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2 ilp,c^p^g CRTCAL THNKNG: A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS ^ TN C,CRRLCTONS NSTTUTOiVS ^ ^ CAROL LA BAR This PROJECT WAS FUNDED By EDUCATON AND TRANNG DVST PACFC REGOPd, SOLCTOR GENERAL OF CANADA ri PROJECT DRECTORS: HV 8875 L3 c.2 DR. AN ^^R GNT AND PR,^ ERROLL C00h?S FACULTY OF EDUCATOiN THE UNVERSTY OF BRTSH COLUMBTA

3 TABLE OF CONTEN TS Y sg/s- L c'bd v;p::stè?: Page 69- z g g F.e â ce g = g h2.e rg 2- E eg- se ee Ke NTRODUCTON THE NATURE OF CRTCAL THNKNG 2 Characerisics of Criical Thinkers 4 Criical Thinking in he Classroom 5 Language and Criical Thinking 7 USE OF THS MANUAL 9 DSTNGUSHNG FACTUAL CLAMS FROM VALUE CLAMS 0 ANALYSS OF FACTUAL CLAMS 4 THE FORM OF AN ARGUMENT 20 Condiional Reasoning (The Hypoheical Syllogism 23 Value Reasoning (The Pracical Syllogism) 28 ASSUMTON RECOGNTON 3 DRAWNG NFERENCES 39 NFORMAL FALLAC ES 42 Hasy Generalizaion 43 Fallacy of Composiion 46 False Cause 46 Black or Whie Fallacy 47 Argumen of he Beard or Bald Man Argumen 47 Begging he Quesion (Circular Reasoning) 48 Agains he Man (Argumenum ad Hominem) 49 You're Anoher (Tu Quoque) 49 Appeal o Force (Argumenum ad Baculum) 50 Appeal o Piy (Argumenum ad Misericordiam) 50 Argumen from gnorance (Argumenum ad gnoraium) 5 Appeals o Auhoriy 5 Popular Senimens 52 Popular People 52 Tiles 52 Tradiion 53 Large Numbers 53 rrelevan or False Auhoriy 53 Complex Quesion 54 Confiden Manner 55 Jargon 55 A RATONALE FOR TEACHNG VALUE REASONNG 58 VALUE DECSON-MAKNG COMPETENCES 6

4 Pag_e JUSTFYNG VALUE JUDGMENTS 62 _UNDERSTANDNG DFFERENT KNDS OF VALUE 'JUDGMENTS (PONTS OF VEW) 65 BENG ABLE TO TEST THE ADEQUACY OF VALUE PRNCPLES 7 Role Exchange Tes 7 Universal Consequences Tes 7 New Cases Tes 73 Subsumpion Tes 74 NTEGRATNG THE VALUE REASONNG ACTVTES 79 BBLOGRAPHY 93 APPENDX 95 er

5 NTRODUCTON f ciizenship. The abiliy o hink raionally and independenly is basic o good A major ask of educaion should be o provide for developmen of he skills necessary for making sound, defensible judgmens abou boh public and personal concerns. Unforunaely, much of our educaional experience ends o minimize learning of criical hinking in favour of learning of conen and 'righ' f f answers. This is no less rue of educaional programs, paricularly upgrading programs, in correcions insiuions. The General Equivalency Diploma examinaion, for example, employs muliple choice quesions o es cerain abiliies and skills. does no measure inerpreaion, undersanding or appreciaion of a subjec area and allows for lile opporuniy o criically examine imporan issues.. s f A program ha eaches sudens how o hink, raher han wha o hink, is more demanding of sudens and, surely, is â more ineresing experieriçe. Such a program gives sudens a chance o express opinions, have hem challenged, defend hem in fron of ohers, and modify hem in he ligh of ohers' criicisms, if warraned. This is paricularly imporan wih respec o issues abou which people have emoional reacions. Research has shown ha people are likely o rae argumens valid if hey happen o agree wih he conclusion and invalid if hey disagree wih he conclusion. One canno accuraely evaluae beliefs, siuaions or argumens if emoional reacions hold sway. is o be expeced ha sudens who become skilled a hinking criically will be in a beer posiion o evaluae heir houghs and acions, see he consequences of differen acions and, ulimaely, choose he mos raional alernaive.

6 2 THE NATURE OF CRTCAL THNKNG a a z ^ i s a should be poined ou ha educaors are no in agreemen abou wha exacly consiues criical hinking. Much of he lieraure loosely described under his ile will include books on reflecive hinking, effecive hinking, creaive hinking, problem solving, decision making, inquiry learning and so on. Rober Ennis' concepion of criical hinking is he mos sysemaic and comprehensive accoun of criical hinking abiliies currenly available. Ennis ( 962) defines criical hinking as "he correc assessing of saemens," which includes he following welve aspecs: ) grasping he meaning of a saemen 2) judging wheher here is ambiguiy in a line of reasonin g 3) judging wheher cerain saemens conradic each oher 4) judging wheher a conclusion follows necessarily 5) judging wheher a saemen is specific enough ' 6) judging wheher a saemen is acually he applicaion of a cerain principle 7) judging.wheher an observaion'saemen is reliable 8) judging wheher an inducive conclusion is warraned 9) judging wheher he problem has been idenified 0) judging wheher somehing is -an assumpion ) judging wheher a definiion is adequae 2) judging wheher a saemen made by an alleged auhoriy is accepable. is beyond he scope of his manual o deal wih all of hese aspecs. saemens. Ennis' lis does no include he skills necessary for judging value As he disciplines radiionally sudied in school canno be

