuggestthe samemustsomehow,sovetter,belongtoearliestbuddhism. Thisisofcourseadangerousproceduretofollow.Thetendencytolookfor theoriginofthetheoryofkarmaandrebirthintheveda,once[9]popular,isbeing severelycriticizedthesedays. 17 Moreover,oneshouldnotconfuseVedicpassages thatshowabeliefinthereturnofapersoninhisownfamily,withthoseotherones thatshowacquaintancewiththetheoryofkarmaandrebirth.theformerbeliefis verywide-spreadindeed.itisattestedinethnographicliteraturepertainingtoall thecontinents,anditspresenceinvedicliteratureishardlyremarkable.whether thereisahistoricalconnectionbetweenthisbeliefandthetheoryofkarmaand rebirthisfarfromobvious,andhasnotsofarbeenshown. Wecan,andmust,concludethattheevidenceinsupportofthetheorythatin earlybuddhism"gooddeedsleadtoheavenandbaddeedstotheunderworld"and nowhereelseisextremelyprecarious.letusnowconsidertheviewsofanother scholarwhohasappliedasimilarmethod.thisscholarisfumioenomoto.his articlecalled"ontheannihilationofkarmaninearlybuddhism"(1989)begins withthefollowingreflections: 18 Asiswellknown,earlyBuddhismandearlyJainismhavecommonaspects. Comparingthepracticeoftheformerwiththatofthelatter,however,we findaradicaldifferencebetweenthem.themainpointofjainapracticeisto annihilatekarman(actionandlatentsubstanceleftbehindbyit,which produceseffect),whilethatof[the]buddhistoneistoannihilatekleśa (mentaldefilement).theideaofkarmanandtransmigrationappeared alreadyintheearlyupaniṣads,whicharethoughttohavebeencomposed beforetheformationofbuddhismandjainism.weseemanydescriptionsof howonetransmigratesaccordingtohisownkarmanintheliteraturesof earlybuddhismaswellasofearlyjainism.jainapracticetoemancipate fromthistransmigrationfundamentallyconsistsofmakingnonewkarman andeliminatinghithertoaccumulatedkarmanaccordingly.however, 17 Bodewitz,1992;1993;1996;1996a;Bronkhorst,1993a.SeefurtherSchmithausen, 1995:49f. 18 Enomoto,1989:43-44.

9 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 9 Buddhistpracticewouldbetheannihilationofkleśa,butnotofkarman.This seemstoreflecttheviewwhoseexplicitexpressionisfoundin...later Buddhistliterature...ThendidearlyBuddhismhavenoideaofthe eliminationorannihilationofkarman? Thisquestiondeterminesthesubsequentdevelopmentofthepaperand,Idaresay, itsoutcome.thefirstandmainconclusionis(p.55):"karmanistobeshakenoffin BuddhismaswellasintheearlyUpaniṣadsandJainism."Thejustificationofthis conclusionisonerathershortsection,themainstatementsofwhichare(p.44-45): [10] Makinganexhaustiveinvestigationontheoccur[r]enceofthewordkarman (kamma)inearlybuddhistliterature,wefindsomedescriptionswhichshow theeliminationofkarman.oneofthemisfoundintheudāna...3.1,wherea mendicantwhoeliminateshithertomadekarmanisdescribedinverse.... Theideaofshakingoffkarmanorthelikeisexpressedintheliteraturesof theearlyupaniṣadsandjainism...thusthisverseoftheudānaincludes theideaswhicharecommonwiththeearlyupaniṣadsandjainism. IdonotknowwhetherEnomotohasanyfurtherevidencethanonlythisversefrom theudāna;hecertainlydoesnotrefertoitinthissection.heonlyaddsafootnote whichshowsthatthereadingofthecrucialwordkammaintheverseisnot guaranteed:otherversionsevidentlyhadkāma.this,ofcourse,weakenshis positionevenfurther. OnehasthestrongimpressionthatEnomotoisnotreallybotheredbythis lackofevidence.hismainargumentisevidentlythatthisideaoccursinthe UpaniṣadsandJainaliterature,andthatitthereforemusthavebeenpartofearly Buddhism. Strengthenedbythisconclusion,Enomotodrawssomeotherones,on equallyslendertextualevidence.hisfifthconclusion,inparticular,deservesour attention.hereenomotocitesthefollowingpassagefromtheaṅguttaranikāya(p. 52): so navañ ca kammaṃ na karoti, purāṇañ ca kammaṃ phussa phussa vyantikaroti, sandiṭṭhikā nijjarā akālikā ehipassikā opanayikā paccattaṃ veditabbā viññūhi(ani,p.221) Hetranslates: Hemakesnonewkarmanandannihilatesformerkarman,experiencing(its retribution)successively.suchis(thewayof)wearingout(karman)which isvisibleinthislife,takesnotime,iswhatoneistocomeandsee,leads onwards(tothegoal)andistobeknownbytheintelligenteachforhimself.

