REPORT ON HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION OF WOUNDED KNEE BATTLEFIELD SITE, PINE. RIDGE INDIAN RESERVATION, SOUTH DAKOTA

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1 Universiy of Nebraska - Lincoln DigialCommons@Universiy of Nebraska - Lincoln U.S. Naional Park Service Publicaions and Papers Naional Park Service 952 REPORT ON HSTORCAL NVESTGATON OF WOUNDED KNEE BATTLEFELD STE, PNE. RDGE NDAN RESERVATON, SOUTH DAKOTA Merrill J. Maes Naional Park Service Follow his and addiional works a: hp://digialcommons.unl.edu/nalpark Maes, Merrill J., "REPORT ON HSTORCAL NVESTGATON OF WOUNDED KNEE BATTLEFELD STE, PNE. RDGE NDAN RESERVATON, SOUTH DAKOTA" (952). U.S. Naional Park Service Publicaions and Papers. 72. hp://digialcommons.unl.edu/nalpark/72 This Aricle is brough o you for free and open access by he Naional Park Service a DigialCommons@Universiy of Nebraska - Lincoln. has been acceped for inclusion in U.S. Naional Park Service Publicaions and Papers by an auhorized adminisraor of DigialCommons@Universiy of Nebraska - Lincoln.

2 A [0w. REPORT ON HSTORCAL NVESTGATON OF ED KNEE; BATTLEFELD STE, PNL RDGE NDAN RE3iLRVkTON, SOUTH DAKOTA By Merrill J. Maes Regional Hisorian Region Two Office Naional Park Service Ocober 3, 952 N VP CR 0 F LM ^:A,,-^^;;U^, ^_ ^, r D- y N702iMMJON e.:^, CENTER ^^ ^_b ER

3 REPORT ON HSTORCAL NVESTGATON OF WOUNDED KNEE BATTLEFELD STE, PNP. RDGE NDAN REURVhTON, SOUTH DAKOTA By Merrill J. Maes Regional Hisorian Region Two Office Naional Park Service Ocober 3, 952

4 Table of Conens. nroducion A. Background of Proposal B. Synopsis 2 C. Field nvesigaion 4. Criical Analysis of he Sie 5 A. denificaion of Sie 5 B. Descripion 5 C. Bibliography 8 D. Hisorical Narraive 2 E. Conroversial Aspecs of Wounded Knee 30. Park Daa 4 A. Ownership 4 B. Appraised Value 4 C. Condiion of Lands 4 D. Accessibiliy 42 E. Suggesed Developmen 42 F. Relaion o Naional Park Service Areas 42 G. Relaed Hisoric Sies 44 V. Maps and Phoographs 45 V. Conclusions 57

5 REPORT CN lij::i'0itc:.l :Y,^STr-.T?CV OF WOUND-60 KNis'E Bi,TTLEFELD STE, PNE RDGE :CNDi..'^ RESi;RV..TON; SOUTH D,,KOT,*... nroducion.^. Background of Proposnl n iipril 952, he Naional Park Survice was requ,^sc-d Represenaive,: Y. Berry of Souh Dokoa, o consider der he possibiliy of giving nriona recogniion o Woundu-d Knee Belefic:ld; on. he Pine Ridgc ndim Rcsurvaion of Souh Dakoa. Limied daa on he balefield was presened on iipril 22 o he i,dvisory Bo^rd on Naional P^rks, Hisoric Sies, bluildings, arid Monumi.ns. The Loa.rd?sk^d ha a field invcsigrion and ri-;por bc; m-,de by he Service o secure more comprch^.nsive d^.^-. The Region Two office was requ^.sd o conduc his invsig:ion by a no.,:: appended o Mr. Tolson's leer of May 9 o Senaor Karl h. :iund. Senaor Piund and Senaor Francis Case joina Represenaiv^; Berry in expressing ineres in giving he sie rccogniion. Over fory n^m,:::s of Souh Dakoa ciizens were supplied by hem^ wih he suag^ s:ion ha hey be conaced by he inv^,sig,7or: No spc:cifi.c,^cr.pg" of ground was menionld; and no p,-,ricular ype of designaion was : dvocned by he Congressme:n, HowvEr, he erms "nci onal balefield," 'hp.i anal monumn,"

6 . f and "n^ional hisoric sie" all crop up in he preliminnry corrc.spcndesnce:. To he knowludge of he Region Two Office, he Naional Park Service has no previously been requesed o consider Wounded Knee for recogniion, nowihsanding a reference by Sc:n^.or Coss in his leer of July 24, 952, o Mr. Lloyd, o "wha we had hoped for in preparing a naional monumen some years ago." Neiher does i appear o have been invesigaed in connecion wih he Hisoric Sies Survey during is period of acivi y before World Wor. B. Syncpsis The "Bale of Wounded Knee" or Me Wounded Knee Massacre" is an even quie well known, one migh say nooricus, in he annals of he Wesern frcniesr, he name inspiring srong and conflicing emoions among laer-day sudens as well as among hose personally r- ed o he even by geography or group loyalies. There is an exensive bibliography of boh scholarly and popular reaises on he subjec, describing an affair of viclence which, like he earlier Bale of he Lile Big Horn, coninues c revcrberae wih discordan overones, On December 29, 890, some wo o hree hundred Dakoa Sioux, men, women and children, and some hiry soldiers, principally of he 7h U.S. Cavalry, were slain a Wounded Knee in an engagemen which marked he culminaion of he "Messiah Craze" cr "Ghos Dance Ar," or he "Sioux Oubreak," This ragedy has 2

7 r achieved hisoricel Ame, parly because of he exraordinary numier of faaliies, paricularl,y among hose normally considered non-combaans, and parly because i was he las impor.n clash beween Norh ^imericfn ndinns and whiem,^n. Wounded Knee was no a piched bale. was 2rg^_ a hand o hand melee) an explosion of ense nerves and long penup emoions ouched off by a single irresponsible rifle sho. The ndians, including Pbou 00 men, had surrendered o a miliary force of abou 470 me:n. They had piched camp ogeher and he soldiors were in he process of rolieving he relucan ndians of heir arms when he holocaus was suddenly ignied. raged unchecked unil mos of he fleeing ndians were killed or disabled. The erms "M(--ssiah Graze" and "Ghos Dance War" are boh misle^ding. 'rrue, he reservaion was swep by a kind of religious hyseria, bu only a par of he populaion was affeced, and he religion embraced was pu<coul, no warlike, in inn. a True, here was a miliary c,-.ripaign resuling in hosiliies bu here was no real war.. Alarmed by he onics of he drncers, he ndion agen called for miliary aid; while he ndians, alarmed by he concenraion of roops, firs fled from hem en masse; hen sullenly reurned o heir homes. There were a few oher minor acionsp bu he exci.emn would have caused only a ripple in he ides of hisory, if i had no been for he flare-up of 3

8 e Wounded Knee. This served no only o focus nrional aenion upon he immadiae issues of he ime, bu i bccame he melodramric finale o 400 years of racial conflic. C. Field nvesigaion Exensive resu.^rch on Wounded Knee was conduced in he Region Two 0? 0ce and Ompha Public Libraries. Oher d^a was obained by microfilm from he Naion^ Archives, and from he Edward S. Luce Collcion of 7h U.S. Cavalry Hisorical Daa, On Jun(; 8, enroue from Cuser Balefield o Om^.hn, sopped a Pine Ridge o inerview Mr. 0. R. Onde, Superinc:nden of he Pine Ridge ndian ResErvpion, regarding he background of he proposul end he aiude of he ndifns. From Mr. Srnde, gahered he following facs:. The impeus for he proposal came primarily from officials and members of he Chicago-Black Hills Highway Associaion who were ineresed in he sie as a r;ns-coninenal ouris nrncion. 2. The ndians residing on he Pine Ridge Reservaion by and large were no ^cqua7nd wih he proposal, bu a few who were acquained wih i were r<:.he;r cool o he idea. 3. There was some difference of opinion locally as o how he appro^ch roads o he : rea should be hanc:led. 4

9 4 4. There was some rivalry among he differen ndian bands over he radiional righs o holdings a he Wounded Knee Balefield sie. 5. There were sill many survivors of he bale and, undersandably enough, feeling was sill raher high. n his connecion., Mr. Sande suggesed ha i migh be premaure o esablish a monumen, bu he ndians should be consuled. On he morning of he 9h drove o he Balefield sie, 7 mil^s from he agc;ncy, o reconnoire he area and o obain phooc!.r^phs wih a Crown Graphic camera. Having ascerained whe:nce ca.mc he m,,in impeus for he proposal we correspond::d wih Mr. J. E. Sg r.of Ho Springs, Souh Dakoa, Execuivc, Secreary of he Associaion, suggesing ha he Regional Hisorian m&e a some convenien place and ime wih him and numerous ohers who had expressed an in,(:,res, as an alernaive o he Regional Hisorian ouring Souh Dakoa and conducing abou 40 separae inerviews. This plan also had he advonage of bring--ing various and probably conflicing or a leas J.ncongruous ideas ou ino he open for discussion, hus aiding us in solving wha promised o be a quie complicaed and delicae invesigaional problem. Mr. Seger concurred in his plan, and suggesed ha a public meeing be held a Pine Ridge a 0 A.M. on July 29. 5

