Medieval India: Bhaktism, Sufism and Sikhism (NCERT)

Transcription

1 Medieval India: Bhaktism, Sufism and Sikhism (NCERT) Brahminism vs Buddhism/Jainism vs D evotional Paths (Bhakitsm, Sufism, and Sikhism) Brahminism based on caste-system was prominent during the Medieval period. But there was opposition to the same as well. Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas according to which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth through personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). This idea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita, grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era. Intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements that have evolved since the eighth century. The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs. Bhakti cult

2 Bhakti was accepted as a means to attain moksha along with jnana and karma. The development of this cult took place in South India when the Nayanars and Alwars moved against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and professed that ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation. People were no longer satisfied with a religion which emphasized only ceremonies. The cult is the combined result of the teachings of various saints, through the then times. Each of them had their own views, but the ultimate basis of the cult was a general awakening against useless religious practices and unnecessary strictness. The cult also emerged as a strong platform against casteism. Some of the important leaders of the movement are: Namadeva and Ramananda (Maharashtra and Allahabad) Both of them taught the concept of bhakti to all the four varnas and disregarded the ban on people of different castes cooking together and sharing meals. Sankara and Ramanuja The propounders of Advaita (nonduality) and vishishta adwaitha (qualified non-duality)

3 respectively. They believed god to be nirguna parabrahma and satguna parabrahma respectively. Vallabhacharya propounder of shuddha adwaitha or pure non-duality. Chaitanya (Bengal) relied on the use of music, dance and bhajans to get in touch with God. love was the watchword of the chaitanya cult. Kabir was a disciple of Ramananda, and was raised by a Muslim weaver. He stood for doing away with all the unnecessary customs and rituals in both religions and bringing union between these religions. Guru Nanak. Nimbakacharya founder of the Radha-Krishna cult. He expressed this relation to substantiate the importance of marriage. It was also used as an example of God s love to the people.

4 Nayanars and Alvars In South India 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)

5 who came from all castes including those considered untouchable like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas. They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (Tamil literature). Between 10th and 12th centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship. Philosophy and Bhakti Shankara, from Kerala in the 8th century, salvation.was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes. He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman salvation. Ramanuja, from Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul, even when united with the Supreme God, remained distinct. Ramanuja s doctrine inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north India subsequently. Basavanna s Virashaivism This movement began in Karnataka in the 12th century which argued for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. They were also against all forms of ritual and idol

6 worship. Saints of Maharashtra The most important among them were Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the untouchable Mahar caste. This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people. These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth. It is regarded as a humanist idea, as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others pain. Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments. They advocated renunciation of the world. To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realization of oneness with it. To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became particularly popular among low castes. Saint Kabir Probably lived in the 15th-16th centuries.

7 We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani, and Bijak. Kabir s teachings were based on a complete, rejection of the major religious traditions and caste systems. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion. The language of his poetry was simple which could even be understood by ordinary people. He sometimes used cryptic language, which was difficult to follow. He drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims. Sufi Movement and Islam The word Sufi means wool. The preachers from Arabia wore wool to protect themselves from dust winds. The Sufi movement is

8 believed to have begun in Persian countries against the highly puritan Islamic culture. Later, it spread into India and adopted various things like yogic postures, dance and music into it, and turned itself into a pantheistic movement. The Sufi orders were of two types ba-shara and be-shara, where shara stood for the Islamic law. The former obeyed the laws while the latter was more liberal. The saints organized themselves into twelve silsilas or orders. The important among them were the Chisti and Suhrawardi silsilas, both of which belonged to the bashara order. The Chisti Silsila was begun by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti who came to India around None of his records remain, and he is widely known through the writings of his disciples and followers. The most famous of the Chisti saints were Nizamuddin Auliya and Naziruddin chirag-i-delhi. They mingled freely with people of low classes, even Hindus. The chistis didn t want anything to do with the administration or money. They led simple austere lives. This was just the opposite in the case of the suhrawardi saints who were rich, and often held positions in the government. Bahauddin Zachariah suhrawardi is a famous saint from this silsila. There were two streams in general wahdat-ul-wujud (doctrine of the unity of god) and wahdat-ul-shuhud (philosophy of apprenticism). The latter was found only in the nakshbandi silsila, which was a highly puritan Islamic silsila. Things to note: Sufis were Muslim mystics and who composed poems. They adopted many ideas of each other[religions]. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasized love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings. Silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice. Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one