10 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 10 Enomotothencomments: [11] Thewordnijjarā(nirjarā)isatechnicaltermofJainapracticeandindicates theannihilationofkarman,whichalsoappearsintheprecedingpassageof theintroductionofjainapractice.thiswordappearinghereinbuddhist practicewouldalsoindicatethesame.thepractice"hemakesnonew karmanandannihilatesformerkarman"alsoisalmostthesameasthejaina practice...introducedintheprecedingpassage.however,thewayofthe annihilationisdifferent.thisisenabledbyshakingofkarmanitselfinearly Jainapractice,butbythesuccessiveexperienceoftheretributionofkarman withthethreefundamentalstages(i.e.,śīla,samādhiandprajñā,jb)inthis Buddhistpracticeastheexpression"experiencing(itsretribution) successively"shows. Theconclusioniseasytoanticipate(p.55):"karmanmaybeannihilatedbythe successiveexperienceofitsretributionwiththethreefundamentalstagesof Buddhistpractice."Onceagain,oneisolatedpassagefromtheearlySūtra-Piṭakais deemedtobesufficienttojustifyaconclusionaboutearlybuddhism;thefactthat thereisaclosesimilaritywithearlyjainismisapparentlyconsideredasupporting factor. 19 Theopinionswhichwehaveconsideredsofarshareonecommonfeature. Thescholarsconcernedapparentlybelievethattracesoftheteachingsofthe Buddha,orofearliestBuddhismifyoulike,canonlybefoundinpassagesthatdo notfitinwellwiththegenerallyrecognizedcanonicalpointsofview.manyearlier scholars,too,havestartedfromthisassumption,andtheyhaveproducedan impressivecollectionofmutuallydifferingviewsaboutearliestbuddhism. 20 Can wereallyexpecttomakeanyprogressinthisdirection?iwouldthinknot. EquallyuselessseemstomethepostulatethatearliestBuddhism i.e.,the teachingofthebuddha musthavebeenmoreorlessidenticalwithwhatwefind intherelevantvedicandjainatexts.muchofwhatwefindintheearlybuddhist textsevidentlydeviatesquiteconsiderablyfromthoseancientsources.thismust thenrepresentlaterdevelopmentswithinbuddhism.howarethesedevelopments tobeexplained?dowehavetoconcludethatthebuddha whoclaimedtohavea newmessage hadreallynothingnewtosay,whereashisearlyfollowers who 19 Theideaofannihilationofkarmanthroughtheexperienceitspainfulresultsis elsewhereinthebuddhistcanonattributedtothejainas;seebronkhorst,1993:26f. 20 ItissomewhatsurprisingthatChr.Lindtner(1997:113)considersit"unfortunatethat thedebateaboutprecanonicalbuddhism...has...largelybeendiscontinued".lindtner himselfmakessomesuggestionsabout"precanonicalbuddhism"inwhichsimilaritywith Vedicviewsistreatedassupportingevidence(e.g.pp.117,135f.).

