Muslim youths in China and their problems. Isa Ma 1

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1 Muslim youths in China and their problems Isa Ma 1 Abstract Based on China Statistical Yearbook data, National Census data in 1990, 2000 and 2010 and a social survey conducted in China in the period of July and August 2012, this paper evaluated Muslim segments in China including their size, geographical locations and Muslim income level in China. Specifically, this paper examined Muslim ethnocentrism, religiosity and self-identity of Muslim youths in China by using Partial Least Square (PLS) method. This research found that Muslim youths are very low in their cultural ethnocentrism, religiosity and self-identity as a result of long process of assimilation initiated by the Chinese Communist regime in the school education system of China. This paper also combated some serious problems faced by Chinese Muslim youths in China and criticized polices adopted by Chinese government in handling of Chinese Muslims in China. Keywords: Chinese Muslims and Muslim Youths in China 1. Introduction Some explanations are necessary in terms of who or what the Chinese Muslims are. Since the People s Republic of China was established in October 1949, there has been no systematic attempt by the central government to calculate the number of followers of Islam or indeed of any other religion. For much of the period since 1949, it was state and party policy to promote atheism and to suppress or ignore religions, which were regarded as feudal and medieval superstitions. This uncompromising approach was modified in more liberal times, notably since 1979, to allow the limited expression of religious beliefs provided that these did not conflict with the interests of the state. This positive development was primarily a concession to the rights of ethnic minorities and their beliefs, rather than an indicator of a more favourable attitude toward religious freedom. Although religious leaders in China have their own estimates of the numbers of their followers, they do not have the resources that the state has at the disposal to compile Muslim statistics. State organizations have kept records of the population of different ethnic minority groups, in line with the nationalities policy that the Chinese Communist Party adapted from the practices of Stalin s Union, which is to play down the real Muslim population figure to avoid international community pressure on China s human rights issues. Ten Nationalities (Minzu in Chinese) have been identified as Muslims, either because of their tradition and culture or their current religious adherence, and Chinese account of Muslims applies the term equally to all members of those ten nationalities. The Degree to which China s Muslims would be considered pious believers by the rest of the Islamic world varies greatly. There are Imams and their loyal followers in the mosques whose practices are the same as orthodox Muslims anywhere in the Islamic world and there are also devoted members 1 Isa Ma is a Chinese Muslim originally from China and currently is a lecturer in the Department of East Asian Studies, University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Isa Ma could be contacted through mobile phone: and isama007@yahoo.com or maziliang@um.edu.my 1

2 of secretive Sufi brotherhoods who remember Allah through chanting and singing. On the other side, there are also Chinese Communist Party cadres from the ethnic groups designated as Muslim who are at least officially atheist. Many members of China s Muslim communities find themselves somewhere between these two positions. In 2010, a Chinese Communist professor by surname of Yang from Central University for Nationalities University (Minzu University), China blindly lied on CCTV that ethnic Uyghurs were closer descendants to the ethnic Han and ignored a fact that the Uyghurs are coloured eye people and ethnic Han are not. Ethnic Muslim Groups Table 1.1 the language Spoken by Muslims in China Population Language Language Written Major in Spoken Family Script Residing 2000 Areas 2 Similarity with Han Chinese A The Chinese origin 1 The Hui 9,816,800 Chinese Chinese Chinese All over Higher of China B The Turkic Origin 2 the Uyghur 8,399,400 Uyghurs Turkic Arabic Xinjiang Low 3 Kazak 1,250,500 Kazakh Turkic Arabic Xinjiang Low 4 Kyrgyz 160,800 kirghizian Turkic Arabic Xinjiang Low 5 Uzbek 12,400 Uzbeki Turkic Arabic Xinjiang Low 6 Tatar 4,000 Tatar Turkic Arabic Xinjiang Low 7 Salar 104,500 Salar Turkic Arabic Gansu Low C The Mongol origins: 8 Dongxiang 9 Bo nan 510,380 Dongxiang Archaic Mongolian 16,500 Baonan Archaic Mongolian Nil Gansu Medium Nil Gansu Medium D The Iranian origin: 10 the Tajik 41,000 Tajik Persian Persian Xinjiang Low Total 20,328,100 Various criteria are used for assigning individuals and communities to the officially recognized ethnic groups in China, but an important one is the language that they speak. Six of the ten Muslim ethnic groups, whose members live mainly in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region (Also known to as Eastern Turkistan to many non-chinese). These six non-chinese ethnic Muslim groups are the Uyghurs, Kazak, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Tatars and Tajiks and each of them speaks a language from the Turkic family except the Tajiks, whose mother tongue is related closely to Persian language. The population, except the Uyghurs, all other the five Muslim ethnic groups in China are diminishing dramatically and one day they will disappear in China. Is it because of family plan policy or some other reasons? Why should not the Chinese regime protect them as they are protecting the Panda? For example, there are only approximately 4900 Tatars in China in 2000 according to National Census and this figure is comparatively smaller than the figure of panda which the government is try to protect in China. The most serious myth to Chinese Muslims is, since they are minorities, therefore there is no one child policy applied to them- I think this is very wrong and misleading. It is general propaganda information provided by the Chinese government officers to the overseas Chinese to misinform the foreigners around the world that there is a favorable policy towards ethnic minorities, I think it is a deadly mistake, if you ask any of Hui in Gansu province, the answer is no and same applied to Ningxia and Xinjiang region.