10 By elephone Mr. Sande concurred in his plan and arranged ha he meeing be held in he American Legion Hall4 Accordingly, noices were mimeographed and disribued by us o he various individuals whose names had been supplied us, Leers of inviaion were also direced o Senaors Case and Mund and Represenaive Berry, arrived a Pine Ridge he evening of July 28, remaining here hrough he 30h. A he appoined hour arrived a he Legion Hall o find a subsanial gahering. A ' he lengh of he mceing; esify o he inensiy of local ::neres in he proposal; There were a leas fory people, abou half ndian and half whie preseni bu only 30 cf hem signi,d m aendance rc.giser: Communiies represened include:d Pine Kidgc:, Wounded Kn.ey Marini Denby; Ho Springs; Cuser, Rapid Ciy., and Pierre, Souh Dakoa;.i; verbaim ranscripion of he proceedings was aken by an agency senographc;r, n he ineres of democraic proccidure everybody was invied o speak heir mind and nearly everybody did. However, since much of he "ESimonyl was eiher repeiious or no Pcually germane o he subjec of inquiry, submi only a condensed sur.^r.i^-.ry of signifi.can highlighs: 6 my suggesion, Mr. Sande presided. The meeing lased unil noonj hen was adjourned for lunch, and resumed a P.M., lasing unil 3:30 P;M; The numbers in aendance, as well as

11 i Regional Hisorian - Maes explained he neural role of he Naional P^-rk Survice, he objec being o gaher hisorical dae and obain he views of all concerned before compleing a repor for he consideraion of he Advisory Boprd. The various caegories of hisorical areas and heir sauory bases were menioned. William Fire Thunder,_ Secreary of he Og4a Sioux Tribal Council, spoke on behalf of he Wounded Knee Survivor's Associaion, a group of acual survivors and descendans of non-survivors who have organized for he purpose of securing compensaion for losses and injuries susained a Wounded Knee. They expressed four objecions or qualms abou he proposal: () A grc!p wrong was p::rperaed, and i is feared hv esablishmen of a hisoric sie would jeopardize he pending claims. (2) They objec o use of he erm "balefield" since hey regard he affair as a"massacre." (3) Original reservaion lands have sadly dwindled, and hey fenr furher encroachmens, such as he wihdrpwnl of a large block of land for a hisoric sie. (4) he resul of previous obscrvaions and exprience, hey.fear ha any concession righs ha migh go wih c:sablishmfn of a pnrk migh go o ousiders raher han o henselve,s. Diligen effors were made by vnr: ous paries o disposi, of all (if hese ob jocions. i:s o poin, SL6 Senaor?

12 r ^ i Case below. As o poin 2, his is crucial in he inerprepi on of he hisorical daa and could no, of coursc:, be seled a he meeing. (Pracically all presen were, of course, eiher Lndirns or ndian symprhizors, so he "massacre" viewpoin was dominan.) As o poin 3. explained ha his was no a plo o acquire more Governmen land a he expense of he ndians, ha in fac, he proposal did no originae wih he Governmen, and ha in any even, if pkxchance a sie wore esablished, he acreage involved would be he minimum necessary o properly inerpre he sie. As o poin 4, explainod ha his apprehension oo wns premaure bu ha, if anyhing maerialized, ndian prerogaives would surely be recognized wihin heir own reservaion. Joe E. Seger, represening Chicago-Bl^.ck Hills Highway Associaion sned ha his group was organized in 9L6 and sough only he bes ineress of communiies living along U.S. Highwpy 8, which, by ying in wih Sae Highway 50, ook ouriss from Sioux Ciy o he Black Hills via he new Fcr Randall Dam and he Rosebud and Pine nidae Reserva.i.on, adverised r.s "he ndipn Counry." Wounded Knee was a noable hisoric e,ven, and he sie should be given ncion^ rocogniicn "so ha he Ac.rican people will wan o visi i." :, cornllpry of his proposiion is ha he presen pc:x rord of 8 mal:s from U.S. 8 o Wounded Knee be improved so ha "he Americon people can visi i." He fel 8

13 ha cr:pion of a hisoric sie would be cf benefi o he ndians in every way. U. S. Senaor Francis Case, he only Congressman prc.sen, spokc a lengh on he delicae relpionship of he claims o creaion of a hisoric sie. Since he 75h Congress he has sponsored bills o provide 4,000 cash indemniy o each vicim of Wounded Knee, and his or her survivcrs. Thus far, he move has no been successful due o indifference or lack of ineres in some quarc:rs, opposiion in c;he,rs; bu here is sill hcpe. He fel srongly ha he affair was a massacre raher han a bale, he 7h Cavalry being moivaed by r:.venge for he Cuser affair. He expressed he hcugh ha creaion of a hiscric sie would be quie fiing o memcrialize he vicims, and o commemorae he even, which is of naional significance as he las figh on he -'imerican coninen beween red men and whie, and symbclic of he ndian's longing for independence or a reurn o he Ad way of life; as symbcliza by he "Ghcs Dance." He did no believe ha a hisoric sie shculd be regarded as a subsiue for indemnificaion., bu rah-r ha is creaion wculd focus public and Congr:ssion^ aenion on he maer, and perhaps enhance he prospecs for indemnifi.cricn. Mr. Dunne McDowll) represening Senaor Mund, and NO. Dean W. Leonard represening Represenaive Berry expressed general approbaion of Senaor Case's vic:wpoin. 9

14 Bob Lee, reporer for he Rapid Ciy Daily Journal, who has wrien some causic aricles and is now wriing za bc c;k abou he "massacre," fel ha naic^nal recogniion "would help o bring he ruh cu ino he open." Will H. Spindler, Govcrnmcn eacher a he Wounded Knee day school, who has wrien brochures on he subjec, believed likewise. inerjeced he hough here ha hisorians frequenly were no in agreemen on wha consiued hisorical ruh, ha numerous deails of he Wounded Knee affair were sill highly conroversial, and ha he ac of creaing a monumen or hisoric sie would no of iself guaranee he universal accepance of one viewpoin as "he ruh." Despie previous reassurances., apprehension concerning he proposal were voiced by James Red Cloud, son of he famous warrior; Charles Blind Man and Dora High Whie Man, boh acual survivors. All spoke in he Sioux language, Fire Thunder inerpreing. Mahew High Pine., who owns grazing land a Wounded Knee, also was concerned. None objeced o he proposal iself) as long as heir ribal or personal ineress would be proeced. Expressions definiely favorable o creaion of a hisoric sie were voic(^,d by Mrs. Rose Ecoffey, represening Gold Sar Mohers, Mrs. Ehel Merriva.l, member of Oglala Sioux Council., and Charles Under Baggage, Presiden of he Council. 3.0

15 Will G. Robinson, Secreary of hc Souh Dakoa Sae Hisorical Sociey, echoed he senimen ha Wounded Knee was a naional disgrace. However, he fel ha here was no poin in pc.rpeua.ing he conroversial aspecs, vnd ha we migh as well be realisic and unders,^nd ha he Governmen will no be inuresed in esablishing a monumen o hc; guil of he U.S. Army." However, he sie could well be presened as a"naionpl memoria.l" o corlmemorae he lamenably slain, bo:, ndians and soldiers, o inerpre he even uilizing only undispued facs, and o mernorialize he ndians, our pe foes, who gave heir lives for he Unied Saes in World Wars and and Korea. The poliical and hisorical aspecs of he case having been explored, suggesed ha an effor be made by he group o formulae a concree propos,^l, specifying he ype and exen of he hisorical area. My hough as o he possibiliy of a nirional hisoric sie by cooperaive.agreemen wih privae or ribal owners me wih lile enhusiasm. Senaor Case s?id he would favor any proposiion ha appeared o promise success) bu Mr. Seger seemed o voice he senimens of he group when he said ha he area should be in full federal ownership, developed and inerpreed by he N^ional Park Service jus like Cuser Balefield. seemed immperial o Mr. Segcr and ohers wha he sie was called) jus so i was in fc:dcrp.l ownership.