11 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 11 claimedtopreservetheteachingsoftheirmaster couldnotrestraintheir originality?isthisnotputtingthingsontheirhead?ofcoursenewdevelopments mayhavetakenplaceafterthedeathofthebuddha,andithinkitisundeniablethat theyhave.butadmittingthisisnotthesameaspracticallydenyingthatthebuddha hadanythingnewtosaybyreducinghisteachings,asfarasthetextspossibly allow,tosomethingmoreorlessidenticalwithwhatwefindincertainvedicand Jainatexts. [12] ThisisnottodenythattherearepassagesintheBuddhistcanonthatare verysimilartoideascurrentamongnon-buddhistsofthetime.butratherthan concludingthatthey,andonlythey,representearliestbuddhism,whilealltherest wasmadebymonks,itispreciselythesepassageswhosepresenceinthebuddhist canoncanbemosteasilyexplainedontheassumptionthattheyarenotpartof earliestbuddhism.theymayhavebeenborrowedfromtheothercurrentswhich scholarslikeenomotohavesocarefullyidentified. Moregenerally,Iwouldliketoproposetwosimplemethodologicalrules.In thefirstplace,inordertofindtheteachingsofthebuddha,weshouldlookfor ideasthataremostclearlydistinctfromtheothercurrentsofthattimethatwe knowof,ratherthandifferentfromgenerallyrecognizedbuddhistcanonicalviews. Secondly,ratherthanrejectingbeforehandthewholecanonwiththeonlyexception ofone'sfewfavoritepassages,iproposetorejectmoreparsimoniously:inprinciple thecanonpreservestheteachingsofthebuddha,butinpracticecertainideasand practicespresentedinithavetobediscardedforspecifiablereasons. Theseruleshaveofcoursetobehandledwithgreatcare.Iwillnotenterinto adiscussionofthetheoreticalandpracticaldifficultiesinvolved,butratherturn directlytothequestionthatconcernsushere:whatwasthebuddha'sattitudewith regardtokarmaandrebirth? Ourfirstmethodologicalruleleavesnodoubtastotheanswer.Enomoto startedhisarticlewiththeobservationconcerningtheradicaldifferencebetween earlybuddhismandearlyjainism.hismethodologicalapproachlookeduponthis situationasproblematic.ourfirstmethodologicalrule,ontheotherhand,seesinit supportingevidencethatpossiblythebuddhisttextualtraditionhasherepreserved anoriginalelementofthebuddha'steaching.contrarytoothermovementsofthat time,thebuddhadidnotconsiderphysicalactivitytobethecauseofrebirth,but rathertheintentionbehindit.numerouspassagesabouttheimportanceof thirst

12 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 12 (tṛṣṇā)areinagreementwiththisview.thirstisclosetointention,inthatitcan expressitselfinphysicalactivity,butisclearlydistinctfromit. 21 [13] LambertSchmithausen(1986:205ff.)hasonceraisedthequestionwhether karmaalreadyplayedaroleinthetheoryofrebirthofearlybuddhism. Schmithausenrecognizestheacceptanceofrebirthatthisearlyperiod,butwonders whetherkarmaplayedadecisiveroleinit.insupportofthisreflectionhepointsat thefrequentmentionofthirstintheearlytexts.ihavealreadyexplainedthat Schmithausen'squestionseemsjustifiedtome.Butinsteadofspeculatingabouta completelydifferentviewofrebirthwhichsupposedlycharacterizedtheteachings ofthebuddha,itseemstomemorethansufficienttoconcludetheobvious:thatthe Buddhainterpretedkarmadifferently;notasjustphysicalactivity,butratherasthe mentalattitudes(intention,desire,etc.)behindit. Ihavesofarpresentedtwopositions,twodifferentapproaches,withregard tokarmaandrebirthinearlybuddhism.ishallnowpresentwhatseemstome crucialfurtherevidencesupportingthepositionihavebeendefending.this positiondoesnotonlydomorejusticetothemainbodyofthetexts thiswehave seen.inadditionitenablesustoexplainthepresenceofagreatnumberof deviatingpassagesinthetexts,includingtheoneswhichenomotousedasevidence forhistheory.sinceihavedealtwiththeseissuesalreadyinsomerecent publications,icannotenterintodetails. 