3 Less Distinguishing with Ethnic Han More Distinguishing with ethnic Han In the region that borders with Gansu and Qinghai provinces, there are three other smaller Muslim ethnic groups, the Salars, the Bao nan, and the Dongxiang. The Salars speak a Turkic language which some linguists consider to be merely a dialect of Uyghur.. The Bao nan and Dongxiang languages are archaic forms of Mongolian, heavily influenced by Chinese through centuries of contact. Of all the Muslim ethnic groups, perhaps the most intriguing are the Hui, who are predominantly Chinese speakers. Figure 1.1 Muslim Minorities and Chinese Han Culture Uyghur Khazak Kyrgyz Uzbeks Salar Tatar Dongxiang Baonan Hui Source: Gladney (2002), Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism? (1) The Hui The term Hui, sometimes seen as Hui Hui, has been used in different periods as both the name of an ethnic group and as a description of religious adherence, simply denoting Muslim, and it is not always clears from the sources which meaning is intended. My grandmother once told me that the ancestors of Hui were from Arab holy lands. One day night the Kind of Tang dreamed that while his palace court pillows were going to fall down and a man wearing Selepan, white towel on his shoulder with water pot on hands appeared in his palace and put up the pillows straightly. The next day the King asked what were signs of this dream to his ministers, his ministers told him his dynasty might have got trouble and the man the King dreamed of was an Arab Muslim from West regions, in order to save the kingdom long peace and stability, the King was suggested to invite Arabic Muslims who are pious and honesty come Chang an, so the King invited some Arab Muslims come to Chang an to protect the dynasty from all sorts of evils, the King welcomed them and gave them places to stay (Fan Fang), encouraged them to stay on, but they always wanted to going home (Hui Hui). Uncomforted with local dietary customs, the King encouraged them to marry with local ethnic Han women, but local Han disliked them because of their horrible physical appearances and the language they spoke (Arabic), so the King arranged a Lantern Festival on August 15 (Chinese year calendar) and let them to select and take any Han girl to marry with. 3

4 In the next days, many Han Chinese parents went to the palace and reported their loss of their daughters. The King told them not worry too much and their daughters would be at home after three days. After three days, the daughter went back home and her parents asked what had happened, the daughter told them so and so, then the Han Chinese parents asked the behaviours of these strange Hui Hui, their daughter said that the Hui Hui husband was very nice to her and the only problem is that she could not understand the language the Hui Hui spoke, so the parents told their daughter that she could live with Hui Hui but not speaking his language. Because of this reason, the later generation of Hui Hui only can speak Chinese language which was the Mother tongue and his father s tongue Arabic was slowly forgotten. When the son grew up, he spoke Chinese language with his mother and spoke Chinese mixed Arabic with his father. Today, when one Hui Hui speaks with another Hui Hui in the Muslim communities of Northwestern China, we often hear that they speak Chinese with Arab mixtures. So the people of Tang called Arab Muslims who married with Han Chinese women and settled down in Chang an as Hui Hui, because that they always wanted going back their homes (Hui Hui). The religion believed by these Hui Hui was referred as Hui Jiao and Jiao is religion in Chinese, the place where these Hui Hui were worshiping was called Hui Jiao Tang, and Tang is Hall or Building in Chinese language, and the places where these Hui Hui were concentrating and staying on the streets of Chang an and Quanzhou were called Hui Fang, and Fang in Chinese language are Houses or places for foreigners to live and granted by the Royal King for applying foreign laws. There were Kadis and Imams in Hui Fang where the Islamic laws were applicable to the residents of these Hui Hui people. In contemporary China, Hui is a portmanteau word, a category which includes all Muslims not otherwise accounted for by ethnos like Uyghur or Kazakh. Unlike the other Muslim groups, and the Hui people have settled all over of China in large numbers and can be found in every provinces and almost every town and city. However, there are significant concentrations of Hui people in two regions of Northwestern China: Gansu province, where an area to the west of the capital city, Lanzhou, is designated the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, and in Ningxia, once a part of Gansu but in 1958 designated a Hui Autonomous Region, a level of administration equivalent to that of a province. According to the 2000 census, the total Hui population of China was 9,816,800. Of which the male population was 5,002,100 and the female population was 4,814,700. In comparison with 1990 census, the Hui population increased 1,204,800, growth rate was 13.99% and annual growth rate was 1.27%. Table 1.2 Hui Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Hui population Hui male Hui female Valid N (listwise) 32 According to the 2010 Chinese National Census, the total Hui population of China was 10,586,087. Of which the male population was 5,373,741 and the female population was 5,212,346. In comparison with the 2000 Chinese National Census, the Hui population increased 769, 287, the growth rate within past ten years was just 7.2% and the annual growth rate was just 0.072%. 4