9 God. Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars. Baba Guru Nanak ( ) and Sikhism Established a centre at Kartarpur named Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi. The sacred space thus created by Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurdwar. Before his death Guru appointed Lehna also known as Guru Angad as his successor. Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to

10 which he added his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi. The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of Nanak and all of their compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan [5th Guru who was executed by Jehangir]in The compilation was added with the writings of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by Guru Gobind Singh. It is now known as Guru Granth Sahib. Due to Guru Nanak s insistence that all the followers should adopt productive and useful occupations had received wider support during 16th century and followers increased, henceforth. By the beginning of the 17th century, the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple). It was virtually self-governing and also referred as a state within the state community. This fumed Mughal emperor Jahangir which led to the execution of Guru Arjan in The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the 17th century, a development which culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 and this entity is called as Khalsa Panth. Guru Nanak s idea of equality had social and political implications because his idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of social commitment. Summary The coming of the Turks to the Indian sub-continent led to a revamp of culture, religion, architecture and almost all fields of life. This was due to the two strongly established

11 religious views that confluence here. The strong Islamic views of the Turks combined with the established Hinduistic culture already prevalent in India. Both Sufism and Bhakti cult were out-of-the-box thoughts on religion. They were mainly against the common religious views, and most importantly, they both were strongly against the caste system. Article by: Vibin Lakshmanan and Unnikrishna Varma Source: xaam.in Kurukshetra Magazine October 2018 (English) Pdf Download Download Join Here Source: xaam.in Public Administration Handwritten notes and booklist by Kshitij Tyagi(AIR

12 148/ CSE 2011) Download Topic-wise sources for Public Administration Paper -1 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PAPER I Administrative Theory 1. Introduction: Meaning, scope and significance of Public Administration; IGNOU-MA Booklet Wilson s vision of Public Administration; Prasad & Prasad Evolution of the discipline and its present status; -IGNOU, Super 50, Fadia New Public Administration; -IGNOU Booklet Public Choice approach; Fadia, IGNOU Booklet Challenges of liberalization, Privatisation, Globalisation; IGNOU, Fadia Good Governance: concept and application; IGNOU, Fadia New Public Management. IGNOU, Fadia Administrative Thought: Prasad & Prasad Administrative Behaviour: Stephen Robbins, Fadia Organisations: -Fadia,, Super50, Sadana 5. Accountability and control: -,Fadia,

13 Super50, Laxmikanth Administrative Law: Fadia, Sharma Sadana(for Dicey s critique), Comparative Public Administration: Fadia, Prasad(for Riggs), Laxmikanth Development Dynamics: Fadia, Super50 Personnel Administration: Fadia Public Policy: -IGNOU MA (cursory reading), Mohit Bhattacharya & Fadia for models of policy making, Prasad for thoughts of Dror, IGNOU BA notes probably have this in detail but I skipped them Techniques of Administrative Improvement: -Fadia, Super50 Financial Administration: Fadia I used a combination of direct revision from the book and making notes for some topics in PA-1. I read and re-read Prasad & Prasad for thinkers; I treated Papers 1 and 2 as an integrated whole and supplemented a lot of topics from PA-1 with PA-2 aspects and vice-versa. (e.g. Fadia for Paper-2 has many topics which are indispensable for paper-1 as well). As with other subjects, I kept a copy of the syllabus and previous years questions handy for focused study. Also, at the fag end of my prep, I read Super-50 by Shubhra Saxena from cover to cover as a revision aid along with my notes and topics marked in books. Topic-wise sources for Public Administration Paper -2 Indian Administration