22 ButnordoIneedto,formycentral argumentisverysimple. ManyofthecontemporariesoftheBuddhalookeduponkarmaasphysical andmentalactivity. 23 Thiskarmawasbelievedtodetermineone'sfuturelife.Many ofthosecontemporariesdidnotwantafuturelife.howcouldtheyavoidit?two typesofsolutionareknownfromtheliterature,bothofwhichdependcruciallyon theconceptofkarmaasphysicalandmentalactivity.rebirthcouldbeavoidedby notacting,physicallyaswellasmentally.thisaimwasaccomplished oratleast effortsweremadeinthatdirection intwoways.some,mostnotablythejainas 21 Suchapointofviewisnotentirelyunknowntoearlynon-Buddhistliterature;cp.Bṛh- Up4.4.6f.(withkāma),whereVetter(1996:54n.20)suspectsBuddhistinfluence.The JainaSūyagaḍa(2.6.27f.)expressesitsdisgustattheBuddhistposition,whichmighteven justifycannibalism:"ifasavageputsamanonaspitandroastshim,mistakinghimfora fragmentofthegranary...hewillnotbeguiltyofmurderaccordingtoourviews...that willbeamealfitforbuddhastofeaston"(bollée,1974:28). 22 Bronkhorst,1993; Johnson(1995:11ff.)andfollowinghimDundas(1997:504)emphasiseJainism's originaldenialofthevalidityofintentionindefininganaction.

13 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 13 (butnotonlythey)practisedasceticismwhichfocusedonbodilyandmental immobility.thediscomfortthesepracticesentailedwerelookeduponastheresults ofearlieractionswhichdisappearedbygivingriseinthiswaytoretributive experience.oncefreedfromthese[14]earlieractions,physicalandmental motionlessnessuntildeathcouldguaranteefinalliberation. Besidestheseascetics,therewerethosewhobelievedthattherealselfdoes notparticipateintheactionsofbodyormind.identificationwiththoseactionsis thereforeessentiallybaseduponamistake,amisunderstandingconcerningone's truenature.insightintothetrue,inactive,natureoftheselfistheremedyforthese thinkers,andidonotneedtoremindyouthatthisconvictioniswidelyrepresented indeedinindianthought. Noteagainthatboththesesolutionsdependvitallyonacertainconceptof karma.karmahastobephysicalandmentalactivity,andnot(ornotprimarily)the intentionsbehindit.thisisparticularlyclearinthecaseoftheasceticpractices tendingtowardsimmobility.theyareattemptstostopphysicalandmentalactivity. Thebeliefinabynatureinactiveself,too,isclearlyrelatedtotheviewthatactivity bringsabouttheresultsonewishestoavoid.thebuddha,however,hadadifferent conceptofkarma.notphysicalandmentalactivitiesassuch,butintentionsand desireswereforhimresponsibleforrebirth.thismeansthatneitherofthetwo solutionsdiscussedcouldpossiblybeacceptabletohim.bothofthemareindeed criticizedintheearlybuddhisttexts.thejainawayofimmobilizationisridiculed, andtheideathatinsightintothetruenatureoftheselfcouldleadtoliberationis rejected.hisproblem,contrarytothatofhiscontemporaries,waspsychological,so hissolutionhadtobepsychologicalaswell.andindeed,theearlybuddhisttexts containdescriptionsofthepathtoliberationwhicharenotattemptstoimmobilize thebodyandthemind,butwhichconcernpsychologicalprocesses,theexactnature ofwhichitisdifficulttoevaluate.ithinkhereinthefirstplaceofthelong descriptioncenteringonmindfulnessandculminatingintheso-calledfour