5 In another word, the Hui population did not increase in the past ten years, but the Hui people feel many Han people surrounding them in their traditionally dominated places. The Hui does not have common area for living, the Hui population mainly distributes in Ningxia, Gansu, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Yunan, Shanxi, Henan, Shandong, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Anhui, and Beijing. The theory of nationality or ethnicity (Min Zu) does not apply onto the Hui nation who does not have a common language and common place. The Hui Muslims are distinguished from members of other Muslim communities in China by their language. Uyghurs, Kazakh, and other groups which have a pre-islamic background have their own Turkic (or in the case Tajiks, Persian) language, whereas the Hui, the majority them use a local Chinese language that prevails where they live or where their community originated. They continue to use a large number of Arabic and Persian words in their daily life, and preserve an attachment to the Arabic script for decorative and symbolic as well as for religious purpose. Figure 1.2 Geographical Distribution of Hui Population in China It is difficult to make accurate generalizations about the Hui Muslims, as there are great regional variations in their history and culture. In particular, there are significant differences between the Hui Muslim Communities in Gansu and Ningxia, in China s Northwest, where Islam is closely woven into the fabric of everyday life, and the Hui inhabitants in the cities of Quan Zhou in Fujian and Guangzhou in Guangdong province on the Southeastern Coast are gradually losing out their Muslim identities. Members of the latter groups, paradoxically, display less-pronounced Islamic characters and have been assimilated or Sinocized and their lifestyles are more closely with the local Han population. Eventually they would lose out their Muslim identities sooner or later, these Hui people have no difference with the local Han Chinese, in spite of the fact that their Muslim identity goes back to much further than that of the communities of the Northwest of China. (2) The Uyghurs The Uyghurs considered themselves to be the indigenous people of Xinjiang, where the majority of them live, although there are Uyghurs in Kazakhstan and other parts of the former Soviet Union and small immigrants communities in Turkey and Germany. They probably arrived in Xinjiang as part of the great westward migration of Turkic peoples from what is now Mongolian in the eighth and ninth centuries. 5

6 The total Uyghur population in 2000 census was approximately 8,399,400. Of which male population were 4,272, 900, and female population were 4,126,500. In comparison with 1990 census, Uyghur population increased 1,182,400, growth rate was 16.54% and annual growth rate was 1.48 %. Table 1.3 Uyghur Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Urghur population Uyghur male Uyghur female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census The total Uyghur population in 2010 Chinese National census was approximately 10,069,346. Of which male population were 5,097,594, and female population were 4,971,752. In comparison with 2000 Chinese National Census, Uyghur population increased 1,669,946, the growth rate within past ten years was 16.58% and the annual growth rate in the past ten years was 1.65 %. Uyghur Population and growth rate in 2010 were stupendously same with 1990, 2000 and Figure 1.3 Geographical Distribution of Uyghur Population in China Almost of 99.36% of the Uyghurs are living in Xinjiang. Uyghur language is related to Turkish, but it is sufficiently different to make the two mutually incomprehensible. In addition to their identity as Uyghurs, most tend to identify themselves by the oasis town from which they originate, such as Kashghar, Yarkand, Karghalik or Turpan. Uyghurs have become highly skilled at oasis agriculture, making the most effective use of the meager supply of water available to them. This involvement in settled agriculture distinguishes them from most of the other Turkic speaking peoples in the region, like the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, who remain largely nomadic pastoralist. Indeed, the Uyghurs are often known by the name Taranchi (cultivator), after the eighteenth-century Uyghurs sent from southern Xinjiang to Eli (Ghulja), near the border with Kazakhstan, to work as farmers and border guards. Uyghur oases in southern Xinjiang and the grape-growing Turpan region east of Urumqi are irrigated by a complex system of kariz wells supplied by underground watercourses which channel the melting snow from the mountains and bring it to the fields with a 6

7 minimum of evaporation. A group of Uyghurs, who migrated into Gansu in the ninth century, speak a variety of the Uyghur language influenced by Mongolian and Chinese and not now intelligible to the Uyghurs of Xinjiang. They are known as Yellow Uyghurs and have remained Buddhist, being far enough east to have avoided Islamization. (3) The Kazaks The Kazakhs of Xinjiang are essentially the same people as the inhabitants of the neighboring state of Kazakhstan, formerly a Soviet republic. Many families have relatives on both sides of the border, to a large extent the result of the great migration of 1962, when Kazakhs fled from Xinjiang to Kazakhstan to avoid the programmed collectivization being implemented by the Chinese Communist regime as part of China s Great Leap Forward. Chinese and Soviet Kazakhs continued to be separated after this time by the Sino-Soviet dispute, which began in 1960, but became public knowledge three years later. The dispute effectively closed the borders between China and its Central Asian neighbors. After the collapse of Soviet poser in 1991, however, old relationships were re-established and families which had been divided for more than thirty years were reunited and Kazakhs again fled from Xinjiang of China to Kazakhstan. Was China not a good choice for them to stay? Traditionally, Kazakhs were herdsmen and stockbreeders, rather than agriculturalist like the Uyghurs, and their lifestyle, culture, and physical appearance are close to those of the Mongols, Kazakh mythology claims that they are descendants of Genghis (in Mongolian, Chinggis) Khan. There is also a Kazakh minority community in the West of Mongolia. The total Kazak population of China, almost all of whom live in Xinjiang, was recorded by the 2000 census as 1,250,500 and the third largest Muslim population in China after the Uyghurs. Of this population, male consists of 633,900 and female 616,600. In comparison with 1990 census, Kazak population in China increased about 139,700, growth rate was 12.58%, and annual growth rate was 1.115%. Table 1.4 Kazak Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Kazak population Kazak male Kazak female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census The total Kazak population in 2010 Chinese National census was approximately 1,462,588. Of which male population were 747,368, and female population were 715,220. In comparison with 2000 Chinese National Census, Kazak population increased 212,088, the growth rate within past ten years was 16.96% and the annual growth rate in the past ten years was 1.69 %. Kazak population and growth rate in 2010 stupendously increased in comparison with relevant figures in 1990 and Kazakh, like Uyghur, is a Turkic language and was also traditionally written in the Arabic script as modified for Persian. This script was replaced by the Cyrillic in the Soviet Union and by Latin script in China in the 1960s as a step to Sinocized Kazakhs through changing their language by mandatory, the Kazakhs resisted this motive. As a result, Kazakh-language publications in China gradually reverted to the Arabic script during the 1980s. 7