7 3 f sudied independenly of values, his manual conains a secion on value reasoning. * We include here wha he Associaion for Values Educaion and Research feels are some of he skills needed for value reasoning. ) Being able o differeniae value judgmens, claims, or issues from oher sors of judgmens, claims, or issues. 2) Undersanding he srucure or logic of value reasoning so ha one can ell wheher one's own and ohers' value judgmens are sound. 3) Undersanding he significanly differen kinds of value judgmens a person can make. 4) Being able o es he adequacy of sandards or rules one uses in making value judgmens. r^ i 0 f T will find ha here are numerous opporuniies o challenge suden hinking in all heir lessons. Unfounded saemens, prejudices and generalizaions should bè deal wih as hey come up in he classroom if hinking is really o be promoed as an objecive.,.. Suden views which are based on unreliable or inadequae informaion, are inconsisen and irrelevan o he o he opic a hand should be quesioned. Sudens can be asked o give reasons for holding such views, o idenify unsaed assumpions, o rehink he logic involved, and so on. f sudens do no have heir opinions challenged and opened o examinaion hey will come o believe ha heir opinions, and ohers', are merely a maer of individual ase. This is *See p. 58 of his manual for a more deailed raionale for eaching value reasoning. **Before sudens can begin o hink criically abou an issue hey mus be able o idenify he cenral issue in a wrien or oral communicaion. We have no included any exercises of his naure here as eachers no doub have pracised his skill already in class or will do so wih maerials relevan o he subjecs being augh. Criical hinking can be augh in any subjec area alhough some lend hemselves more easily o his enerprise. ** The maerials in his bookle will mos likely fi ino Social Sudies or English classes, bu eachers

8 4 paricularly imporan in discussions of social, poliical and moral issues. opinion expressed ha 'People from culure X will never ge ahead because hey're jus oo dumb' is no a all he same kind of issue as expressing a preference for chocolae ice cream over maple walnu. Every person may have he righ o his own opinion bu no all opinions are equally good. would no be reasonable o expec ha he ask of eaching criical hinking would be compleed merely by doing he exercises included in his manual. Even if sudens become very adep a doing exercises, one canno assume ha he job has been done. Masery of hese echniques of criical hinking will be only an academic exercise if sudens do no have he disposiion o apply hem in heir everyday lives. CHARACTERSTCS OF CRTCAL THNKERS Ennis (979) saes ha raional hinkers are characerized by a endency o: '3.. exercise he proficiency ha hey possess; 2. ake ino accoun he oal siuaion; be well informed; 4. demand as much precision as he subjec maer permis; 5. deal wih he pars of a complex siuaion in an orderly fashion, ofen one par a a ime (bu keeping he whole siuaion in mind when dealing wih a par); 6. consider seriously oher poins of view han heir own; 7. wihhold judgmen when he evidence and/or reasons are insufficien; 8. ake a posiion and change he posiion when he evidence and reasons are sufficien o warran so doing; and 9. accep he necessiy of exercising informed judgmen.

9 5 Teaching people o have his disposiion is, of course, a much more difficul and ime consuming ask. However, here are some hings one can do o faciliae his process. An open, supporive classroom amosphere will encourage quesioning and discussion. Open-ended quesions give sudens he opporuniy o generae hypoheses and offer reasons and enaive conclusions. This is difficul for many sudens who have been con- diioned o look for correc answers and who may feel hreaened because of he risk of being wrong. f everyone's views are reaed wih respec, even reserved and wihdrawn sudens may be led o speak ou. CRTCAL THNKNG N THE CLASSROOM n addiion o he maerials included here, suden hinking can be simulaed in regular classroom work. For example, in sudying lieraure, quesions can be posed as o why a characer in a novel, sory or play says or does a specific hing. Sudens can be asked wha hey would say or do _ in similar circumsances. Dici he characer have alérnaives in ha siu- aion? f an alernaive acion had been aken, wha would have been he consequences? Role-aking gives sudens a chance o develop empahy for oher persons' poins of view, Science classes provide occasions for sudens o generae hypoheses, collec, weigh and evaluae evidence, draw conclusions and examine consequences. ssues arise which offer sudens he chance o examine value quesions in a raional way. Wha are he pros and cons of nuclear energy? Wha are he logical consequences o he environmen if we coninue o use resources in he 3.vay we have been? Wha are he dangers of geneic engineering?

10 Social Sudies is probably he mos appropriae vehicle for eaching criical hinking. Hisorical evens can be analyzed and evaluaed by asking sudens o examine such poins as: Wha were he alernaives a he ime? Wha would have been he consequences if an alernaive acion had been aken? Wha facors were aken ino accoun when a decision was made? Could he siuaion have been defined differenly? Wha moivaed he perperaor of an acion? Wha would you have done in ha siuaion? Geography may be sudied using quesions such as: Why are cerain economic aciviies locaed where hey are? Wha alernaives are/were availabie o hose making decisions abou economic aciviy? HOW are resources used? How should resoisrces be used? Graphs and maps can be used o pracice inference making and inerpreaion., Curren evens classes in boh elemenary and secondary programs furnish ample *opporuniy for discussion and will provide a forum o pracice criical hinking skills. Newspaper ediorials and leers o he edior can be used o ask such quesions as: -Are saemens facual or value claims? Wha is he auhor's conclusion? Wha evidence is offered in suppor of he conclusion? Are he facs rue? s he argumen logical? s he argumen an appeal o emoions? Does i conain oher fallacies? Wha are he auhor's assumpions? Two or more nevespaper accouns of he same even can be presened o sudens who can compare and conras he facual daa, he explanaions given and he conclusions cirawn. Sudens can be asked o decide which is he bes accoun and why.