16 This brough up he problem of land acquisiion. indicaed ha purchnse of any lpnd by he Governmen would be a formidable obsrcle whereupon Mr. Clive Gi.lde:rsleeve, sorekepr and posmaser a Wounded Knce arose o announce ha he owned a porion of he main balefield area and would be happy o donae whaever of his land was needed; and ha he Caholic Church owned he oher par}^ and could probebly be prevailed upon o donae li.kcwise, mos of he land in quesion being of lile pracical value. Senaor Case declered ha his was probably he mos imporan developmen of he meeing, since l^..nd aquisiion would no now be an obsacle. A my reques Mr. Sande appoined a commiee o mee me a he Agency office on he following morning o examine he balefield errain in he ligh of hisorical maps available in repors by he Bureau of k'rn-rjcpn Ehnology and he Secrepry of War (sc:e M-..ps) so ha enaive boundaries for he proposed area could be drawn up on an inelligen and hisorically accurae basis. The appoinees consised of Clive Gilrsleve, Faher Fuller (SupErior of Holy Rosary Mission, Pine Ridge Educ^ion<^:,l a^ociey), and Mahew High Pine, all hnving vesed inre-s in he lend; Charles Blind Man, represening he Wounded Knee Survivor's Associrion; and William Fire Thunder, represening he Ogl,^la Sioux Tribal Council. On he following day his group was augmened volunarily by Will H. Spindlcr, previously menioned, and Jpk,. Hcrman and Samuel S^nds, officers of he Tribal Council. 2

17 On July 30, afer preparing a land ownership map wih he Rid of Frank A. Sold, ribal i.nerprc:er, drove he group o he balefield, Blind Man gave a vivid accoun of he affair as he remembered i a age 9, conceding ha, as he resul of he confusion resuling from gun smoke and scrc,ams, he could hrow lile ligh on he depils. He was no injured for his moher did no flee wih he ohers. His version of he locpion of he council and various camp sies agreed enirely wih he hisorical maps. The "cotl?ce;" reached goneral agre emen on he minimum area ha should be includ..a in he proposal: weny acres embracing he camps and he principal acion. Mr. Gildersleeve repeaed his offer o donae five of his!i0 acres, while Faher Fuller seemed o feel ha i would be no problem o induce he Pine Ridge Educaional Sociey o relinquish 5 of heir 40. Cerain adjcining lands, such as he dry ravine up which he women and children fled, while acually par of he balefield, could conceivably be covered by scenic easemen or cooperaive agreemen. A leas he group fel his would be a happy srluion. ::for obaining addiional phoographs wih a 66 Kodak, reurn.;d o he agency, where obained more land and road daa, and inerviewed various individuals including ribal councilmen, and some who were eyewinesses of he bale. On July 3, rnveled o Rapid Ciy o visi oher informans, and hence o Pierre. On he f,nl.;wing morning, discussed he maer a lengh wih Sae Hisorian 3

18 Robinson, who had refined his ideas on he subjec, and handed m(: a memorandum sugg%,sing an area of abou 30 acres, wih he fu].lc:vri.np, re^men: "() Tha he area o be devoed o whaever c-:nimcmcraive idea is finally agreed upon should encompass nbuu he area described abcve. (2) Tha such area be enclcsed in a srcng fence. (Bu ha.,nly auo gaes be placed in he fence s.^ ha he presen rcad ne would no be disurbed.) (3) Tha he. L--.caion of he verious elemens, r: ;ps, arille.ry, council area, ndian camp, cavalry camp, dispcsiicn cf roops, ec., be m^rkera wih suiable brcnze, aluminum cr s--^ne markers of a. very permanen naure. () Th7 a or near he main enrance a suiable mcnumen, no necessarily llrge bu of a permanen characer be ereced, (5) Tha cn his mark^r should appear: () The nams of all he soldier dead. (2) Tha he names of all ndian dead ascerainable ogeher wih such an appelaion as bravc, old men, wcman, boy, girl. (3) Tha he simple sory of wha is undispued fac be old on his same mcnumen." Whereas he field invesigaion invclved conac almos exclusively wih hcse who were of he "massacre" schocl, i should be emphasized h:!. his reporer endeavored Pnd did manage o gaher a c3nsiderable b:-.dy of esimcny, frcm manuscrips in he 7h Cavalry Collocion, and prined repors of he War Deparmen, giving he reverse or "bale" inerprevion. 4

19 . Criical Analysis of he Sie A. denificaion of Sie Woundk^d Knee Balefield lies near he cener of he Sw4 of Suc. 36, T 37 N, R43 W, of he 6h Principal Meridian. The prucise locz-ion of he bale is clenrly defined on wo piibl:ishr.:d maps sk(.chc by cyewinesses. One, compiled by L. T. Q. Donaldson, 7h U.S. Cavalr appears on Plre XCV, 4h knnu.a.l Rcpor, Bur^:au of Amc.rican i!?nolog The oher, by L. S. A. Clorian, :icing Engineer Officer, Division of he Missouri, appears opposie page 54, Vol., of he Annual Repor of he Si:^crc-.n.ry of War, 89 (see Maps). The bend in Wounded Knee Cr(::ek, he dry ra.vinc, he hill and oher opographic feaures so depiced are unmisakably idenical wih he sie conained wihin he presen Wounded Knee communiy. The mass grave, dug followin he massacre, is prominenly eviden (see Phoo 4), and local residens repor hav;ng found numi^rous balefield relics in years p^s. B. Descripion Two panoramic phcographs (Nos. nd 2 appended) illusrae he siuaion a he sie oday. The low fla where soldi^-rs and ndians were camped., and where he iniial heavy acion ook place, bears evidence of inensive grazing, bu is no marred by any inrusive srucures. The Creek follows he same meanders i did 60 years ago, and he faal ravine winds away ino a barren hillside wih nohing o impair a visual reconsrucion of he pursui excep one or wo barbed wire fenccs. The hill where he four Hochkiss guns were deploy«5

20 and where mos of he ndian vicims were hasily buried en m^ssi:, sill dominaes he scene. A picuresque Caholic mission has since been ereced on his hill, bu i does no scam o viclae he hisoric sc::n&. Rahor, i seems o serve as a fiing monumen o spiriual values which sill survive he horrors of ndian warfare. Behind he Church is a small cemeery, which is used oda''t for he inermen of pari.shionurs. n is cener is he mass gr2ve. This is approximaely 8 fee wide and 80 fee long, oulined by a. concree srip. A enr end is P whie wooden cross 2 fee high. concree base ereced June 7, 930. The scuh side conains he following inscripion: "This monumen is ereced by surviving relaives and oher Ogallala and Cheyenne River Sioux ndians in Memory of he Chief Big Foo Massacre Dcc. 29, 890 Col. Forsyh in command of U.S. Troops. Big Fcc was a grea chief of he Sioux ndians. He ofen said " will sand in peace ill my las day ccmes." He did many gccd and brave deeds for he whie man and he red man. Many innocen wom6n and children who knew no wrcng died here. "June 7, 930 The erecing of his monumen is largely due o he financial assisance of Joseph Hcrncleud whose faher was killed here." The chr hree sides lis he names of 44 of he ndian warriors killed here. Evidence of an official cuun cf he corpses has no been found. Easman saes ha 06 vicims are buried hare, including 84 men and b:::ys, 44 women and 8 smp children. ( is known ha many of he 6 Alongside he rench is P gray granie monumen 9 fee high wih

21 slain were aken from he field for privae burial by relaives, while hose who died of w:dunds a Pine Ridge were buried here.) The grave is kep in decen condiion by he survivors and ineresed residens. Wh : lf: here in June f^: und he grave adorned wih several small b:;uques cf flowers. li he ime of figh, here were a few small buildings in he immediae viciniy, including he Wcundc:d Knee Pos Office" which Blind Man referred o as "Red ron's S.: re," and a few ndian cabins. These have all dis^ppcared, bu cday here are numercus srucures c,^mprisi.ng he Wounded Kn66 c,;mmuniy, consising of hree churches, wo sch:;;,ls, he Wounc':ed Knee sore and pos cffice, and several residences. These are scaered arcund he valley. None of hese srucures seem o infringe seriously upon he hiseric scene. The impression gained from a disance is h.:. of a peaceful pleasa.n valluy wih nohing bu he grave monumen o sugges he desolaion and he h(-.rr:-r eviden in he his;.;ric phoographs appended o his repr.r. Wc;uncied Knee is 7 miles by road frcm Pine Ridge, involving 9 mil(-.s by paved U. S. Highway 8, and 8 miles by a hinly graveled secion line rrtd. Unsurfaced reads Plso lead from Wcunded Knee o Fa.esland cas of U. S. 8, and o he inerior communiies of Pcrcupine, Kyle, rnc' Ma.nd.; rson (see maps). 7