8 However, in Kazakhstan state, the former Soviet Republic where few urban Kazakhs speak the language with any degree of fluency, it has been largely displace by Russian, and many Kazakhs in search of a post-soviet identity look back to the Kazakh community in Xinjiang, with which they are once again in contact, to revitalize their culture. Figure 1.4 Geographical Distribution of Kazak populations in China As the figure 1.4 shows that almost of 99.57% of the Kazak people are living in Xinjiang. (4) The Kyrgyz The semi-nomadic Kyrgyz are spread throughout western and southern Xinjiang, but there is a significant concentration in the Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, set in the foothills of the Tianshan range which separates them from their kin in the former Soviet republic of Kyrgyzstan. Most Kyrgyz are herdsmen, tending locks of sheep and camels and, like the Kazkhs, they moved their animals across the mountains according to the season until the Sino-Soviet dispute closed the border. Their language and customers are closely related to those of their Kazakh neighbors. In 2000 census, Kyrgyz population in China was 160, 800, of which male population was 81,700 and female was 79,100. In comparison with 1990 census, Kyrgyz population increased 17,300, growth rate was 12.04% and annual grow rate was 1.10%. Among the Kyrgyz people, urban Kyrgyz was 18,600, consisting of 11.55% of the total population, rural Kyrgyz population was 142,200, consisting of 88.45% of the total population. In another word, Kyrgyz people are farmers or Nomadic people. Table 1.5 Kyrgyz Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Kyrgyz pop Kyrgyz male Kyrgyz female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census 8

9 In 2010 census, Kyrgyz population in China was 186, 708, of which male population was 94,645 and female was 92,063. In comparison with 2000 census, Kyrgyz population increased 25, 908, growth rate in the past ten years was 16% and annual grow rate in the past ten years was 1.6%. Figure 1.5 Geographical Distribution of Kyrgyz populations in China 98.73% of the Kyrgyz people are living in Xinjiang. Surprisingly, there are a few of Kyrgyz living in Xizang (Tibet) and Hei Long Jiang. (5) The Uzbeks China s Uzbeks, close relatives of the native population of Uzbekistan and the Uzbeks of Afghanistan, can be found throughout southern and western Xinjiang. The Uzbeks originate in the great Central Asian oases of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Tashkent and probably moved into presentday Xinjiang in the eighteenth century. Like the Uyghurs they are predominantly farmers, and there is concentration of urban Uzbeks in Eli, Kashghar, Shache, Yecheng, the provincial capital of Urumqi, and among other cities in the region. According to the 2000 census, the Uzbek population in China was only 12,400. Of which male population was 6,500 and female population was 5,900. In comparison with 1990 census, Uzbek people had decreased 2,400 persons, the growth rate was % and annual growth rate was %. Among the Uzbek people, urban population was 8, 500, consisting of 48.43% of the total population, and rural population was 3,900, consisting of 51.57% of the total population. Almost of 99.7% of Uzbek people are living in Xinjiang. China artificially planted some of them in Beijing, Zhejiang and Guangdong to show the world that China is the paradise for all ethnic groups. Table 1.6 Uzbek Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Uzbek pop Uzbek male Uzbek female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census 9

10 In 2010 census, Uzbek population in China was 10, 569, of which male population was 5,673and female was 4,896. In comparison with 2000 census, Uzbek population decreased 1831, growth rate in the past ten years was -15% and annual grow rate in the past ten years was -1.5%. A vivid fact is that Uzbek people in China are dramatically disappearing, and one day this group will disappear in China. While the Chinese government is very busy in protecting precious animals like Panda and the Uzbek people are ignored. Were animals more important than humans? Why Uzbek people in China are disappearing? Where they have gone to and why their numbers are declining should be studied. Figure 1.6 Geographical Distribution of Uzbek population in China Uzbeks in Xinjiang have been living in Xinjiang close proximity with the Uyghurs so far so many generations. There is little difference in lifestyle, foods consumptions, clothing or religious practices between the two groups. The Uzbek language is used within their community, but most are able fully to converse with Uyghur language, which is very similar with Uzbek language in its vocabulary and structure, and use this language communicate with outside world and other than their own communities. However, due to their insignificant numbers, the whole China nearly forgets this group of people while China is very busy to promote its panda business, even to Malaysia. Now days, the number of panda is more than the number of Uzbeks in China. Are animals more important than human beings? (6) The Tatars The group classified as Tatars, with only 4,872 members registered in the 1990 census and 4,900 in 2000 census, is one of the smallest ethnic groups in China. Most of them live in northern Xinjiang, near the border with Kazakhstan, and are pastoralist. 10