11 7 Anoher aciviy for curren evens classes involves giving sudens resuls of a poll and asking hem o draw inferences from i. These can be compared wih oher sudens' work and finally wih he inferences drawn by - he pollser. LANGUAGE AND CRTCAL THNKNG The need for precision in language covers all classroom subjecs. Teachers should give careful and sysemaic aenion o he way heir sudens use language for i ofen reveals how hey are hinking. One canno communicae effecively if one is using words ha may have differen meaning for differen people or differen meaning in differen conexs. This is especially imporn wih such words as 'democracy' or 'libery' where an evaluaive componen is ofen buil ino he common usage of he word. wo. uld be quie poinless o have a discussion on he imporance of libery if all he paricipans had differing views abou wha libery is. The concep should be clarified before discussion ensues.* Raher han jus looking up a definiion in a dicionary, i is suggesed ha sudens can arrive a heir own definiions o mee specific discussion needs. To clarify a concep such as 'revoluion' sudens could firs lis is defining characerisics. Following his lising, examples and non-examples could be posed o ascerain which are really examples of revoluions and which migh be more properly classified as wars, civil wars, guerrilla aciviy or acs of errorism. Ambiguiy in language clouds criical hinking. One common error is called he fallacy of equivocaion. (Knowing he name is no as imporan as recognizing he problem.) Here one shifs he meaning of a word during he *For a comprehensive explanaion of concep clarificaion, see John Wilson's Thinking wih Conceps.

12 8 course of an argumen. People have he righ o hink whaever hey wan in a democracy. live in a democracy so wha hink is righ. 'Righ' in his lofy sounding firs senence is equivocaed by a self-ineresed raonalizaion in he second senence. The above argumen is, of course, easy o criicize. n ordinary wrien and oral communicaion, however, equivocaions probably will be much more suble. -

13 9 USE OF THS MANUAL Mos of he exercises included here can be used in elemenary upgrading progra ns as well as a he secondary level. Teachers may have o spend a lile more ime explaining he skills and may have o discuss exercises in greaer deail for sudens enrolled in elemenary programs. s is suggesed ha he skills addressed in his manual be augh sequenially, as hey are covered here roughly in order of difficuly. n addiion, some laer aspecs build on skills augh earlier in he manual. should be noed ha a descripive passage precedes each of he exercises. This maerial is o provide eachers wih an explanaion ha can i i A be used as a basis o each each of he skills. Exercises o pracice he skills described are on separae pages o faciliae copying for in-class use. Answers o he exercises are included in he appendix a he back of his manual. Teachers are encouraged o emphasize how he skills can be applied o opics under sudy and o sudens' daily lives. Furher exercises can be designed using hose included here as a model. Reinforcemen is necessary o fosér furher developmen of criical abiliies. This manual provides only an inroducion o he many complex and sophisicaed skills necessary for criical hinking, has been designed o be basic enough o be handled in elemenary and secondary equivalency programs in correcions insiuions where few, if any, sudens (and perhaps eachers) have been exposed o he subjec maer. Because of he ime consrains imposed on eachers in hese programs, we have ried o make he maerizil manageable for use in shor-erm programs.

14 0 DSTNGUSHNG FACTUAL CLAMS FROM VALUE CLAMS is essenial o be able o disinguish facual claims from value claims in order o evaluae hem. Therefore, he firs secion of his manual will be concerned wih disinguishing beween he wo and wih ways of assessing he ruh or falsiy of facual claims. Value claims are claims abou he worh of somehing. f we rae somehing high on a scale of worh we are making a posiive value judgmen. A low raing on a scale of worh is a negaive value judgmen. The following are saemens of value claims: a) This music is grea. b) This paining is ugly. c) Lying is wrong. C- ) Tha argumen is supid. e) Open-hearh furnaces are efficien. Saemens a) and e) express posiive value judgmens, while b), c) and d) express negaive value judgmens. Saemens a) o e) are simple value a claims. Some value judgmens indicae he worh of a course of acion by prescribing i--ha is, elling us o do i. The following are value judgmens of his prescripive sor. f) You ough o ell he ruh. g) You should no hur people. Comparaive value judgmens are hose which make saemens abou he worh of somehing relaed o he worh of somehing else. For example, h) Dogs make beer pes han cas. i) She deserves he promoion more han anyone else. Value judgmens are o be disinguished from several oher kinds of claims which we lump ogeher under he erm 'facual claims.' Noe ha

15 ' he use of he erm in he conex of value reasoning differs from he ordinary use of 'fac' or 'facual' in wo senses. n ordinary use, 'fac' implies ha somehing is rue; however, in value reasoning, 'facual claim' simply describes he naure of a saemen, and he saemen iself may be eiher rue or false. Also, as we ordinarily use 'fac,' we may ofen be referring o a value claim regarded as rue--for example, "Good healh is a boon o anyone"; bu, in his conex, such value claims are specifically excluded from he class of saemens we call facual claims. The erm here is mean o pick ou claims abou wha is he case, regardless of wheher he claims are rue or no. There are a leas wo sors of facual claims: 'empirical' daims and 'analyical' claims. A claim is empirical if we can find ou wheher or no i is rue by making some sor of sensory observaion--by looking, lisening, asing, and he like. The following are exanples of empirical claims: j) There is a police car ouside. k) Emissions of carbon monoxide ino he air have _ increased in he las en years. ) Viamin C increases one's resisance o colds. These are empirical claims because he ruh or falsiy of each one of hem can be deermined by sensory ess. We can look ouside o see wheher or no a police car is here; we can examine represenaive samples of persons who ake viamin C and of hose who don' o find ou which group ges more colds. The following is also an empirical claim:. m) There are inelligen beings in oher galaxies. Even hough we obviously canno es he ruh or falsiy of such a claim, we can sill hink wha kind of es could }.-)ossibly be used o judge i. The second kind of facual claim, he 'analyice claim, is one whose ruh can be deermined if we ge clear abou he meanings of he words