22 C. Bibliography "Bale of Wounded Knee Creek." Typescrip of anonymous and undaed accoun from Army & Navy ^iournal, from Edward S. Luce Collecion, 7h U.S.. Cavalry Daa.. Colby, Gen. L. W. "Thc Sioux ndian War of " Transacions?nd F^enors of he i^ebraskn Sae Hisorical Sociey, Vol. T, 8y2, pp ^- Com.rnissionF:r of ndian Affairs (CA), Annual Repor o he Secreary of he nerior, Washingon, 892, pp,8-63, 79-6, , 39C _73., ( including repors by Morgan, Royer., Cooper, GaOlagh. McLaughlin, Turning Hawk and American-Horse). Craf, Francis H.J., S.J. Typescrip of undfed elegram received by J^usi n E. Ford, Edior, Now York Frceman 's Journal, Edward S. Luce Collecion, 7h U.S. Cavalry Hisorical Daa. DeLa.nd, Charles E. "'i'h;; S-!.oux w2rsr" Souh Dakoa Hisorical ColEcio: Vol. XV, 94, pp. l45-5a. - ^ Easman, Elaine Goodale. "The Ghos Dance?+far and Wounded Knee Massacre of 890-9," Nebraska HisorJT, Vol. XXV, No., January, 945, pp, 26- L2. Ewers, John C. Teon Dakoa: Ehnology and Hisory. Rev. Ed. Bcrkelei. Calif., Nrional Park SErv7i^ce, 93 d. Mimeographed.) Fr:ink; M^uri.ce M. "The Affair a Wounded Knee." Chicago Weserner's Brand Book, Vol., No. 0, January, 945. Hawhorne, Lieuenan Harry. "Vivid Descripion of Warpah Life," Typescrip of undaed accoun excerped from Newpor, Kenucky Times- Sar, Edward S. Luce Collecion, 7h U.S. Cavalry Hisoricnl Daa. Lee, Bob. "Sioux Seek Overdue Jusice-for Wounded Knee Crime," Rapid Ciy Dpily Journal, November 9, 950. L=e, Bob. "The Grc;a. Whiewash," Denver Pos, December 3, 950. Leers Received Special Case 88, , Rucords of Bureau of ndian Aff?i.rs, NPional. '..rchivs. MacGregor, Gordon. Warr; ors Wihou Weapons : A Suq4_of he Sociey and Personaliy DevelopmLn of he Pine Ridge S; oti:^, Chicago., 8

23 McCormick, Major L. C., 7h U,S. Cavalry. "Wounded Knee and Drexel Mission Fighs," December 29 & 30, For Leavenworh, K^lnsns, December, 904. Typescrip, 25 pages, in Edward S. Luce Collecion, 7h U.S. Cavalry Daa. McGillicuddy, Juli.a B. McGillycudd,y, hgen: A Biography of Dr. Valenine T. McGillycuddy, SaUord, 9 ^ McGregor, James H. The Wounded Knee Massacre, from he Viewpoin of The Sioux, Ninneapolis, 9 0, (including saemens by survivors Dewey Board, Jem&s Pipe on Head, Rough Feaher, George Running H^wk, Ldward Owl King, Whie Lance, John Lile Finger, Donald Blue Heir, and Chancy Blue rirm). McLaughlin, James, My r'ri.3nd he ndian, Boson, 926. M-dr.l of Honor of he Unied Saes '.rm,y-, Governmen Prining Office, Ppq Mekeel, Scudder. Shor Hisory of he Teon-Dakoa," Norh Dakoa Hisorical Quarcrl,y, X, 943P , Mooney, Jame:s. "The Ghos Dance Religion and he Sioux Oubreak of 890."' Foureenh Annual Pcpor of he Bureau of Ehnology, , Par' 2, W-shingon 79o P Neihard, John G. "Song of he Messiah," A Cycle of he Wes, New York, 949. Noes on inerviews wih he following individuals who have prcvi.ou.sly unrecorded knowledge of he Bale of Wounded Knee, as paricipans, eyewinesses or descendans hereof, by Merrill J. Maes, a he., Pine Ridge ndian Rr;scr,-a=on, on July 29-30, 952: Laura Woodlock, 'Will-';.am Fire Thunder. Jim-;s Red Cloud, Jake Berman, Eddie H:rman, Blind Man, Oscer Bear Runacr, and Emmaline SausEr. Pos Records, For Yaes, Leers Sen. January - December 890, Vol. 37. Leers Sen J, nu^ry, 89, o Augus 4, 89, Vol. 38. Naional r:r chives. Rapid C].y Daily journal, ^ugus 8, 90, wih a column on Wounded Knee survivors. "Record of Evens, Monh of DEcembr:r, 890." Taken from Regimenal R,;-urns, Edward S. Luce Coccion, 7h U.S. Cavalry Hisorical D,^a. 9

24 i Remingon, Frrderi.c+ "ncidens of he Wounded Knee Bale Described by njured Soldirs," Army and Navy Regiser,, February 28, 89i from Edward S. Luce Collecion, 7h^J.S. Cav^n-lry Hisorical Daai. Robinson) Doane. "Hisory of Sioux ndianso" Souh Dakoa Hisorical Collecion, Vol. T, pp: R,.:ckefeller; AfrEd; Jr. "The Ghos Dance and he Sioux." The Chicago W^scrners Brand Book, Vol* V. No. 7, Sepc:mb:r, 948, Schmi, Marin F. and Brown, Dec. Fighing ndians of he Wes. Nuw York, 9450' pp: : Secreary of War (SW), ^nnual Repor for 89, Vol. $ Washingon, 892, pp j (including re-pors by Procor, Schofield) Mils, Ruger, Merri., e.nd Brooke>), Souh Dakoa Guide ( iun:.ricr.n Guide Series),- compiled by Federal Wriers Projec, ; P9.erre, 927-, T Sanding Ber; :Luhc.r: Co., 928. My People he Si oux. Boson': Houghon Mifflin Vesal*, Sanly. &;w Sources of ndian Hisory, y Norman; 934. Vesal, Sanley. Warpah and CouncJ- Fire, New York, 948, pp Wpson, Elmo Sco, "Phoographing he Fronier." The Chicago W;sernerv Brand Book, Vol; V, No. j January, 98. Wason, Elmo Sco, "Pine Ridge, " The DEnver Weserners 945 Brand Book, Denvur, 946, pp. - Wasori,.Elmo Sco, "The Las ndian War, A Sudy of Newspap Jingoism," Journ^-lism Quarcrly, cied by Wason, op, ci. Wellman) Paul Y. De,^.h on Horseback, pg; , Philadelphia, 934. Welsh, Herber+, "The Meaning of he Dakoa Oubreak."..Scribner's Magazine, Vole X, No,!, Aprilj, 89, pp WisslEr, Clark. ndians of he Unied Sa.e8. New York, 940,pp Wisslcr, Clark. pp., 24-27; Norh "merican ndians of he Plains, New York,..934, 20

25 D. Hisorical Narraive The raher impressive exen cf Wounded Knee lieraure is indicaed in he foregoing bibliography. Obviously he whole sory cpnnc; be brough wi.hin he confines of his repor, po.riculr-rl,y since sc, much of i involves an exhausive search fur he hread of ruh in he angled skein of conroversy. Our scheme, herefore, is o presen hvre a highly condensed summnry of evens leading up o, and he generally acceped facs of, he encruner, fcllowed by a review of poins which are c-:^nrovi;rsi al and which his reporer will no aemp ^: arbirae. Vicory a he Lile Big Horn was followed by a succession of defeas, and several principal bands of Teon Dakoa. Sioux reurnd o heir respecive reservaions -- he Oglala (Crazy Horse's rnd Red Cloud's people) o Pine Ridge, he Brules (Spoed TF.il ls people) o Rosebud, he Two Kele, Sans :irc and Minniconjou a Cheyenne River and he Blackfoo Sioux and Hunkpapas (Siing Bull's people) a Sanding hock. Alhough many recognized ha survival depended upon adjusmen o a whie mans civilizaion, his was an exremely difficul and painful, almos impossibleq process for hose used o he nomadic buffalo-huning scalp-lifing culure of he Grea P.^ins. Raher han degrade himsilf by rudging behind a plow, he oneime warrior sa in he sun anc'. dreamed of a miraculous rcurn o his former glory. Thus hc: was ripe for he message of Wovoka, a Novada Paiue, who promised he adven of jus such a miracle, no by war 2

26 e ). Luring he winer of 889 delegaes from he Sioux visied his new messia.h, reurning in April 890, wih glowing repors. Despi rur.:ensr^nces of he agen a Pine Ridge, Ghos dancing hen bec^mce he vo.-uc. There was no visible harm or hrea in his, hcre wrs no acual "oubreak" or rebellion, bu he agen became agiaed by all he exciemen, coupled wih rumors of an oubree.k, and he called for help (Leers, B:). The War Deparmen, summoned by he Presiden o assume miliary responsibiliy o preven an jubreak, responded wih Placriy. While he Ghos dance w,-.s largely blamcd for wha followed, i was merely a sympom of a deep-s-::a.ed unres semming from immediae local grievances. n his repor of 89, Commissioner Morgan of ndian Affairs liss no less han welve "causes of he oubreak" leading o Woundec? Knee (C:, 32-35), which may be boiled down husly: () a canankerous mood amonp, he warriors aendan upon he decay of he old life; (2) reducion in he size of he rescrv.^ion wihou fulfillmen of governmenal promises; (3) hunger, resuling pprly from arbir<^ry curailmen of governmen raions and parly from drouh and oh^:r naural disasers; (!) an onslaugh of measles and oher c'isjasc;s, highly faal among he children, srunphing an aiude of defiance; (5) he sudden and seemingly unprovoked invasion by he miliary, frighen5n, he ndians; (6) he win beliefs prevalen 22 bu by invoceion of he Gr%^a Spiri hrough he Ghos dance (Mooney,