11 Of 4,900 Tatars, male population was 2,600 and female was 2,300. In comparison with 1990 census, the Tatar population was decreased 170 people, growth rate was -3.44% and annual growth rate was -0.34%. Was it strange while all other ethnic groups including ethnic Han increase and the Tatars decreases? What has happened to this group of people? Their numbers are less than Pandas too! In 2000, among Tatar people, urban population was 2,400, consisting of 48.40% of the total population, and rural population was 2,500, consisting of 51.60% of the total population % of Tatars are living in Xinjiang region. You can count with your fingers on how many Tatars live in other provinces. Table 1.7 Tatar Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Tatar pop Tatar male Tatar female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census In 2010 census, Tatar population in China was 3,556. Of which male population was 1,899 and female population was 1,657. In comparison with 2000 census, Tatar population decreased 1344, growth rate in the past ten years was -27% and annual grow rate in the past ten years was -2.7%. What can you say about this scenario? China is too good to live? Due to their insignificant numbers, sampling on Tatars can be ignored without estimation in our research. (7) The Salars The Salars are an ethic group speaking a Turkic language which can trace their ancestry back to migrants who arrived from the Samarkand region during the Ming dynasty ( ). Salar storytellers often tell a story of two brothers who left Samarkand some time during the Mongol conquests in search of a new home. Led by a white camel, which carried containers filled with water and soil from their native land on its back, and a copy of the Koran, they traveled along the Silk Road toward China region until they arrived at a place called Xunhua, in the eastern part of Qinghai province. They settled at that place which the local Chinese regarded as inhospitable and uncultivated area, but the Salars found that the place was similar to the environment which they had come and they are looking for. Over the centuries, the Salars have acquired a reputation for fierceness which persists to the present day, and many have followed military careers in previous history. Some Salars were traders and merchants rafting down and up on the dangerous Yellow River-indeed, the Salars were real knights on the Yellow River, the Han Chinese no way could compete with them. The rest Salars were simply making living as caravans across the highlands and deserts. The place, Xunhua that the ancestors of the Salars found in the thirteenth century was inhabited mainly by Mongols, but there were also settlements of other Muslim communities as well as Tibetans and Han Chinese who later became part of the Hui group. It was said that less than one thousand Salars formed the original Salar community. Although they were intermarried with the Hui and other Muslims, hard any of them intermarried with the Hans. They retained their language, which was regarded as closer to Central Asian culture than any other Muslims in China 11

12 A Chinese Muslim proverb says that Salar language was worthy for gold, Tibetan language worthy for silver and the Dongxiang language was worthy for nothing. This was that the Salars were living in the area of gold mines, Tibetans used silver coins-formerly known as Yuan Da Tou or Head of Yuan Shikai, the second president of ROC printed on silver coins which was worthy and popular currency of exchange once upon a time in China. In 1990, there were 87,697 and 104,500 in 2000, people classified as Salars. Today, the majority of Salars are still living in Xunhua County in Qinghai province where their ancestors originally settled. Of 104,500 Salar people, male population was 53,700 and female was 50,800. In comparison with 1990 census, Salar population increased 17,000, growth rate was 19.7% and annual growth rate was 1.71%. Among the Salars, urban population was 17,000, consisting of 16.25% of the total population and rural population was 87,500, consisting of 83.7% of the total population. In another word, most Salars are farmers or living in rural areas % of the Salars are living in Qinghai and Gansu province. The only place where more than 3000 Salars are living is Xinjiang and in other places Salar population has less than 500. Table 1.8 Salar Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Salar pop Salar male Salar female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census In 2010 census, Salar population in China was 130, 607. Of which male population was 66,281, and female population was 64,326. In comparison with 2000 census, Salar population increased 26,107, growth rate in the past ten years was 25% and annual grow rate in the past ten years was 2.5%. Due to their insignificant numbers, sampling on Salar can be ignored without estimation in our research. (8) The Bao nan The Bao an or Baonan in their own language, is a small Muslim ethnic group, accepted as a separate nationality in March They had previously been known as the Baonan Hui and treated as members of the Hui nationality. Only 16,500 people were registered as Baonan in the 2000 census, of which male population was 8,400 and female population was 8,100. In comparison with 1990 census, Baonan population increased about 4,800 people, growth rate was 41.27% and annual growth rate was 3.34%. Among the Baonan people, urban population was 2,400, consisting of 14.40% of the total population, and rural population was 14,100 people, consisting of 85.60% of the total population. In another word, the Bao nan people are farmers or rural residents. Almost all of Baonans (91.91%) live in a small area in the south-west of Gansu province. Only a handful population about 500 Baonan people lives in Qinghai and Xinjiang respectively. They trace their origins to groups of Mongol and Central Asian troops sent out during the Yuan dynasty ( ) to garrison and cultivate the border town of Tongren in present-day Oinghai province. The original migrants intermarried with local Tibetans, Han Chinese, and other minority groups living in the surrounding hills. The Bao nan language is related to archaic forms of Mongolian but has many borrowings from Chinese. 12