16 2 in he saemen. The saemens below express analyical claims. n) There are no four-sided riangles. o) Mammals are animals. p) Some brohers have no siblings. We know ha saemen (n) is rue because he word "riangle" means "hreesided figure." Saemen (p) is false because he meaning of he word "broher" is such ha one can be a broher only if he does have a sibling.. is no necessary o make any sensory ess o deermine he ruh of hese claims. By conras, he ruh of 'value claims' canno be deermined by eiher of he mehods appropriae o facual claims. We canno for example, deermine he ruh of he value claim "i is wrong o hur people" by observing hur peoplf., or by geing clear abou he meanings of he words in he saeinen. As we shall see laer, value claims are jusified in ways raher differen from hese. Value claims involve he applicaion of value sandards and he ju.sificaion of such sandards. We shall ake up he jusificaion of value claims laer in his manual.

17 Which of he following are facual claims and which are value claims?. n many counries populaion doubles every 25 years. 2. Physiciss should refuse o cooperae in he developmen of aomic weapons. 3. Learning geomery does no help one in any oher area of life. 4. Farmers are wrong o desroy whea when Canada has a surplus. 5. Twice as many people subscribe o he afernoon newspaper as o he morning newspaper. 6. The morning newspaper is a beer newspaper han he afernoon paper. 7. Governmens ough no o inerfere in family decisions abou family size. 8. enjoy gardening. 9. will likely rain on Sunday. 0-:- Resources ough o be disribued more equally han hey now are.. Rening a house is beer han buying a house. 2. ce Cream is my favourie desser. 3. One ough no o break one's promise wihou a good reason. 4. Women, by naure, are beer a household chores han men. Y- 5. Fluoride in communiy waer supplies reduces ooh decay. 6. Parens ough no o consider heir children as propery. 7. There is no difference in inellecual capaciy beween males and females. 8. Significan increases in immigraion from Asian and Caribbean counries will cause racial ension in Canada. 9. We should no allow people o immigrae o Canada unless hey speak English or French Canada should permi all races equal opporuniy o come o Canada. 2. People who wrie heir wills before dying simplify he selemen of heir esaes afer deah. 22. Children who ea nuriious meals do beer in school han children who do no. 23. Morgage companies are unfair o women.

18 4 ANALYSS OF FACTUAL CLAMS The following provides a lis of quesions ha can De used o help evaluae he ruh or falsiy of facual claims. can be used as a basis for discussion abou he facual claims made in newspaper and magazine aricles. On he nex page we provide Ennis' lis of sandards by which o judge reliabiliy of observaion saemens. HOW CAN FACTUAL CLAMS BE ASSESSED?*. WHERE was he evidence found? 2. WHAT kind of sampling was used? 3. WHEN was he evidence found? 4. WHO repored he evidence? An exper on he subjec? An official of some kind? Oher? Repuaion of he source? 5. WHY was he evidence repored? To furher some cause? Wha cause? 6. HOW was he evidence found? Firs hand observaion? e- Oher? 7. S i evidence of he predicive ype? HOW was i arrived a? 8. S here any way[s] o check on he reliabiliy of he evidence? Do differen sources agree on he evidence? Disagree? 9. S he evidence compelling, coercive? 0. CAN he evidence be acceped wih confidence? Why or why no? We referred in he las secion o wo kinds of facual claims--empirical claims and analyic claims. To assess he ruh or falsiy of empirical claims *Taken from Simon, F. A Reconsrucive Approach o Problem-Solving in he Social Sudies. Calgary: Auhor, 97.

19 i r ^ requires use of one or more of he following: () experimenaion (2) observaion Ofen we canno observe firs hand hose hings we wish o know abou and mus rely on ohers o provide informaion. Rober Ennis has comprised he following lis o judge wheher an observaion saemen is reliable. Observaion saemens end o be more reliable if he observer: - Was unemoional, aler and disineresed. - Was skilled a observing he sor of hing observed. - Had sensory equipmen ha was in good condiion. - Had a repuaion for veraciy. - Used precise echniques. - Had no preconcepion abou he way he observaion would urn ou. Observaion saemens end o be more reliable if he observaion condiions: - Were such ha he observer had good access. - Provided a saisfacory medium of observaion. Observaion saemens end o be more reliable o he exen ha he saemen: s close o being a saemen of direc observaion. - s corroboraed. - s corroboraable. - Comes from a disineresed source wih a repuaion for veraciy. Observaion saemens, if based on a record, end o be more, reliable if he record: - Was made a he ime of observaion. - Was made by he person making he saemen. - s believed by he person making he saemen o be correc--eiher because he so believed a he ime he record was made, or because he believes i was he record-maker's habi o make correc records. 'Observaion saemens end o be more reliable han inferences made from hem. (3) exper esimony This shorer lis by Ennis o judge wheher or no o accep saemens made by auhoriies inciudes he following crieria: 5

20 9 6. He has, a good repuaion. 2. The saemen is in his field. r 3. He was disineresed--ha is, he did no knowingly sand o profi by he resuls of his saemens (excep ha he may have sood o have his repuaion affeced). 4. His repuaion could be affeced by his saemen and he was aware of his fac when he made his saemen. 5. He sudied he maer. 6. He followed he acceped procedures in coming o his conclusion (alhough here are legiimae excepions o his requiremen). 7. He was in full possession of his faculies. The following hree exercises- -Recognizing Reliable Observaions, Evaluaing Sources of nformaion, and Evaluaing Sources of nformaion il ^ will help sudens o pracice he skills described in his secion. 4 i A r