27 among he more.f'enaical Ghos-dancers ha supremacy of he ndd,-n racc would soon be revived, and h,^ heir "ghos-shirs" would be invulnerable o bulles. Of he 26,000 Sioux esimaed for 890, probably 0,000 lived in he coniguous Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservaions and, alhough disconen and Ghos-dancing was rife on oher reservaions as well, i was here ha he; hrea seemed mos serious,, and he agen Royer (a new poliical appoinee), became he mos alarme.d. was here hr^refc re ha he Army converged in grepes force and pressure rapidly buil up o he boiling poin. On November 7 roops under General ichn R. Brooke were ordered o advance upon Pine Ridge. On he 9h, he firs coningen arrived from For Robinson, Nebraska, and were rapidly reinforced. By he ime Brooke arrived on November 30, a heavy concenraion of forcls had converged upon Pine Ridge, including eigh roops of he 7h Cavalry under Colonel James W. Forsyh. A he same ime,, subsanial forces were dispached o he oher reservaions una.l, by he admission of Major General Schofield, commanding he Army, "nearly one-half of he infanry and cavalry of he Army, and. some arillery,," were concenraed upon he Sioux Reservaions, "for which purpose i was necessary o bring roops from nearly all pars of he counry wes of he Mississippi River"' (SW, 55). This iron ring, "having mainly in view he proec-ion of exended selemens surrounding 23

28 ' he Sioux R.es^:.rvaicn agains c'.esruci on by hosile ndians," w^s under he conrol of General Nelson.. Miles, Commanc'.er, Mili^.ry Lep^rr-ien of he Missouri, he conqueror of Geronimo, Chief Joseph, an:'. S;.ing Bull. Wih he apperrance of he roops, scme 3000 erswhile Ghos-c'.ancErs,lcc! by Shor Bull and Kicking Bear, fled o he Fa^llan.'s norhwes of ^ihie River. This furher widened he chasm of misundorsanc'ing for, despie alarms o he conrary) his was no a hosile movemen, bu a sampede cpused by panic; while neiher was he Pr-'vance of he roops, properly spc:aking, a hosile movemen, for hey came only a he urgen insisance of he ndian agen, and wih no plan in niinc' save o pr^;serve law and orc'e;r. During he forepar of December here were no appreciable clashes beween solc'.i^-rs nri.ans. Things seemed o be quicing c::wn, and i was ac' Judged by he miliary o be an auspicious ime o remove an incarcerae he mos conspicucus of he agiaors. Prominen a.mcng hcse was Sa.ing Bull, he famous irreoonc5lable anagonis, who was alefte(' o be fomening rebellion a his camp on Grand RivLr, some 40 miles from For Yaes, he Sancing Rock -Guncy. On December 5, in an aemp by ndian police o arres he old chief, Siing Bull and 9 follewrs, and 6 of he pclice were killed. When cavalry rianforcemc;ns rode up, many of Siing Bull's band fled souhward oward Cheyenne ::iv,ar (Mooney, ; McLaughlin, ). Thi..s was he prrim prelude o Wounded Knce. 24

29 iiih he news of Siing Bull's demise, he Oglala and Brule Sioux in he Badlands seemed o undersand which way he wind blew, and hey sared o drif sullenly bu wihou hosile acion ijack oward Pine Ridge Agency. The danger zone now seered o be in he Cheyenne River Reservaion where Siing Bull's malconens were joining up wih Ghos-dancers Hump and Big Foo, boh chiefs having a following of around 00 each. Hump, considered o be he greaes hrea, came ino For Benne meek as a lamb hrough he inercession of his old friend, Capain E. P. Ewers of he 5h nfanry, and he majoriy of he Siing Bul.l refug:es were likewise induced o come in peacefully. Abou fify., however, joined Big Foo. Big Foo or Sianka now became he problem child of he War Deparmen (Snl, ). L. Col. E. V. Sumner was assigned he icklish ask of keeping wach on his village a few miles below he fork of Cheyenne Rivc-r. On December 2, he band, numbering around 340, was induced o sar oward For Benne, bu Big Foo proesed he injusice of his move. Sumner, now ready o use force, was informed in he evening of December 22 ha Big Foo's band had decamped souhward owsrd he Badlands. is believed ha his fligh was influenced by news ha Sumner would soon be reinforced by Colonel Merriam, moving up from For Benne, and rumors ha he soldic^rs would use force. is also apparen ha Big Foo's plan w^s o reach Pine Ridge ahead of he roops, and seek he proecion of he once powerful Chief Red Cloud (McGregor, 48).

30 0 Acing on orders o inercep Big Foo, Major Whiside of he 7h Cavalry came up wih him a Porcupine Bue jus wes of ^^e Badlands, demanded an uncondiional surrender which was a once given, and on December 28, he ndians were escored o Wounded Knee Creek, camping as direced. General Brooke a once sen Colonel Forsyh o join Major Whiside and assume command. The guard now consised of 8 roops of he 7h Cavalry, company of Cheyenne scous, and 4 pieces of ligh arille,ry (Hochl,iss guns) wih a oal force of 470 men,.^.gz.ins 06 warriors under Big Foo. Before his surrender, Big Foo had sen a scou-;.n; pary on a fuile search for Kicking Bear's camp in he Badlands. This group hus narrowly missed cerain deah. By his ime Kicking Bear and he Pine Ridge fugiives had reurned o he viciniy of ha agency. On December 29, preparaions were made o disarm he ndians before escoring hem o Pine Ridge and hen by railroad ou of he erriory. This was a mos unwise and faal error, for he ndians had shown no inclinaion o figh, whilr, on he oher hand hey regarded heir guns as heir means of livelihood, and heir mos cherished possessions. Beween he ndian ipis, where a whie flag was hoised, and he soldier's cns, was he council ring. On he rise was posed he baery rained direcly on he ndian camp. The roops were posed in wo cordons, one immediaely surrounding he council ring, he oher a a disance of four hundred yards. 26

31 The warriors did no comply readily wih he reques for disarmamen, so a deachmen of roops was sen o search he i.pi.s, r^urning wih abou 40 rifles, mosly in poor condiion. Now ension mov.nc:d, for in he search, he soldiers found i necessary o overurn frniure and discomrode women and, children; while on he oher h,^nd he o'ficers becamc concerned ha he ndians sill conca.lc:d firea.r,ns. r^-rnwhile a medicine-man had been circling among he bravc;s, blowing on an Ea.gle-whisle, allegedly urging r.sirance and reminding hem of heir invulnerable ghos-s'?irs. The searchers now aemped o search he w^rr;.ors. Suddenly he medicine rr,^..n hrew a handful of dus in he air, a young ndi^.n'c'_r-w ou his rifle and i was discharged (eiher acci.c:enally or on purpose), and he soldiers insanly replied wih ^ volley ino he mass of assembled warriors. A brief, bu frighful, hand o hand sruggle ensued, wih rifle, knife, revolv(:;r, and war club all wielded murfrously. A he firs si.^nal he Hochkiss guns rained on he camp opened fire, dealing havoc among he women end children, here gahered o observe he procec:d.i ngs. n a few momens over 50 ec:l.diers and 200 ndians., men, womn, and children., wf:rc lying dead or wounded on he ground, he i.pis were bi-,.rn-ing, and ndian survivors w,^re running in panic o he sh,lr of he. r^.vinc;, pursued by he seldiers and followed up by P. raking fire from he :ochkiss gun. The bodies of women and children were fcunc' scaered along a disance of wo milcs from he scene of he caicounc:r. 27

32 i News of he sruggle quickly reached General Brooke a Pine Ridge and he housands c,f ndians here encamped laely reurned from he Bp.dlands. The la^::r, aroused o a frenzy, assumed a hosile ai.^^de. One band of Brules menaced he roops a Wounded Knue and rcscued some fuf*iivls, while nnohcr band under Two Srikus aacked he Arc;ncy iself, being repulsed by ndian police, and hen wihdr^win, o a posiicn on Whie Clpy Creek. Mc:anwhile, he 7h Cavalry loaded woundc.d roops and lnc:ians on wagons and painfully made heir way back o Pine Ridge where mission buildings were urned ino hospials. On he f:,llowi.ng fy, D::cmb:_r 30, hosiles aacked an Army supply rain near he Agency, and were laer engaged by roops a he Drexel Mission., five miles norh of Pine Ridge, wih minor casualies. The soldier ci,3ad of Wounded Knee were ranspored and buried <: he Agency, on he de.y of he bale. On New Years Dpy, 39, following a blizzard, a deachmen of rc.ops was sen o Wounded Knce o gaher up and bury he ndian dead. The bodies covered wih snow were found massed near he council ring and scared along he rivcr. Some wcmen and children were f.:.und alive, bu all badly wounded and frczen, and mos of horn soon died. A lcn; rench was du^ and he bodies, sripped of heir ghos-shirs by souvenir-huners, were arranged lil(.; sardines in he pi. There were no funeral se:rvicus, no ceremony of any kind. A year laer Mooney (879) found ha he ndians had ur:ce:l a wire fence around he rench and smeared he poss wih s-?.rr%u(., rd medicine pain. 28