13 Table 1.9 Baonan Populations in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Baonan pop Baonan male Baonan female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census In 2010 census, Baonan population in China was 20,074. Of which male population was 10,016, and female population was 10,058. In comparison with 2000 census, Baonan population increased 3,574, growth rate in the past ten years was 22%, and annual grow rate in the past ten years was 2.2%. Due to their insignificant numbers, sampling on Salar can be ignored without estimation in our research. (9) The Dongxiang There have been little details investigations of the Dongxiang people and their history, and there is uncertainty about their origin in Chinese history. Some scholars traced their origins to Mongol troops who were brought in to garrison the city of Linxia at the western edge of present-day Gansu province, when the Mongols consolidated their conquest of China in the thirteenth century. These troops were said to have converted to Islam in the sixteenth century. Others argued that Dongxiang people were the descendants of Muslim Sardars or Sarts brought into China by the armies of Genghis Khan as they returned from the great expedition into Central Asia at the beginning of the Mongol dynasty. They become known as Dongxiang, which could be translated as Eastern Village because most lived in the mountains, located in the east of Linxia, but their origin remains unknown to us, even today. In 2000 national census, Dongxiang population was 513,800, of which male consists of 26.44% and female In comparison with 1990 national census, Dongxiang population increased 140,100, growth rate was 37.60% and annual growth rate was 3.08%. Almost all of the 513,800 Dongxiang registered in the census of 2000 live in what has now been designated the Dongxiang autonomous county in Gansu province, where most of them are poor farmers. Among the Dongxiang people, urban population was 22,300 persons, consisting of 4.44% of the total population; rural population was 491,500 persons, consisting of 95.66% of the total population. In another word, the Dongxiang people are rural people % of the Dongxiang people are living in Gansu. However, the only places which have more than 3000 Dongxiang populations are Xinjiang, Ningxia and Qinghai. Table 1.10 Dong Xiang Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Dong Xiang pop Dong Xiang male Dong Xiang female Valid N (listwise) 32 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census In 2010 census, Dong Xiang population in China was 621,500. Of which male population was 317,490, and female population was 304,010. In comparison with 2000 census, Dong Xiang population increased 107,700. Growth rate in the past ten years was 21%, and annual grow rate in the past ten years was 2.1%. 13

14 The Dongxiang language belongs to the Mongolian language family. It has archaic features similar to those of Baoan and many loan words borrowed from Chinese, Arabic, Persian and Turkic languages. (10) The Tajiks The Tajik population of China largely confined to the Tashkan region of south-western Xinjiang. In 2000 National census, Tajik population was only 41,000, of which male population was 21,000 and female population was 20,000. In comparison with population in 1990 national census, Tajik population increased 7,800, growth rate was 23.49% and annual population growth rate was 2.04%. Among Tajik people, urban population was 3,800, consisting of 9.16% of the total population, and rural population was 37,300, consisting of 90.84% of the total population. 96% of the Tajiks are living in Xinjiang. However, considering their insignificant numbers, we might take no samples on this group. Table 1.11 Tajik Population in 2010 Chinese National Census N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Tajik pop Tajik male Tajik female Valid N (listwise) 31 Source: 2010 Chinese National Census In 2010 census, Tajik population in China was 51,069. Of which male population was 26,112, and female population was 24,957. In comparison with 2000 census, Tajik population increased 10, 069. Growth rate in the past ten years was 25%, and annual grow rate in the past ten years was 2.5%. Due to their insignificant numbers, sampling on Tajik can be ignored without estimation in our research. Tajik people speak a language related to Persian, as do their kindred in Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan. Some Tajik communities live in reclusive highlands in the Pamir Heights and have retained their Ismaili Shi a faith, which exits nowhere else in Chinese Islam. As with the definitions of these ethnic groups everywhere in the world, the designations of these nationalities are far from settled, and their use in China has often been criticized as crude and mechanical. There is much disagreement over the accuracy of the classifications, and there are many examples of individuals and communities with ethnically mixed backgrounds, but Muslims in China commonly identify themselves and each other by the use of these names. The unique characteristics of each of the different Muslim groups are best explained in terms of the history of each community s evolution, beginning with the story of its founders immigration into China and exploring its members interaction with the Chinese population among whom they have lived and worked. China's Muslims face their second millennium under Chinese rule. Many of the challenges they confront remain the same as they have for the last 1400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society which implies Han-assimilation and gradually loose out Muslim identities. Many new things also have happened to Muslims in China too as a result of China's transformed and increasingly globalization of Chinese societies, and especially the watershed events of the September 11 th terrorist attacks with the subsequent war on terrorism. Muslims in China are seriously affected due to Islam-phobia promoted by USA, and manipulated by the Chinese Communist regime. 14