21 7 RECOGNZNG RELABLE OBSERVATONS Which one of he hree saemens in each group do you hink is he mos accurae or in which saemen would you have he mos confidence?. a) A he Lile League baseball game, Tom's moher said he was safe. b) A he Lile League baseball game, he umpire said Tom was ou. c) A he Lile League baseball game, Tom's coach said he was safe. 2. a) Because he child's head fel ho, his moher said he had a fever. b) Because he child aced cranky and looked flushed, his moher said he had a fever. c) Because he child's emperaure read 03 on a hermomeer, his moher said he had a fever. 3. a) A boy waching he firs diving compeiion he had ever seen said i was a good dive. b) A fellow who had been o many diving compeiions said i was a good dive. c) The judge of he diving compeiion said i was a good dive. 4. a) The woman who was waiing on he corner where he acciden occurred said he red car did no sop a he sop sign. b) A drunk lying on he bus sop bench said he hough he red car did sop. c) The now hyserical driver of he blue car said he driver of he - red car did no sop a he sop sign. 5. a) The jockey said he horse he was riding won he race. b) The owner of horse 8 said horse 8 won he race. c) The judge who sudied he phoo-finish picures said horse 8 won he race. 6. a) The experienced guide said he lions came his way. b) The visior on his firs lion hun said here was no sign of he lions. C) The man who had spen much of his life caring for lions a he zoo said he lions had no come his way. 7. a) The principal said ha each child was always in his sea in he classroom. b) The eacher said ha each child was always in his sea in he classroom. c) The paren said ha each child was always in his sea in he classroom. 8. a.) John measured he widh of he road wih a sring and hen measured he sring. b) Joe measured he widh of he road wih a 25-foo ape rule. c) Jay measured he widh of he road wih a yardsick. 9. a) Joan said she saw a car acciden a he corner. b) John said he heard here was a car acciden a he corner of Main and Maple. c) Joe said his moher said she saw a car acciden a he corner of Main and Maple. 0. a) Mary imed he race wih her wach. b) Meg imed he race wih her wach wih a sweep second hand. c) Marha imed he race wih a sop wach. *Taken from Judgmen: Deducive Logic and Assumpion Recogniion. Los Angeles: nsrucional Objecives Exchange, 97.

22 EVALUATNG SOURCES OF NFORMATON 8 You have been given an assigninen o wrie a erm paper. To a large degree i will be valuable according o he exen o which he references you use are accurae and are unbiased, imparial, and unprejudiced. Below are a number of possible opics. Under each one are lised hree references which migh give informaion abou i. f he maerial were available, which would you consider as mos reliable for giving a rue picure of evens as hey acually happened? Circle your choice of he bes source. Be prepared o explain why you hink your answer is he bes choice. Topic : Topic : The "True" sory of he Boson Massacre. A. A T.V. sory of he period. B. A naive of Boson elling he sory as handed down by her ancesors. C. A newspaper of Boson, prined during he period, ha describes he even. The effec of he Vienam War on he people of ha counry. A. An inerview wih a family in each of en villages in Vienam. B. A T.V. documenary showing he povery and hunger of Vienamese people. C. A speech given by Senaor Kennedy. Topic 3: The 'ruh' abou drug abuse on college campuses. A. An accoun of he siuaion wrien by sudens on several campuses. -- B. A newspaper aricle describing raids on four campuses. C. An inerview wih a college presiden. Topic 4: The physical effecs of heroin on he human body. A. A boy whose cousin has aken heroin. " B. A repor by he Federal Drug Adminisraion on he effecs of Heroin. C. A T.V. inerview wih an ex-heroin addic. Topic 5: Wha i was like o live in London during he German bombings of World War. A. A T.V. documenary showing acual picures of London during he bombings. B. The recollecions of an American during he bombings. C. A novel which is se in London during he bombings. Topic 6: Topic 7: Topic 8: The burial of he Eruscan Civilizaion. A. Picures of objecs discovered by a eam of archaeologiss. B. A sory of an Eruscan funeral feas. C. An aricle abou Eruscan ciies. The "rue" sory of he Salem Wich Trials. A. A newspaperaricle by a reporer who covered one of he rials. B. The diary of one of he girls who accused ohers of being wiches. C. The cour records of he rial proceedings. The fundamenals of Communism. A. A person living in he Sovie Union. B. The wriings of Karl Marx. C. A book abou he Russian Revoluion. Source for pp. 8-9: Morse, H., & McCune, G. Seleced ems for he Tesing of Sudy Skills and Criical Thinking. Washingon: Naional Council for he Social Sudies, 97.