33 r r All sympoms of ndian hosiliy swifly collapsed afer Wound,c'. Kne6. Convinced hr. resisance was hopeless --:nc? impressed by he friendly overures of General Miles and he persuasion of f'ricn:ily chiefs, all Tn'-.i.p.ns involved in he "oubreak" had surrcno.cred by January 6. The cnsi on was m,-.rkedly reliev:d by he replacemen cf civilian agens by respeced rrmy offic(-.rs, and he early apprpri^icn by Congress of funds o cpxry ou previcusl,y ignered rcay cbliqe.i c;ns. The mil?,-r,y c,nn,-i~n in wcsc:rn Souh Dakoa had lased 32 Oays a a cal r:z.pensv of s::me *,200,000. Toal casualies are described as hree officers and, 26 enlised men killed, four officers and 38 enlised men wounded, of which Wounded Kne(.-. conribued one officer and 24 solders ki.lled, and wo officers and 32 men wuunc'ed. The ndian loss canno be accuraely co,zpued, bu i appears h:+ well over 300 ndians died during he hosiliies, a leas 250, including he women and children receiving moral wounds a Wounded Knee (M-x,ney, ). 29

34 E. Conrovzrsial Aspecs of Wounded Knee is no possible o appraise he naional significance of Wounded Knee on he basis of sark, undispued facs alone. We mus consider briefly he numerous conrovrsial elemens, no wih he view of siing in a cour of moral judgmen, bu in order o discern clerrly he wo disinc and violenly opposed schools of hough, and he difficulies involved in aemping o ascerain "all, he facs" of a s:u^jon colored by an emoional rainbow. migh be saflly saed ha an unbiased accoun of Wounded Knce is an impossibiliy, for any saemen one makes is np o imply a moral judgmen which will be swifly pounced upon by advocaes of he side impugned. Finrlly, since all hones men are u.nal,:;rply opposed o bloodshed, and here was pleny of i a Wounded Knee, all men (including hisoripns!) when exposed o he subjec seem promply o ake ^ resolue sand agains somebody involved in he fracas. The ndians and heir sympahizers (who apparenly consiue he heavy majoriy of incresed ciizens) regard Wounded Knee cis a massacre, inciden o an unwarraned invasion of heir reservaion by he Unied Saes Army, no necessarily premediaed, bu a leas he resul of flagran mish^;:idling and an inflamaory predisposiion on he par of he roops, and perperaed wih a guso and a lack of discriminaion as o age or sex which circumsances hardly seemed o warran. The Krmy and is adherens represen he affair as a more or less piched bale precipiaed reacherously and wanonly by he 30

35 f ndi^ns, a cha.pcr in a full scale ndian war, in which he ro^)-ps ecquied hemselves wih vnlor, if no wih couresy. "The ruh" of he mp.cr is los somewhere in he chasm seper:a-ng hese wo v^.rsicns, no necessarily in he middle. n he firs place, was here an acual uprising of hosile ridians? The marked unres caused by r.ioun"ng grievances coiipl(:d wih he frenzy of he g' ios-d^nc^xs suggesed o he agens he hr,-.r of an oubreak, bu no oubreak ncii,.:l_l.y occurred. Rumors coupled wih horrendous no'ons of liv aioux cmp,^r^m,^n fed a panic among he nearby selr.mi;ns, bu, i'(_r h:_ dus seled i was found ha no selers were ki:llcd, scalp:.d, or in any way molesed (Colby; Moonr:y, P.92). The Sioux n-;vcr lef heir re:s^.rv::ions. The mili,^ry accouns are replee wih he crm "hosiles" bu mos wriers agree ha he iniial movemen of several housand ndians o he Badlands was simply a sampedu caused by panic a he appe,,rance of massc;d roops. Si.mi_<zrly, big Foo's rerea from C;ieyer:ne Rivcr is represened in dispach:s as a move o join he hosiles" in he B^dlands, bu civilian wriers poin ou ha Big Foo, f^,aring vio].ence or a luas capiviy from he miliary., was seeking asylum among fellow refugees and, failing ha, o accep he hospialiy of Red Cloud a Pine Ridge. Wriing in he same v,!lltie, Schofield and Miles conradic each eher on he size of he Sioux hrea. The formur consider ha 3

36 'no considurablc; numb;;r of :_:am had seriously inended o engage in hosiliies agains he Unied Saes," while he laer repor has i ha as a resul of "he conspiracy" eigh saes "were liable c be cv:.rrun?y a hungry wild mad horde of savages " W, 55, 44). Prnci.caily all of he accouns agrue ha hosiliies ha did ake place followed he pressure of ighening cordon acics of he rocps, and a no ime excep Lrme:diaely afer Wounded Knee did he ndians iniiae hosiliies. Then where was "he war?" Easman (34) and Wason allege ha i was an invf nicn of "war correspondcns" who were sen in droves o Pine Ridge by big Easern dailies, whose readers hi.rsd Or gory dcails. There is a sligh discrepancy in he picure we ge of Big Foo. Hc was F. very surly and reacherous ndian (McCormick). He was wise, mild-mannered, peaceful, devoid of warlike spiri ( McGregor, 5). There is general agroemen ho, hroughou December 29, he was flo on his back, being seriously ill wih pneumonia before he figh, and riddl, wih bulles hereafer. Big Foo's band of some 300 men, women, and children are picu7 by McCormick as desperadoes, a band of fana-ics, inflamed o he poin of insaniy by religious ze;al, who subbornly refused o cooperae wih Forsyh's demands. McGregor (73) describes hem as poor bewildered pcople, cold, hungry, and faigued, whose every word and ac was one of peace and submission. He poins ou ha if Big Foo had he remoes 32

37 idea of fighing he could have done so o grea advanage a Porcupine :^:e. Also, i was ne cusomr^.ry for ndians o involve heir fam;.li:.s in hand o hand comba wih superior armed forces. ^-:os agree ha Big Foo surruncierc:d recdily enough o Whi si, arid bivcu^.cked peacefully enough P Wounded Knee crossing. Wha ha.ppkvn^ on he morning of December 29? Wih over 400 surviving eyewinesses one would hink ha a coheren accoun would emerge. There was a perle. A fnvolving hecn.l surrender of we,-pons, and here is where he nccouns go off in all dircc'.ons. '.los agree ha he ndins were relucan o w^.r wih heir guns, bu hey did sack up abou 40 of hem. The surviving ndians unanimously claim ha 40 guns were all hey had and ha hey were relieved of all oher w?pcns as well, including sharp-poind uensils from he ipis (McGregor, 08-28) and Miles himself assers ha a p7,rscnal search of 20 or more warriors jus before he upheavel revealed no addiional w^:apons (Easman, 39). Mos wriers, even he quie sympaheic Mooney (869), accep, he idea ha he ndians eiher managed o re^in some guns or grabbed some in a hurry from he sockpile, and also somehow had access o a few handy knives and wnrclubs. i,:cc,,^rmick clnims ha he ndians had all kinds of guns and oher lehal insrumens, which had been mainly c^-.ncealed under bl^nkes, when he figh sar^d. Jus wha precipiaed he disaser? Alhough Chancy L'lue r :rm (McGregor, 37) repors ha he did no hc:^r n gun "before he big 33

38 i crash cr;pe. from he sold.i:rs," mos accouns a.krse ha -. single sho was fir^d by r.n ndian. Mooney (869) srys, and Turning Hawk and Spoed Horse a.gr.: (CA, 80) ha a young ndian fired a he sc:lc;i;.:rs, firs. and Faher Craf is alleged o esify ha "ndians fired The roops fired only when compelled o." However, ohc.rs sae hp his sho was accidenal, caused when wo soldicrs srrcd scuffling wih he ndian for pcssessicn of his gun, (P'Lils, in Easm^n, 4), which Lwcy Be.,,rd claims he ndian was saring o pu down in he pile. Mej^r :llen (Easman, ;) snys his firs bulle wen hermlessly in,-; he sockpile of old guns. amcs insanly afer his firs sho here was a hundcrous i blas cf rifle fire, clouds of smoke and a general sprawling cf bodies. This blas sands ou vividly in he memcry of he survivors (McGregor). Jus before he blas hqre was a loud camm?nd, says Richard iifrpi.d of ciawlc. The s::ldicrs sc:c.mc d o have aken insananeous rcion, wihou orders, says i iajor.e:n ( E^sman, :). The big volley was 'rrm he sol6ii^rs, who mus hen have killed hplf of he concenraed wrrriors, says -ccncy (859). "-0," says McCc;^rmick, quoing Major Whiside., "he firs volley was from he ndif.ns, who fired a leas 50 imes before he roops realic^+.,--ad" i:ccording o McCormick and Remingon, scldiers csificd ha an old medicine man h^.d been haranguing he ndians and ha he enor of his speech was ha heir ghos shirs were invulnerable o bulles, and ha hey could herefore resis he personal search wih impuniy, 34