14 1. Evolution of Indian Administration: both arora goyal and fadia 2. Philosophical and Constitutional framework of government: DD Basu Salient features and value premises; Constitutionalism; -DD Basu Political culture; Internet Bureaucracy and democracy; Super50 Bureaucracy and development. Fadia Public Sector Undertakings: Fadia Union Government and Administration: Fadia, few portions from Sadana Plans and Priorities: Fadia State Government and Administration: -Fadia District Administration since Independence: Fadia, Arora goyal Civil Services: Fadia Financial Management: Fadia (can be supplemented with IGNOU BA if you have time i didn t) Administrative Reforms since Independence: Fadia Rural Development: -Fadia, I had a scan (pdf) for this portion taken from the Book Governance in India by Laxmikanth (for governance and rights issues) Urban Local Government: Fadia, Super50, pdf mentioned above Law and Order Administration: Fadia 14. Significant issues in Indian Administration: Fadia, Super50

15 ARC reports I read some reports in full and read extracts from others. I would recommend reading these reports as they provide you with both content and quality, not only for PA-2 but also GS and Essay. I ve already described my strategy for making notes in a previous post. I started with previous 10 years questions as the nucleus and expanded outwards, creating a thought framework for each question and jotting down pointers for related topics. Value addition is important in PA-2 answers and can be easily done by invoking (1) Thinkers from PA-1; (2) Personalities who have shaped the particular aspect of administration that the question deals with; (3) Examples from current affairs I extracted these from newspapers and placed in the relevant portion of my notes regularly. I made sure that I had revised my notes many times before the D- day. Source: xaam.in Pratiyogita Darpan November 2018 in English Download Source: xaam.in

16 India jumps up in the Ease of Doing Business Index India jumps 23 notches to 77th rank India jumped 23 positions in the World Bank s Ease of Doing Business Index on Wednesday. It is now ranked 77 out of 190 countries in India was ranked 100th last year and 130th in 2016 and There has been a successive increase in the Doing Business scale. Source: Indian Govt Source: Indian Govt PTI adds: The ranking comes as a shot in the arm for the Narendra Modi government which faces strong dissenting voices from the Opposition ahead of the general elections in In its annual Doing Business report, World Bank said India improved on six of the 10 parameters relating to starting and doing business in a country. Photo: Twitter/@wb_research Photo: Twitter/@wb_research These parameters include ease of starting a business, construction permits, getting electricity, getting credit, paying taxes, trade across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. India was ranked 142 among 190 nations when the Modi government came to power in Source: xaam.in

17 Sardar Patel The maker of modern India(GS 1,UPSC IAS mains,important personalities) The Statue of Unity is a tribute to the Dharti Putra for unifying the country with the spirit of nationalism The first half of 1947 was a critical period in India s history. The end of colonial rule was certain and so was India s partition but what was uncertain was whether there would be more than one division. Prices were rising, food shortages were common but over and above everything else, the unity of India was under severe strain. It was in these circumstances that the States Department came into being in the middle of Among the chief aims of this Department was to negotiate India s relationship with the over 550 Princely states, which were as diverse as they could get, be it in size, population, terrain or economic situation. No wonder Mahatma Gandhi remarked, The problem of the states is so difficult that YOU alone can solve it. The YOU in question is none other than Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, whose Jayanti we are marking today and to whom we pay our tributes. In vintage Sardar Patel style, he went about his work with precision, firmness and administrative efficiency. Time was less and the task was herculean but this was no ordinary person, it was Sardar Patel, who was determined not to let his nation down. One by one, he and his team negotiated with the Princely states and ensured that they all became a part of free India. It was due to the round the clock effort of Sardar Patel that the map of India is what it is today! On August 15, 1947, we celebrated the dawn of a new destiny but the work of nation building was far from complete. As Independent India s first Home Minister, he set the stage for an administrative framework that continues to serve the nation be it in matters of day-to-day governance and protecting the interests of the people, particularly the poor and marginalised. Sardar Patel was a veteran administrator. His own experience in governance, particularly in the 1920s, when he served the Ahmedabad municipality, was extremely handy when he worked towards strengthening independent India s administrative framework. Today, if India is known for a vibrant cooperative sector, a large part of the credit goes to Sardar Patel. The roots of Amul can be traced back to his vision