Dhyānasandliberationthroughaliberatinginsight. MymainpointsofaristhattheBuddha'spathtoliberationwasessentially differentfromthatofhiscontemporaries,becausehisconceptofkarmawas differentfromtheirs.idonotknowwhetherhewastheonlyoneinhistimeto thinkofkarmainthisway.itseemshowevercertainthathisfollowerskepthaving difficultiesacceptingthisdifferentconceptofkarma.thisiconcludefromthefact thatpracticesandideasrelatedtotheotherconceptofkarmakeeponpoppingup withinthebuddhisttradition.interestingly,suchpracticesandideasareoften presentedascorrectatoneplaceintheearlytexts,andcriticizedand[15]rejected

14 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 14 atanother.exampleshavebeendiscussedintheearlierpublicationsreferredto, andonlysomeillustrationswillbetakenfromthem. "ASūtraoftheMajjhimaNikāya(theCūḷadukkhakkhandhaSutta)andits parallelsinchinesetranslationdescribeandcriticisethejainasaspractising annihilationofformeractionsbyasceticism and non-performingofnewactions. ThiscanbeacceptedasanaccuratedescriptionofthepracticesoftheJainas.But severalothersūtrasofthebuddhistcanonputalmostthesamewordsinthemouth ofthebuddha,whohereapprovesofthesepractices." 24 Thispractice aformof whichenomotoconsideredtobelongtoearliestbuddhism,aswehaveseen clearlyisofthekindthatwemaycall"inactivityasceticism".itcannotbeexcluded thattheformadoptedbyatleastsomebuddhistsdistinguisheditselfinsomedetails fromtheformacceptedbythejainas(asenomotomaintains),buteveninthis adaptedformitcorrespondstoaconceptofkarmawhichwasnotthatofthe Buddha. Forcertainnon-Buddhists,insightintothetruenatureoftherealselfserved thepurposeofendingthemistakenidentificationwithone'sactions,aswehave seen.theallegedlyfirstsermonofthebuddhaaccomplishesthesameaim,using anamazingdevice.itsupposedlyendedthefirstmonks'mistakenidentification withtheiractions,notwiththehelpofadoctrineoftheself,butwithadoctrineof thenot-self:sincenoneoftheconstituentsofapersonarehisself,heturnsaway fromthem;"turningawayheisdispassionate;throughdispassionheisfreed;inthe freedonetheknowledgecomestobe: Iamfreed,andheknows:Birthhasbeen destroyed,thepurelifehasbeenlived,whatwastobedonehasbeendone,sothat thereisnomorereturnhere". 25 InthemostrecentoftheearlierpublicationsmentionedaboveIalsopointed outthatpracticesandideascorrespondingtothenon-buddhistconceptofkarma continuedtoexertanattractiononthebuddhists,evenlongafterthedaysof"early Buddhism". 26 Itheredrewattentiontothepracticeofphysicalinactivityadvocated bythechinesemastercalledmahāyānainthe8thcenturyintibet,andtothe tathāgatagarbhadoctrineinmahāyānabuddhism,whichissoclosetotheideaof aninactiveselfthatevensomebuddhisttextsdrawattentiontoit. [16] Iconsiderallthesecasessupplementaryevidence(ifevidencewasneeded) supportingthepositionthatbuddhism andthismeansinthiscasenodoubt:the 24 Bronkhorst,1995: Bronkhorst,1995: Bronkhorst,1995:

15 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 15 Buddha introducedaconceptofkarmathatdifferedconsiderablyfromthe commonlyheldviewsofhistime.letmespecify,inordertoavoid misunderstanding,thatidonotwishtostatecategoricallythatnocontemporaryof thebuddhasharedhisconceptofkarma(howcouldiknow?),andnordoiwishto claimthatinlaterperiodsonlythebuddhistsacceptedit. Letusreturntothesubject-matterofthislecture:DidtheBuddhabelievein karmaandrebirth?theanswer,insofarasthetextsallowustoreachananswer, seemstomeanunambiguous yes.thebuddhadidbelieveinrebirth,andhedid believethatone'sfuturedestinyisdeterminedbywhatwemaycallkarma,but whichisinsomeessentialrespectsdifferentfromwhathiscontemporariesmeant byit.forthebuddha,one'sfuturedestinyisdeterminedbywhatpassesinone's mind,i.e.,bydesiresandintentions. 