39 When he scoped down and hrew a handful of dus in he air, his was recognized by an officer as a hosile gesure and became he sf.gnal for general shooing by he ndians. Mooney (868-69) idenifies he m^-rzicine man as Yellow Bird., and acceps he sory of his acirn, bu h-ads o he belief ha only one irresponsible ndian ff.red. ur :-:n his signal befcre he soldiers 'v.:ey. f, however, as Mili:;s and i..llen have i (Easmnn, 4) his lc-nu sho was he accidenal resul of a scuffle, hen cf course ',here would be no r^^em for a faal "signrill' by Yellow Bird. Easman scoffs a he whole id(--e-., poinvng ou ha he women and children, who wore no ghcs sh--^.rs, were under he muzzles of he Hochkiss guns, and assering ha, if indeed here was a harangue and. a c:us-hrr.wing, i mus have been an invocaion for supernaural aid, which was misundersood or dis:^red by he inerpreer. The numerous ndian winesses (McGregor) menion no medicine man. n any even, blr-cdy chaos cnsued wih all available guns, including he Hochkiss machine gun on he hill, going ino acion. is inconroverible ha mos of he 300 ndians and abou 60 of abou 400 soldiers were killed or wounded. Over half of he ndjan warriors and pracically all of he suldir casualies were sacked up around he council ring. Gcrpses of cher warriors and he old men, wemcn, and children were found w;.hin he wider radius of he c :np, and along he ravine (sr.e naps), up which non-c,:-:nb,^ans were pursued and sl.-in for a. disance of wo milcs. Wih s:; much blood spill(,-d.in a. sruggle beween f r,rce:s s,-. unevenly mached., several nea moral issues (nc: normally eligible ff-)r cons idc;rric:n in open w,-rfr.re) ^rise. The 35

40 principal issuer-concern he reamen of wcnen and children. Here is where chasm beween he wo inerpre^%:i ons is widc.s. Mconey (870), who in every respec ries hard o be imp^rial, finds he ndians responsible for he engagemen because he firs sho was fired by one of heir number, and jusifies he answering volley by he scldie;rs. He defends Colcnel Forsyh from charges of inhumnniy, and "in jusice o a brave r^:gimen" poins cu ha many of he roops were raw recruis who had never been under fi.rc, who were maddened by he spi.cacle c:' heir corirn.des l deah, and were "probably unable in h ccnfusion o disinguish beween men and women by heir dress." However he finds ha "he whols^- le slaugher of women and children w,-s unnecessary and inexcusable. There can be nc quesion ha he pursui was simple a massacre," General Miles (Easman, 4) acknowledged ha "a massncre occurred." The heavy m,". jc=riy of wriers side wih Miles., s':c;cney, :^cgrcgcr, and he ndian survivors in agreeing ha his par of "hc- bale" a lzr s was "a massacre" (Vesal, 305; Wellma.n, 237, Souh Dakr:a Guide, 343). Sc;me, while avoiding he guil-^den word iself., clearly imply a massacre by such phrases as "huned ou like animals and sho" (Frink, 6). i leas one wrier (Lee) refers o he "Wounded Kn,^.e Crime." One corollary inciden was nced, ending o bolser he moral indignaion of he "massacre" school. Some ndian wounded were li^f o die in he field in zero weaher. :xcerr?ing o he 7h Cavalrymen, he hen Secreary cf War,, and he U.S..rmy r:fficia.lly, here was no massacre. There was P. bale 36

41 prcipincd by he rla.chc^;ry of he lnd.ians. ki llf:d, regreably, bu un,^vadably. Women and children were McCormick, hisorian for he 7h C^.va.lry, differs wih hq sanr4zrd accouns a almos every urn, (and offers deails hr- a.re, n:-: suppcr.d by chr known sources). He infers, in he firs pl.-c(,,,, ha reachery was premediaed by he band as a wh(.le, saing ha during he council he squaws were furi.vr:ly saddling pcnies, hiching eams,,>c., ^.nd hf! "a he firs sho he squaws E^,ped in he wag^dns and drovc ou ( f hci.r village.," being followed by heir men, Thereupon "hrue roops mcunc:.c? and se ou a a gallop, and a running figh -:ck place wih hcse nc?i^.n bucks for wo or hree miles." Women and children were killed only because of heir proximiy o he sruggle wih he men. Many (coninues McC(.-.rmick) were kill(---d by he ndians hemselves when hey firod heir iniial volley, wih unforuna'- cc.:nscqu,nc^;s o he la. cr. Ccnra.ry o all oher accc.uns, which have he Hcchkiss guns m;. wi nm down he camp a cnce, McCcrmick saes ha heall- did no open up unil he bale was well under way. ':. wounded ndians were fri given he b^.s a.cni,-n pc^ssible and aken wih us o he agency.n Crucial,-. an unc"-. rsan(-,ing of he affair.. and perinen o he qu::sion of miliary judgrae,n, is he puzzle of he de,?d)ncl wounded s:lc:irs. The survivors (i^icgrc^g(,r) insis ha he ndians were relieved of P- wc:ap,;ns, including guns as well as insrumens, sharp or blun, r,nc claim ha hese soldiers were killed accidenally by he exciemen 37

42 of heir cc,mra.c:es, paricularly in he firs v^.,llcy when scldj(:rs wc:re; ringed closely nr: unc' he warriors. cs hisorians ake i frr graned ha he ndians had some weapons which hey mus have usa frecly. They conceivably managed o reain a few weapons in spie of he sunrch, and possibly grabbed a few from ho scckpilc;. HowLv{.r, here sl-ams o be src,ng exp^:r backing for he ndians ccneni:n ha soldiers killed each oher. Capain C. S. lslc^y, Capain -.'..lyn Caprr;n,.ssisan Surgecn Ch^)rlcs B. Ewing (McGrc:gor, 94-95) and General Miles (Easman, 39) are all qu-a.cd o he effec ha he roops were imprcperly c^isposed, anr.'. ha in :'i.ring hey ExecueLl each oher. Because, in his judgmen, "he acion of he ccmmcncjingy officer was mos reprehe,isible" (Easman, 39), Miles relieved Colonel Fcrsyh of his ccmmencf. However, he was soon vindicaed by Redfield Prccc;r, Secreary of War, acing on official esimony presened o him, a.rid he reccnunenc'ricn of Majcr GcnE.ral Schofield. n his direcive of February 2, 89, Procer finds ha he ndians were desperadoes ben upon a desrucive raid upon he selemens, ha hey aacked on m,-sse, killing nicrrt of heir cwn people, as well as soldiers hen mingling wih women and ehilc'ren, o he derimen of he laer. n he confusion i was difficul o disinguish buck from squaw. Some women and children w(:.re unavcidably killed and wounded, "a fac univers,-- re^rc:ec by he 7h Cavalry...^" However, several insances (no specified) of humaniy in he saving of women and children were noed. NA a single man of he cc;run^nc:; was killed by his fellows. The arrangemen of he r, nps dccs no require s.d.v(.,rse criicism on he ppr ;.-)f he War Deparmen (cieoi by McCormick). 38

43 Since Procor's pronouncemen, he War Deparmen has souly and consisenly denied ha here was any massacre. Of.f.;ciall;, i was an honorable warime engagemen. was no ordinary engagemen however. was a bale of heroic proporions, in he Army's view. The Medal of Honor, he highes award for valor his naion can besow, was received by no less han eigheen soldier paricipans in he figh a "Wounded Knee Creek." The ciaions ring wih such phrases as he following: "wice volunr^ril,y rescued wounded comrades under J'ire of he enemy; disinguished gallanry; bravery in acion; killed a hosile ndian a close quarers," :±c., (Medal of Honor). This medal was disribued somewha more generously on his occasion han was he cusc during World Wars and T. Jus one poin remains. Senaor Case is convinced ha he "massacre" was moivaed by a desire on he par of he 7h Cavalry o avenge is defea of 876 a he Bale of he Lile Big Horn. Mooney suggess no such hing, and of course i is no o be found in official accouns. Neiher does i appepr in any of he affidavis of he ndi a.n survivors (McGregor). The revenge moive is suggesed by Wellman (236-7)-- " was wha he 7h Cavalry was waiing for. This was oo good a chance o miss". is assered by Easman -- "Cuser's old command had a grudge o repay" -- o accoun for he seemingly w,-.nol killing of innocens. This allegaion, however,. seema 'acu.ally heory raher han a saemen of fac. One unidenified officer is repored o have said, "Now we have avenged Cuser's deah," in a saemen C'f 39