18 for empowering local communities, particularly women. It was Sardar Patel who also popularised the idea of cooperative housing societies, thus ensuring dignity and shelter for many. Two traits synonymous with Sardar Patel are trust and integrity. The farmers of India had unparalleled faith in him. After all, he was a Kisan Putra, who led from the front during the Bardoli Satyagraha. The working class saw him as a ray of hope, a leader who would speak up for them. Traders and industrialists preferred to work with Sardar Patel because they felt here was a stalwart who had a vision for India s economic and industrial growth. This year s Sardar Jayanti is even more special. With the blessings of 130 crore Indians, the Statue of Unity is being inaugurated today. Situated on the banks of the Narmada, the Statue of Unity is among the tallest in the world. Dharti Putra Sardar Patel will stand tall in the skies, to guide us and inspire us. I congratulate all those who have worked day and night to ensure that this grand statue in tribute of Sardar Patel becomes a reality. My mind goes back to October 31, 2013, when we laid the foundation stone for this ambitious project. In record time, a project of such scale has become ready and this should make every Indian proud. I urge you all to visit the Statue of Unity in the times to come. The Statue of Unity is a symbol of both the unity of hearts and the geographical integrity of our motherland. It is a reminder that divided, we may not be even able to face ourselves. United, we can face the world and scale new heights of growth and glory. Sardar Patel worked with astonishing speed to dismantle the history of imperialism and create the geography of unity with the spirit of nationalism. He saved India from Balkanisation and integrated even the weakest of limbs into the national framework. Today, we, the 130 crore Indians are working shoulder to shoulder to build a New India that is strong, prosperous and inclusive. Every decision is being taken to ensure that the fruits of development reach the most vulnerable, without any corruption or favouritism, just as Sardar Patel would have wanted it. Source: xaam.in What is Section 7 and why it is being seen as an extreme step against the RBI The Section 7 of the RBI Act has been hogging the headlines following the reported differences between the

19 central bank and the finance ministry. Being called an extreme step, it empowers the government to issue directions to the Reserve Bank in public interest. The Section 7 (1) of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, however, has never been invoked by the government so far. It is being speculated that RBI Governor Urjit Patel may choose to resign if a specific direction is issued under this section.

20 The Finance Ministry, located in the North Block here, has cited the never-before-used power of issuing directions to RBI Governor to seek a resolution to differences with the central bank, sources with knowledge of the development said. Section 7 pertains to management. The Central Government may from time to time give such directions to the Bank as it may, after consultation with the Governor of the Bank, consider necessary in the public interest, says Section 7(1) of the RBI Act, Further, Section 7 (2) gives the government powers to entrust the running of the RBI to its Central Board of Directors. Subject to any such directions, the general superintendence and direction of the affairs and business of the Bank shall be entrusted to a Central Board of Directors which may exercise all powers and do all acts and things which may be exercised or done by the Bank, it says. Sources said the Finance Ministry wrote three separate letters in the past few weeks to the RBI on issues ranging from Prompt Corrective Action (PCA) framework to liquidity management and sought consultation under Section 7 of the RBI Act. However, sources insisted that the government has not taken any action of issuing any specific direction and has only initiated consultations with the central bank on unresolved issues. Differences between the government and the RBI have cropped up over various issues, including the central bank s handling of weak public sector banks under the PCA framework and ways to resolve bad loans in the power sector. There are also apparent differences between them

21 over tight liquidity and setting up of an independent payments regulator. The government wants RBI to carve out exemption for power companies under the PCA framework that outlines triggers for declaring a loan account as stressed or NPA, sources said. One of the letters pertained to use of the RBI s capital reserves for providing liquidity to the market and another was for relaxing constraints on banks for loans to small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Last year, former RBI Governor D Subbarao had stated that Section 7 has never been used in more than 80 years history of the central bank. The RBI Act also empowers the central government to remove Governor, Deputy Governor or any other Director. The RBI Governor and the four Deputy Governors are appointed by Prime Minister headed Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC). The ACC also appoints independent directors on the RBI s Central Board. It had recently named RSS ideologue S Gurumurthy and cooperative movement veteran S K Marathe. Source: xaam.in Polity 10 questions Free Mock