27 Andthereisnoreasontothinkthatthis futuredestinyconsistedforhimexclusivelyofheavenandunderworld. Onelastquestion:HowdoweexplainthattheBuddha'sconceptofkarma, i.e.ofthefactorsthatdeterminethedetailsofone'sfuturelife,differedinsuchan essentialmannerfromcommonlyheldviewsinhistime?here,iwouldthink,one canonlyspeculate.itispossiblethatheinheritedthisconvictionfromothers, perhapsfromhisparents.or,andthisisapossibilitythatcannotbediscarded offhand,hemodifiedhisviewsinthisrespectinthelightoftheexperiencesthatled to,orconstituted,hisliberation.allthis,irepeat,isspeculation.butthesecond possibilityshowsthatitisnotguaranteedthatthebuddhacontinuedhereanearlier tradition.historiansofideashaveatendencytolookforantecedents,andtheyare rightindoingso.butthistendencyshouldnotleadtoahistoriographyofideas whichdoesnolongerallowfornewideastocomeintobeing.thebuddha's conceptofkarmamayhavebeensuchanewidea,andthesolutionheofferedtothe problemofrebirthwasalmostcertainlysomethingnewinhistime. [17] References: Bodewitz,H.W.(1992):"OorsprongenachtergrondvandeIndische wedergeboorte-leer."mknawl,n.s.,55(6), Bodewitz,H.W.(1993):"Non-ritualkarmanintheVeda."Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office Centenary Commemoration Volume ( ).Ed.Sudhakar Malaviya.Varanasi:ChowkhambaSanskritSeriesOffice(ChSS,105).Pp Bodewitz,H.W.(1996):"Thepañcāgnividyāandthepitṛyāna/devayāna."Studies on Indology. Professor Mukunda Madhava Sharma Felicitation Volume.Ed. 27 Tobedistinguishedfrommerementalactivity,which beingoneformofactivity alsootherreligiousmovements,suchasjainism,triedtosuppress.

16 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 16 AshokKumarGoswamiandDharmeswarChutia.Delhi:SriSatguru.(Sri GaribDasOrientalSeries,201.)Pp Bodewitz,H.W.(1996a):"Redeathanditsrelationtorebirthandrelease."StII20 (FestschriftPaulThieme),1996, Bollée,W.B.(1974):"BuddhistsandBuddhismintheearlierliteratureofthe ŚvetāmbaraJains."Buddhist Studies in Honour of I. B. Horner.Dordrecht- Boston:D.Reidel.Pp Bronkhorst,Johannes(1993):The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. 2ndrevisededition.Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass. Bronkhorst,Johannes(1993a):The Two Sources of Indian Asceticism.Bern:Peter Lang.(SchweizerAsiatischeStudien/ÉtudesAsiatiques,Monographie13.) Bronkhorst,Johannes(1995):"TheBuddhaandtheJainasreconsidered."AS49(2), 1995, Dundas,Paul(1997):"Thelaicisationofthebondlessdoctrine:anewstudyofthe developmentofearlyjainism."jip25, Enomoto,Fumio(1989):"OntheannihilationofkarmaninearlyBuddhism." Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan(Tōhō Gakkai,InstituteofEasternCulture)34, Frauwallner,Erich(1953):Geschichte der indischen Philosophie.I.Band. Salzburg:OttoMüller. Gombrich,Richard(1993):"Buddhistprediction:howopenisthefuture?" Predicting the Future.Ed.LeoHoweandAlanWain.CambridgeUniversity Press.Pp Hallisey,Charles(1995):"RoadstakenandnottakeninthestudyofTheravāda Buddhism."Curators of the Buddha: The study of Buddhism under colonialism. Ed.DonaldS.Lopez.UniversityofChicagoPress.Pp Harrison,Paul(1995):"SomereflectionsonthepersonalityoftheBuddha,"Otani Gakuho (Journal of Buddhist Studies and Humanities; Otani University) 74(4),1-29. [18] Hirakawa,Akira(1990):A History of Indian Buddhism, from Śākyamuni to early Mahāyāna.TranslatedandeditedbyPaulGroner.UniversityofHawaii Press. Johnson,W.J.