23 ^r EVALUATNG SOURCES OF NFORMATON Rank order he references for each of he following. Pu a'' in fron of he mos reliable source, a'2' in fron of he nex reliable, and a'3' in fron of he leas reliable.. The religious beliefs of he ancien Egypians. a) A moving picure dramaizing he love affair of Anony and Cleopara. b) A newspaper accoun in he "Sunday Magazine Secion" of excavaions of an old Egypian emple. c) A ranslaion of an inscripion on he wall of an old Egypian omb. 2. The evens surrounding he fall of he Basille prison in Paris on July 4, 789. a) An accoun in an English newspaper on July 7, 789. b) An accoun wrien in he diary of a man who saw he affair. c) A modern play dramaizing he bravery and suffering of he French nobiliy during he Revoluion. 3. The condiion of he peasans in Russia under he Tsaris rule. a) An official noe o he French Ambassador by he Russian Prime Miniser. b) A poem abou he bravery of he Russian peasan soldier. c) A leer from a peasan farmer o his broher in America. 4. Condiions under which labourers worked in English Facories and mines -";in he early nineeenh cenury. a) A conemporary newspaper inerview of a ypical facory owner on facory condiions. b) A conemporary news accoun by a reporer who had visied a facory and a coal mine. c) The repor of a commiee appoined by Parliamen o invesigae condiions of he working classes. 5. The discovery of gold in California.,.a) A news iem in he San Francisco Chronicle in Sepember, 848. b) The accoun of he gold rush as old by Zane Grey, Wesern novelis. c) An accoun published by he San Francisco Chronicle in Sepember 939, on he 9s anniversary of he discovery, including an exac reprin of he original 848 accoun. 6. The Bale of he Marne, Sepember 94. a) An accoun which conrased he spiri of he heroic boys of he Allies and he ponderous foolhardiness of he enemy. b) An accoun compiled from maerial aken from he repors of opposing commanders. C) An accoun appearing in a journal prined in a neural counry. 7. Aomic bomb desrucion of Hiroshima. a) News iem in he New York Times published he following day. b) Army Signal Corps phoographs. c) Memoirs of he bombing-plane's pilo wrien on he 0h anniversary of he even. 8. Wha Quebec looked like shorly afer is selemen. a) See slides a friend ook in Quebec las summer. b) Sudy some painings of Quebec by an aris who wen here in he 650's c) Lisen o an hisorian lecure abou early Quebec and wha he hinks i probably looked like. 9

24 20 THE FORM OF AN ARGUMENT The word 'argumen' has wo differen meanings. Ofen i is used o refer o a dispue or debae. However, we will use he erm o mean a group of saemens which provides evidence or suppor for a conclusion. Deducive argumens are hose in which a conclusion is derived or inferred from one or more premises or assumpions. Judging argumens requires more han assessing he ruh or falsiy of facual claims. One mus also be able o judge wheher he argumen is valid, ha is, wheher he conclusion follows logically from he prernise[s]-- he facs, beliefs, or assumpions used as evidence. An invalid argumen is fallacious; here is a misake in is form. An argumen can be valid and unsoilnd if one or more of he premises are false. To be sound or reliable, an argumen mus have boh a valid form and rue premises. Consider he following argumen.. All women like o cook. 2. Joann is a woman. 3. Joann likes o cook. Saemens and 2 are he premises which imply he conclusion, Joann likes o cook. This argumen is valid, ha is, he conclusion follows necessarily from he premises. However, suppose 3.ve know for a fac ha Joann does no like o cook. Then he above argumen, alhough i is valid, is unsound because one of he premises is false. All women like o cook is a false assumpion. "Here is anoher example of an argumen.. Roses are vegeables. 2. Vegeables are flowers. 3. Therefore, roses are flowers.

25 2 This is anoher valid and unsound argumen. Clearly he premises are false alhough hey imply a rue conclusion. The following argumen is boh valid and sound. The premises are rue and he conclusion follows logically from hem.. f Vancouver is in Briish Columbia, hen i is a par of Canada. 2. Vancouver is in Briish Columbia. 3. Therefore, Vancouver is a par of Canada. The above argumens are examples of deducive logic. n a valid deducive argumen, if all of he premises are rue, he conclusion mus also be rue. n addiion, all of he informaion in he conclusion is already conained, a leas implicily, in he premises. argumens in ordinary usage are rarely presened in he idy form used in his manual or in exercises in books eaching logic. Ofen,premises are missing, he conclusion is mixed up wih he premises or here is ex- raneous maerial ha may no be par of he argumen. n order o analyze argumens i is imporan o be able o disinguish he premises from he conclusion. Conclusions can be prefaced wih many 'clue' words. Here are*some of he mos common: herefore, hence, hus, so, as a resul, i follows. The reasons or premises leading o a conclusion may begin wih words such as: since, for, because, due o.

26 22 n each of he following argumens, underline he conclusion and pu brackes around he premises.. The Sovie Union should no have invaded Afghanisan because i's wrong o inerfere in anoher counry's affairs. 2. Puing a heavy ax on gasoline would be beneficial as i will force people o drive less. This would resul in less gasoline consumpion. 3. f you work hard you will pass your nex mahemaics es. As you have worked hard you will undoubedly pass he es. 4. really don' hink i will be possible for us o go on a vacaion his year. We jus can' afford i..things are so expensive hese days. Everyhing--food, moels, enerainmen--jus coss oo much and, besides ha, our morgage paymens have gone up subsanially. 5. As a resul of he Conservaive Pary's defea in he las elecion, he counry is even worse off han i was when hey formed he goverinen. The morgage deducibiliy ax scheme did no go hrough, inflaion is increasing, and he Albera governmen won' sele on an oil price. 6. f we can' ge Roberson on our eam, we sùrely will lose he game. Roberson is sick and won' be able o play so we are sure o lose. 7. A people should receive,equal pay for equal work and as women are people hey should receive equal pay for equal work. 8. Homeown Chemicals Ld. should be presecued for dumping polluans ino he river. Facories ha pollue rivers should be prosecued and las week we read in he newspaper ha Homeown had done his. 9. am cerain ha you will like he resauran have chosen for dinner. They have he kind of food you like o ea on he menu and he amosphere is very good. 0. Because Roger has been working so hard and has done such good 'work, his employer should give him a raise.