22 Test 18 [ Previous Year Based Free Mock Test ] Source: xaam.in Half-baked efforts at poverty reduction Sustainable development goals are not being taken seriously. Anti-poverty schemes are not backed by funds or commitment India is a signatory to the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and is committed to achieving them. SDG1 aims to end poverty in all its forms everywhere by It is true that poverty has declined in India. However, it is also true that an extremely large proportion of Indians suffers income poverty. Additionally, lack of access to assets, vocational education and marketable skills combined with high levels of malnutrition and ill health lead to deprivation in multiple dimensions. The Tendulkar Committee estimated that million Indians were poor in based on a poverty line of just 27.2 per person per day in rural and 33.3 per person per day in urban areas. The Tendulkar Committee estimated that only 22 per cent of India s population was in poverty in The Rangarajan Committee used higher poverty lines ( 32.4 and 46.9 per person per day for rural and urban areas, respectively) and arrived at a poverty ratio of 29.5 per cent ( million) for Official estimates of poverty are not available after this year.

23 Policy response A long list of programmes and schemes are being implemented to address poverty. The NITI Aayog is the nodal agency for monitoring progress towards achieving all the SDGs and has mapped programmes and Ministries for this purpose. However, whether we view the programmes individually or collectively, they remain inadequate for moving even the conservative estimate of million Indians above the poverty line. A few programmes are briefly reviewed below to illustrate this. MGNREGA The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) guarantees 100 days of work in a financial year to a rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled labour. However, MGNREGA is not designed to provide work that generates adequate annual income for a household to cross the poverty line. Data on the MoRD website show that on average, in , only days of work were provided per household. Further, only 5.78 per cent households received the guaranteed 100 days of work. A survey conducted by NSS in shows that as many as one-fifth (19 per cent) of rural persons above 18 years of age who had registered for a MGNREGA job card sought, but did not get, MGNREGA work. One explanation is that resources allocated to anti-poverty programmes are inadequate and States curtail targets according to fund availability. There are other explanations too. Meanwhile, it is important to note that more than one-third of workers in rural areas and one-sixth of workers in urban areas depend on casual labour for their livelihood. If they get work, they earn some money that day. Wages are exploitatively low. During one of many interviews with women in villages and slums to understand the nature of their work, a 42-year-old casual labourer said: We work so hard but the return is so low that we are not able to meet our household expenses.

24 National Social Assistance Programme Article 41 of the Constitution of India requires that: The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want. However, the Centre s provisioning for old age pension for those who are poor and are between 60 and 79 years of age is a paltry 200 per person per month. The expectation is that States will add to this. The problem is that there are substantial differences in the amount that different States contribute. So if I live in Madhya Pradesh I will receive only 275 as old age pension if I am eligible for it because the State government contributes only an additional 75 to the 200 provided by the Centre. However, if I live in Andhra Pradesh my pension will be 1000 because the AP government adds 800 to the amount provided by the Centre. Further, some of those who are eligible do not receive old age pensions due to lack of funds or incomplete paper work. There is no accountability for ensuring that programmes automatically reach all those for whom they are meant. The National Old Age Pension scheme seeks to ameliorate distress. However, the level at which the pension is set is inadequate and will not enable an end to poverty. Assistance to disabled persons for purchase of fitting devices: Financial assistance for purchase of aids is provided only if own income or income of parents/guardians is below 20,000 per month. Support for such aids is limited to 10,000. For devices that cost up to 20,000 only half the amount will be paid by the Centre after fulfilment of various conditions. While the scheme is important and enabling, support under it is limited and conditional. The problems with disability pension of 300 provided by the Centre are similar

25 to those discussed for old age pensions above. Besides, in the absence of education, skills and work, the support provided will hardly make a dent on poverty. National Rural Livelihoods Mission: This is a scheme with a lot of promise. However, its reach is as yet very limited both geographically and with regard to number of households that have been mobilised to form self help groups. While more than a score schemes seek to address SDG1, they do not either individually or collectively, commit to providing a minimum level of subsistence to households. Achievement of SDG1 requires a systematic, time bound plan that identifies people in poverty and the challenges they face such as lack of decent work with fair wages; absence of quality healthcare and limited insurance packages; poor education; and inadequate assets. The writer is former professor of economics, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi Source: xaam.in History 10 minute Mock Test 19 Based on Previous Year IAS Prelims Questions Source: xaam.in