(1995):Harmless Souls. Karmic bondage and religious change in early Jainism with special reference to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda.Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass.(LalaSundarLalJainResearchSeries,9.) Lindtner,Christian(1997):"TheproblemofprecanonicalBuddhism."BSR14(2), Pyysiäinen,Ilkka(1996):Belief and Beyond.Åbo:ÅboAkademi. (Religionsvetenkapligaskrifternr33.) Schmithausen,Lambert(1986):"Criticalresponse."Karma and Rebirth: Postclassical developments,ed.ronaldw.neufeldt.stateuniversityofnew YorkPress.Pp Schmithausen,Lambert(1992):"Anattempttoestimatethedistanceintime betweenaśokaandthebuddhaintermsofdoctrinalhistory."the Dating of the Historical Buddha / Die Datierung des historischen Buddha,Part2,ed. HeinzBechert,Göttingen:Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht.Pp Schmithausen,L.(1995):"Mensch,TierundPflanzeundderTodindenälteren Upaniṣaden."Im Tod gewinnt der Mensch sein Selbst: Das Phänomen des Todes in asiatischer und abendländischer Religionstradition.Ed.Gerhard Oberhammer.Wien:VerlagderÖsterreichischenAkademieder Wissenschaften.(ÖAW,phil.-hist.Kl.,Sb,624.Bd.)Pp

17 DID THE BUDDHA BELIEVE IN KARMA AND REBIRTH 17 Vetter,Tilmann(1988):The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. Leidenetc.:E.J.Brill. Vetter,Tilmann(1995):"BeiLebzeitendasTodloseerreichen:ZumBegriffamata imaltenbuddhismus."im Tod gewinnt der Mensch sein Selbst: Das Phänomen des Todes in asiatischer und abendländischer Religionstradition, ed.gerhardoberhammer.wien:verlagderöaw(saww624).pp Vetter,Tilmann(1996):"DasErwachendesBuddha".WZKS40, Vetter,Tilmann(1996a):"TodimBuddhismus."Der Tod in den Weltkulturen und Weltreligionen.Ed.ConstantinvonBarloewen.München:Diederichs.Pp (Theversionusedbymeistheoriginalunpublishedtext,which hasbeendistributedbytheauthorbecauseitisinvariousrespectsbetter thanthepublishedversion;pagenumbering1-26). Vetter,Tilmann(1997):"DerBuddhismusunddieFragenacheiner weltbildindifferentenerfahrung."das Evangelium und die Weltreligionen. Theologische und philosophische Herausforderungen.Hrsg.Hans-Peter Müller.Stuttgart-Berlin-Köln:W.Kohlhammer.Pp Witzel,Michael(1984):"TheearliestformoftheideaofrebirthinIndia." Proceedings of the 31st Intern. Congr. of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa,ed.YAMAMOTOTatsuo.Tokyo:TheTōhōGakkai.VolI.Pp [19] Abbreviations: AN Aṅguttara-Nikāya,ed.R.Morris,E.Hardy,5vols.,London (PTS) AS AsiatischeStudien,ÉtudesAsiatiques,Bern Bṛh-Up Bṛhadāraṇyaka-Upaniṣad BSR BuddhistStudiesReview,London ChSS ChowkhambaSanskritSeries,Varanasi JIP JournalofIndianPhilosophy,Dordrecht MKNAWL MededelingenderKoninklijkeNederlandseAkademievan Wetenschappen,Afd.Letterkunde,Amsterdam MN Majjhima-Nikāya,ed.V.Trenckner,R.Chalmers,3vols.,London (PTS) N.S. NewSeries ÖAW ÖsterreichischeAkademiederWissenschaften,Wien PTS PaliTextSociety,London SAWW SitzungsberichtederAkademiederWissenschafteninWien,Phil.-hist. Kl.,Wien SN Saṃyutta-Nikāya,ed.L.Feer,5vols.,London (PTS) StII StudienzurIndologieundIranistik WZKS WienerZeitschriftfürdieKundeSüdasiens,Wien