27 23 CONDTONAL REASONNG (THE HYPOTHETCAL SYLLOGSM) A syllogism is an argumen made up of wo premises and a conclusion. The hypoheical syllogism is an argumen in which he major premise is usually in he form of an "if...hen" saemen. The par of he major premise immediaely afer he "if" is called he aneceden. The par of he major premise immediaely afer he "hen" is called he consequen. Some hypoheical syllogisms do no conain he words "if" or "hen" bu raher oher words which sugges an "if...hen" relaionship. For example, "if" can be replaced by "when," "under hese circumsances," "in he even," "given hese condiions" while "hen" can be replaced by "as a resul" or "as a consequence." Someimes he "hen" is lef ou enirely. One oher difficuly may arise if he consequen is saed firs, as in he following example. John will no sudy if he is depressed. - consequen aneceden John has no sudied. John is depressed: The hypoheical syllogism (in is pure form) hâs wo valid and wo invali^ forms. The valid forms are:. Affirming he aneceden f A hen B A Therefore, B 2. Denying he consequen f A hen B No B Therefore, no A The invalid forms are:. Denying he aneceden f A hen B No A Therefore, no B 2. Affirming he consequen f A hen B B Therefore, A

28 24 Affirming he aneceden, denying he consequen, denying he aneceden, and.affirming he consequen are used o refer o wha is done in he minor premise. Major premise: Minor premise: Conclusion: f Sue sudies, hen she will pass he es. f A hen B Sue has been sudying. A Therefore, she will pass he es. Therefore, B This is affirming he aneceden and is valid. Here is he same example denying he aneceden. Major premise: f Sue sudies, hen she will pass he es. f A hen B Minor premise: Sue did no sudy. No A - Conclusion: Therefore, she will no pass he es..therefore, no B. is invalid o conclude ha Sue did no pass he es. She may have cheaed, for insance, and passed he es wihou sudying. We do no know. Suppose we deny he consequen. We sae ha Sue did no pass and conclude ha she did no sudy. This is valid because our major premise saed ha if Sue sudies she will pass. Now Sue may chea and pass wihou sudy bu if our major premise is acceped as rue, she canno sudy and fail. Therefore, if she fails we can conclude ha she did no sudy. Major premise: Minor premise: Conclusion: f Sue sudies, hen she will pass he es. f A hen B Sue will no pass he es. No B Therefore, she did no sudy. Therefore, no A. Our remaining form, affirming he consequen, is invalid. We canno say ha since Sue passed, she sudied. As menioned above, she may have cheaed and passed.

29 25 Major premise: Minor premise: f Sue sudies, hen she will pass he es. f A hen B Sue will pass he es. Conclusion: Sue sudied Therefore, A The above rules apply only o he validiy of he hypoheical syllogism. They will ell you nohing above he ruh of he premises. Nor will hese rules help you if he relaionship beween he premises is uncerain. Look a he following example. Major premise: f Sue sudies hen she will pass he es. Minor premise: Sue says she canno go o he movies unil afer her es. Conclusion: Therefore, she will pass he es. - There is an uncerain relaionship beween he premises here. The fac ha Sue says home is no assurance ha she will sudy. he minor premise is no a clear case of affirming he aneceden. is invalid. The conclusion does no follow necessarily from he premises. Noe ha his syllogsm is invalid no because i violaed one of he rules above, bu raher because he relaionship beween he premises is uncerain. The rules governing hypoheical syllogisms using "if and only if" are quie differen. n hese saemens, all four forms--affirming he aneceden, denying he aneceden, affirming he consequen, denying he consequen-- are valid. This is because he relaionship beween he premises is reciprocal. The affirmaion or denial of one par requires respecively he affirmaion or denial, of he oher par of he saemen. f and only if you finish your work will you be able o go o he movies. Only under he condiion of finishing your work will you be able o go o he movies. Thus, if you are able o go o he movies, i is because you

30 have finished your work. f you are no finished you will no be able o go. 26 is imporan o disinguish beween "if and only if" saemens and i r r "only if" saemens. "Only if" senences have heir own se of rules. The wo valid forms are: P only if Q P only if Q P No Q Therefore, Q Therefore, no P The invalid forms are: P only if Q P only if Q Q No P Therefore, P Therefore, no Q.L

31 27 Which of he following argumens are valid and which are invalid?. f Mary learns he rules of grammar, she will do well in her wrien composiion. Mary did no do well in her wrien composiion. Mary failed o learn he rules of grammar. 2. f your library book is overdue, hen you owe a library fine. Your library book is overdue. You owe a library fine. 3. The grain will grow if i rains. won' rain. Therefore, he grain won' grow. 4. f he brakes are fauly on his car, he driver will have an acciden. The brakes are good. The driver won' have an acciden. 5. f and only if i snows, we will go skiing. will no snow. We will no go skiing. 6. -f John is a manager, he will be ani-union. John is no ani-union. Therefore, John is no a manager. 7. f he car is parked by a fire hydran, hen i is parked illegally. The car is no parked by a fire hydran. So he car is no parked illegally. 8. f a suden knows he rules of logic, he can spo cerain fallacies..andrew knows he rules of logic. He will be able o spo cerain fallacies. 9. f he emperaure drops below 0, hen he rain will urn o slee. looked ouside and i was raining. The emperaure mus no be below f he bird is a parro, hen i can alk. The bird can alk. Therefore, he bird is a parro.. f Canada les in more immigrans, here will be increased unemploymen. Canada is no leing in more immigrans. There will no be increased unemploymen. 2. f he sun shines, hen we will have a barbecue. We will no have a barbecue. Therefore, he sun will no shine. 3. Carl drinks coffee only if i is black. Carl is no drinking coffee. The coffee is no black.