44 he Rev. C. S. Cook, a half breed clergyman of he Episcopal Church, made a a h^!irini7 in Washin:_on, D. C., February, 89 (ideliman) 237). Ousic,e of his one bi of hirc' hpnd. evi c.ence, who can say wha wen o in hc; mi.n:'s of he 7h Cv.valrymen a dawn of December 29, 890? There is no evi.r'ence of a siniser plo by eiher pary; bu i is no unlike: ha a his lile i:.rmageddon of he Rec. Kan he Fhoss of sevcrul olr^ fallen heros salked somburly - no only Cuser, bu also FEr:rma.n, GrPan, Lile Thunder, Crazy Horse, and Siing Bull! 40

45 . Park Daa Ownership :.bou 20 acres fall wihin he area enaively r^.comrien:_eca by he commiee of July 30. Of hese, 5 acres are owned by Mr. Cly-,e Gil:'c.:rslk:eve, m:rchan of Woundec' Knee, who has mace a public oi'f,r o c?.ona.e. The remaining 5 acres are owned by he Pine Ridge Efcoionnl Socivy, a Caholic organizaion. Revc-,rend Fullar, Presiden of he Sociey., has indicaed in a leer of Sepember 6 o us, a willingness o donae or sell a merely nominal cos. Those porions of adjacen lands ha P re imporan o an inerpreaion of he bale, paricularly he rr.vine and he mrss i7rave, could be proeced by cooperaive ae!reemens wih oher 4nd owners, principally he Caholic Church and ndian allo^.(^;s ( see Maps). B. l,ppr<zised Value The lands in qui^,sion are useful only for limied grrnzing bu because of heir locaion in he Wounded Knce communiy migh have poenial value for r(^si.denial use. No exper appraisal of he land vplui: was obaind, in view of he donaion offers. Howcvcr, i is b^:li.eved ha he presen value of his land would be in he ncighborhood of o $25 per acre. C. Ccndiion of Lands The lands Embraced wihin he enaively proposed area are clear of inprovemens, excep for cale fences and agraveled road a he eas end (see Maps and Phoos). 4l

46 D. nccessibiliy U.'S. Highway 8 is a high sandard oil-surfaced road, bu he srech of 8 mils lcp.ding norh o he balefield (or "scene of he m^ssacre") is narrow, ruy, and only hinly surfaced wih rrpvc;. Clouds of dus rail he raveler in fair wea.hr..r. ALfer rain i is repued o be passable only wih difficuly. Much complain abou he condiion of his road is now voiced by local residens. is reasonably cerain ha esablishmen of a naional sie would accenup. he demands for road improvemen by he Federal Goverr:men. The Bureau of ndian hffairs is pres<:nly r^;sponsible for he mainenance of his road, bu has no prospec of funds for improvemen. E. Suggesed Developmen f he sie were o be esablished as a naional hisoric sie in ncn-federal ownrrship, i would be sufficien o provide suiahl sipns and markexs, wih lile recurring cos o he Governmen. Howcv(^:l in federal own(:rship, if handled in a manner similar o exising nnionz,: monumens, Wounded Knee would conceivably require a subsanial physical, improvemen program and sizeable recurring annual appropri,^icns. Because of he indefinieness of he proposal, no aemp is made, here o esimae he-:se coss, or he cos of improving, he approach road. F. Relaion o Naional Park Service nreas Wounded Knee would fi adminisrnively ino he consellpion of Black Hills nreas ( 'rji.nd Cave, Moun Rushmore, Badlands, Devils 'rowcr, 42

47 Jewel Crve) adminisered by a coordin,^inr sup::rinenden saioned a Rapid Ciy. Thc;re are wo areas now in he Naional Park Sysem which are r(.^l?e:d o Plains ndian warfare--cuser Balefield N:?ion^ Monumen, scene of he Ba.le of he Lile Big Horn of June 2"-'-2(,, 876; and For Laramie Naional Monumen, where remains of he impcrr,n miliary pos of 8l9-890 are preserved. Boh areas are relaed in some degre o - W::undcd Knee, For Laramie was a cc:nmon r-al:eri np. place for he Sioux ( p^ri.cularl,y he Oglalas and Brules) when he *4orh Plae Valley was hcir h<bi.r., before heir final move (in 87) o he Pine RidCe counry. The bloody af.fair of he Lile Bi Horn is generally considered he climacic bale of. Plains ndian wa. 'Lare, a Pyrric vicory for he Sioux which prcipiaed heir final subjuf-r.+ion, he rail which ended forever a ;dounded Knee. ndian warfare (bu no of "he Plains") is he hf^mc! a one oher area in Region Two--Big Hole Balefield Naional Monumen., in wesern M(:n.-.na. Badlands Naional Monumen in Souh Dakoa is he neares exising area of he Service o Wounded Knee. Big; Foo's band crossed his area on is fligh fr.--m Cheyenne River before capure by he 7h Cavalry. 43

48 G. Relaed Hisoric Sies Wihin he Pine RidCe Reservaion here are no oher imporan hisoric sies in any way designaed. Pine Ridf.^e iself is of consid- (.rnblc hisoric ineres because of is key role in he reservaion hisory of he Oglala Sioux. This reservaion is one c.f he <.i ^:.s and mos heavily populped of he ndian reservaions and he Sirux (p?rly because of heir hisoric prowess as warriors) are populprly regarded as amcnr, he mos c;.:lorful iimri.can ndians. n Pine Rid?e, which is somewha l^r;_:er han he ypical a;,ency, here is) in addliion o he governmen plan, a. large indusrial school and a handicrafs shop and museum. The sie of he home of RLd Cloud, famous war chief of he Oglalas (whc.. offered only passive rc;sisonce durinp he W,-:und(:d Knee; disurbance) is he only hisoric flaure marked. The Sae of Souh Dakoa has hisoric markers a he sies cf he balefields of Slim Bues (876) and Whiesc-ne Hill (855) and a he Roe V;.lla.;-e on he 4isscuri RivEr besieged by LL-avenworh in 823, bu here are no markers a Wounded Knee.. Noice shculd be given here o he aborive Sioux ndian Mcmc:ria.l proposed in he 930's by ciizens of Chadron, Nebraska, for lc:caic:n in Chadron Sae Pc:rk; and o he curren projec privaely promoed by he sculpcr 7iclkcwski (wih encourar;:men from Senaor Case and Sae Hisorian Robinson) for a giganic mounain saue of Crazy orse, near Cuser, Sk.uh Dakoa, as a memorial o he heroic Sieux warrior who was he archeype of he wild American ndians. 4

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55 Phoo No. 3 Wounded Knee Balefiold. Vicw o souheas oward Caholic Mission on hill whorc Hochkiss guns were emplaced. Soldier camp and principal acion a lef, middle disance. 5

56 Phoo No, Mass grave behind he Caholic Mission where ndian vicims of Woiznded Knee were niried on January, 89..,,. :±j, ^,, ^.i..^.. r,: d, 4. ^.. '.... Phoo No. 5 "Commiee" a Wounded Knee monumen, July 30, 952. Lef o righ: Jake Her;:ian, Oglala Sioux Council; Faher Fuller, Holy Rosary Nission; Charles Blindman, Presiden, Wounded Knee survivors Associaion; Mahew High Pine., Wounded Knee; William Fire Thunder, Oglala Sioux Council; Clive Gilderslecvc, Wounded Knee; Will H. Spindler, Wounded Knee; Samuel Sands,, 0 glala Sioux Council. 59 '

57 Phoo No. 6 Pine Ridge, Souh Dakoa, agency for he Pine Ridge ndian Reservaion, 7 miles by presen road from Wounded Knee. Pine Ridge was he cener of miliary operaions during he "Ghos Dance War." Phoo No. 7 Hisoric sie in Pine Ridge. The agency police saion now occupies he sie. Red Cloud was a grea war chief of he Oglalas bu was no acively hosile a he ime of Wounded Knee. n background is American.Legion Hall, scene of he July 29 meeing. 53

58 ^ Phoo No. 8 Sup. E. S. Luce, Cuser Balefield Kaional Monumen, idenifies four of hese figures as follows: Seaed--Major Samuel M. Whiside (lef); Colonel James W. Forsyh (cener). Sanding--ls Lieu. John C. Ore-sham (second from righ); ].s Lieu. William J. Nicholson (hird from righ). Phoo No. 9

59 -:Afar: ^\.. _. _Y^^: _---- ^^ i.:^...^,^,^,^.-... ^; ^ " --yes'..i:^r:^ il:^^ ^i.;... `. ^ _....._. --.^^. _ -i:-: ^ ^"^ ^ -. -.: ^. - ^.^.. Phoo No. 0 Phoo No..

60 Phoo No. 2 Phoo No. 3 ^.' 4