15 Rapid crack down any sympathy on Muslim separatism in Xinjiang is the major concern to CCP officers at all levels. Muslims in China live as minority communities amid a sea of yellow people, in their view, who are largely pork-eating, polytheist, antitheist, secularist, and Kafir ("heathen"). Nevertheless, many of their small and isolated communities have survived in rather inhospitable circumstances for over a millennium. Muslim population in China, though small in population percentage (about 2% in China, 1% in Japan, and less than 1% in Korea), their numbers are nevertheless large in comparison with other Muslim states (Gladney, 2002). For example, there are more Muslims in China than Malaysia, and more than every Middle Eastern Muslim nation except Iran, Turkey, and Egypt. East Asia is also increasingly depending on mainly Muslim nations for energy and cheap labour, thus raising the importance of its Muslim Diasporas communities for international and domestic relations. The Arab oil richer countries should embargo China if China mistreats its Muslim citizens. Japan has a rather small resident Muslim community, estimated to be less than 10,000, however, recent waves of Middle Eastern and South Asian migrant labourers to Japan's large industrial cities suggest that the total Muslim population in Japan could be nearing the 1 million mark. Though these communities are temporary in terms of residency, they are having as strong an impact on Japan's rather insular society as the Turkish and Kurdish populations in the Scandinavian heartlands (which now have surpassed 10 percent). As Lipman (1997) insightfully noted, these long-term Muslim communities have often been the "familiar strangers" found in small enclaves throughout Asia. And if Kosovo and Bosnia are to serve as lessons, failure to accommodate Muslim minorities can lead to national dismemberment and international intervention (Gladney, 2002). Indeed, China's primary objection to NATO involvement in Kosovo centered on its fear that this might encourage the aiding and abetting of separatists, with independence groups in Xinjiang, Tibet, and perhaps Taiwan, clearly a major Chinese concern. These are the past situation of Muslims in China which are partial correct and partial not, which will give us an opportunity to do academic research to these forgotten Muslim communities in China. However, we are not only interested in their past glory, but we are more interested to know the current situation of Muslims in China, especially after hundred centuries living in China, assimilation took place from 17 th century till today under Chinese rules, do these ethnic Muslim groups have forgotten their Islamic values? Or how are bout their levels of understanding of Islamic values? Do they clearly differentiate between Halal and Haram for daily life? What are about their attitude towards Halal products? Do they prefer to buy Halal products? Are there Halal markets in China? These are some questions that we are interested in this research. 2. The Problems This survey of data collection took place in Gansu, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Beijing Shanghai and Guangzhou randomly from July to August 2012 in China. A total of 400 copies of selfadministration questionnaires in Chinese language were randomly distributed among Chinese Muslims in the above regions, and only 350 units of questionnaires were successfully collected through personal interviews, 40 units of the questionnaires were incomplete and not useable. In another words, only 310 units of questionnaires are complete and useable in this research. Data collection success rate is 77.5% (310/400) and failure rate is 22.5% (90/400). 15

16 Therefore, this chapter discusses the result based on the sample size of 310 units. This chapter will first do some basic analysis on demographic data, then descriptive analysis on Chinese Muslims knowledge on Halal and Haram under section A of the questionnaire (many other variables are purposely omitted under descriptive analysis), and then multivariate analysis on all variables within the research framework. Partial Least Square (PLS) data analysis technique is used in the data analysis. Assessments of the measurement model, the structural model and hypothesis of the research are reported by using this data analysis technique. (1) Demographic Data Analysis Table 2.1 Sex Value Count Percent Position 192 Gender Standard Attributes Format F4 Measurement Nominal Valid Values 1 Male % 2 Female % % As Table 2.1 shows us that there are about 310 respondents in this research, of which 174 (56.1%) are males and 136 (43.6%) are females. Standard Attributes Valid Values Table 2.2 Age Groups Value Count Percent Position 194 Age group Format F4 Measurement Nominal % % % 4 Above % % As Table 2.2 shows us that out of 310 respondents, 188(60.6%) are aged from 15 to 25, 97 (31.3%) are aged from 26 to 35, 21 (6.8%) are aged from 36-45, and 1.2% are aged above 45. This result meets our research design. This research is initially designed to focus on young Muslims who are potential buyers of Halal products. The old generations or old people, according to our literature reviews usually prefer for religious products and loyal to customs and traditions, so there is no need to study them, you are almost assured that old Muslims likely prefer for Halal, this is no question about that, this is same everywhere in the world. This research is called empirical, because we are not sure about young Muslims, especially young Muslims in China, after 30 years of economic reform and brainwash. Have young Muslims in China lost faith in Islam? Do they prefer Halal products? With these questions in our minds, we purposely designed our research focusing on young Muslims in China from 16 to 46 years old. 16

17 This idea is also reflected in the respondent marital status, as Table 2.3 shows that out of 310 respondents, 179 (57.7%) respondents are single, 96 (31.0%) are married with children, and 30 (9.7%) are married without children. In another word, in this research, 60% of respondents are single and 40% of respondents are married. Majority of respondents are young and single in this research. Standard Attributes Valid Values Table 2.3 Marital Status Value Count Percent Position 195 Marital Status Format F4 Measurement Nominal 1 Single (never married) % 2 Married with Children % 3 Married without Children % 4 Widowed/Divorced 5 1.6% % As Table 2.3 shows that majority of respondents in this study are bachelors and not married yet, this is because our research assistants are young people who like to approach young people too. As Table 2.4 shows, in this research, out of 310 respondents, 214 (69.9%) respondents are from ethnic Hui who are referred as Chinese Muslims and whose mother tongue is Chinese language but religion is Islam. 67 (21.6%) respondents are from ethnic Dong Xiang whose mother tongue is not Chinese language but Dong Xiang language. 12 (3.9%) respondents are from ethnic Baonan whose mother tongue is not Chinese language but Baonan. 15 (4.8%) respondents are from ethnic Salars whose mother tongue is not Chinese language but Salar. 2 (0.6%) respondents are from Uyghurs and Kazak whose mother tongues are not Chinese language definitely. Standard Attributes Valid Values Table 2.4 Muslim Ethnic Groups Value Count Percent Position 196 Ethnic group Format F4 Measurement Nominal 1 Hui % 2 Dong Xiang % 3 Bao nan % 4 Salar % 5 Uyghur 1 0.3% 6 Kazaks 1 0.3% 7 other 0 0.0% % 17

18 As Table 2.5 shows, 53 (17.1%) respondents just finished their primary education which will determine their job-categories. 71(22.9%) respondents completed their junior education and most importantly 112 (36.1%) respondents completed their high school education Standard Attributes Valid Values Table 2.5 Education Value Count Percent Position 198 Education level Format F4 Measurement Nominal 1 Primary School % 2 Junior Middle School % 3 Senior Middle School % 4 Vocational school and % college 5 University Bachelor % 6 Postgraduate 7 2.3% 7 other 1 0.3% As Table 2.6 shows that 123 (39.7%) respondents are jobless, no job or they are just students, 46 (14.8%) are self-employed, 82 (26.5) respondents are working for other people or in the private sectors, and 58 (18.7%) respondents are government servants. Table 2.6 Job Category Value Count Percent Position 199 What is your occupation? Standard Attributes Format F4 Measurement Nominal 1 no job or unemployed % Valid Values 2 self employed % 3 Private sectors % 4 government % Missing Values % As Table 2.7 shows that average personal income (monthly) is 1298 Yuan in 2010 which is equivalent to 216 U$D per month according to the exchange rate between U$D and CNY (1U$D=6.0 Chinese National Yuan) in If it is the case, the yearly disposal income would be 2592 U$D. The personal income data obtained in the survey is the real income brought at home for consumptions and could be treated as the disposable income which could be used to predicate the future market potential. 18

19 Standard Attributes N Central Tendency and Dispersion Table 2.7 Personal Monthly Income Value Position 200 Personal Income Format F8 Measurement Scale Valid 301 Missing 9 Mean Standard Deviation Percentile Percentile Percentile Nevertheless, according to Table 2.7, average Chinese Muslims personal income (monthly) is about 1298 yuan, half of the respondents have a average monthly income is below 1000 yuan, and 25% (100%-75%) of respondents have a average monthly income is above 2000yuan, the standard deviation is very huge, which means that the difference between the low income and high income is very huge. Standard Attributes Valid Values Table 2.8 Personal Income Level (Monthly) Value Count Percent Position 201 Income p-level Format F8 Measurement Nominal 1 below % % % % % and above % Missing Value % % As Table 2.8 shows that there are about 127 (44.2%) respondents whose monthly personal income is below 1000 Yuan. 51 (16.5%) respondents have a monthly income between 1000 and 1999 Yuan. 69 (25.2%) respondents have a monthly income between 2000 and 2999 Yuan. 30 (9.6%) respondents have a monthly income between 3000 and 4999 Yuan, and 14 (4.5%) respondents have a monthly income above 5000 Yuan. 19

20 Table 2.9 Family Total Income (Monthly) Value Position 202 Family Total Income Standard Attributes Format F8 Measurement Scale N Valid 268 Missing 42 Mean Standard Deviation Central Tendency and Dispersion Percentile Percentile Percentile As Table 2.9 shows that family total income (monthly) is 6485 Yuan. However, 42 respondents did not give their family total income, either they did not know or they did not want to reveal the information. Standard Attributes N Central Tendency and Dispersion Table 2.10 Family Size Value Position 203 Family Size Format F8 Measurement Scale Valid 310 Missing 0 Mean 5.27 Standard Deviation Percentile Percentile Percentile As Table 2.10 shows that average family size is 5.27 persons. If the total family income as shown in the Table 2.9 is divided by family size, then we would get average family income as shown in the Table 5.11 that is about 1342 Yuan. If the family total income as shown in the Table 2.9 ( Yuan) is divided by family size as shown in the Tale 2.10 (5.27), we would average family income (monthly), 1230 Yuan which is very closer to the figure 1342 Yuan as calculated in the Table