32 28 VALUE REASONNG (THE PRACTCAL SYLLOGSM) We can use deducion in anoher common area of argumenaion--ha of value judgmens. The srucure of he pracical syllogism is he same as in he oher syllogisms: Premise (value claim) Premise (facual claim) Conclusion (value judgmen) As in all ypes of deducive logic, he conclusion will follow from he premises, and will conain no oher informaion han ha saed in he premises. n he pracical syllogism we use a value claim as one of he premises in reaching a value conclusion. Argumens in everyday language ofen leave he value claim unsaed. For example, you may hear someone say ha 'we ough o disconinue he pracice of issuing family allowance cheques because i jus encourages people o have children.' n syllogisic form his argumen would appear as follows: Premise: (unsaed value claim) Premise: (facual claim) Conclusion: (value judgmen) Any pracice which encourages he having of children ough o be disconinued. ssuing family allowance cheques encourages people o have children. Therefore, we ough o disconinue he pracice of issuing family allowance cheques. n value reasoning i is he value premise vvhich makes he facual claim relevan o he conclusion. f you look a he following wo argumens you will see ha he same facual premise can be used o suppor wo conra-, dicory conclusions. Value Jucigmen: (conclusion) is only righ o allow unmarried women o buy birh conrol pills.

33 29 Facual claim: This makes i possible for unmarried women o have sex wihou worrying abou geing pregnan, so hey will be free o have sexual relaions. The unsaed value claim in his argumen is ha anyhing which allows unmarried women o feel free o have sexual relaions is only righ. Value judgmen: (conclusion) Facual claim: is morally wrong o allow unmarried women o buy birh conrol pills. This makes i possible for unmarried women o have sex wihou worrying abou geing pregnan, so hey will be free o have sexual relaions. The unsaed value claim here is ha i is morally wrong o sell anyhing which will allow unmarried women o feel free o have sexual relaions. From he above i is easy 6 see ha he value premise is needed o make he facual premise coun as a reason for he conclusion. -We will discuss he jusificaion of value judgmens in deail on pp of his manual.

34 30 The following saemens are facual claims. Wrie a value premise and a conclusion o make each a valid argumen. Remember ha he conclusion of a valid deducive argumen conains no informaion ha is no saed in he premises.. John broke his promise. Value Premise: Conclusion: 2. The Sovie Union invaded Afghanisan recenly. 'Value Premise: Conclusion: 3. The B.C. Land Commission was se up o preserve agriculural land. Value Premise: Conclusion: 4. 'Refusing o hire someone on he basis of sex consiues discriminaion. Value Premise: Conclusion: 5. Some ranian sudens are holding 50 Americans hosage. Value Premise: Conclusion: 6. A Vancouver facory was charged las week wih discharging chemicals ino he Fraser River. Value Premise: Conclusion: 7. There was a 0% rae of inflaion in Canada in 979. Value Premise: Conclusion: 8. There are many people in Asia who do no ge enough o ea. Value Premise: Conclusion:

35 3 ASSUMPTON RECOGNTON To judge he meri of an argumen or saemen, one mus be able o recognize assumpions even when hey are no specifically saed. One who canno correcly recognize assumpions may no be able o criically judge an argumen based on false assumpions or recognize ha paricipans in an argumen have no made he same assumpions. n he saemen 'Milk is good for children because i conains calcium' he assumpion is made ha calcium is good for children. Obviously, if he speaker making he saemen is being reasonable and consisen, he mus accep he assumpion. f one wished o ouline he above in argumen form hen he unsaed assumpion ha children need or have use for calcium would be an essenial premise. Here is anoher example. Argumen: Suggesed assumpions: The grea elephone monopoly should be broken up. There should be many smaller companies. Only by inroducing compeiion can we ge an improvemen in service.. Compeiion improves efficiency. 2. The service of he elephone company is poorer han i could be. 3. The managemen of he elephone company is corrup. 4. More careful governmen regulaion of elephone service would help. You can ell from reading he argumen ha he speaker believed assumpions and 2. He would no be reasonable and consisen if he did no assume ha compeiion improves efficiency and ha he service of The above maerial, is adaped from and he exercises on Assumpion Recogniion ha follow are aken from nsrucional Objecives Exchange, Judgmen: Deducive Logic and Assumpion Recogniion. Los Angeles,.O.E., 97.

36 32 of he elephone company is poorer han i could be. Suggesed assumpion 3, however, canno be inferred from he argumen. The argumen holds if managemen is merely incompeen; i need no be corrup. Suggesed assumpion 4 is no relaed o he argumen. The speaker is asking for he inroducion of compeiion raher han governmen regufelon. Locaing implici (unsaed) assumpions requires some hough. Suppose someone said o you ha schools should require sudens o learn criical hinking. f you asked him why he hough so, he migh say somehing like "criical hinking is a worhwhile hing o learn." This is one of he assumpions he holds which provides evidence for his original saemen. f you push him a lile furher, he will probably ariculae his second assumpion, ha is, ha schools should require sudens o learn ha which is worhwhile. Here is his argumen formally wrien. Premise: (assumpion) Premise: (assumpion) Conclusion: Schools should require sudens o learn ha which is worhwhile. Criical hinking is a worhwhile hing o learn. Schools should require sudens o learn criical hinking. No doub you have noiced ha his is now a valid pracical syllogism. Assumpions mus be made explici o effecively evaluae an argumen. is imporan o undersand ha conclusions depend on assumpions, boh explici and implici. To accep a conclusion means ha one mus also accep he assumpions on which i is based.

37 33 ASSUMPTON RECOGNMON n he following examples, a saemen is followed by a lis of proposed assumpions. You are o decide if each suggesed assumpion is one ha he speaker of he saemen mus accep if he is being reasonable and consisen. f you hink he assumpion is assumed by he speaker, mark an X beside he saemen. - Example: Saemen: Proposed AssumpiOns: Mary is geing married in June. ) Mary will be alive in June 2) Mary is 2 years old. n his example you would mark an X beside proposed assumpion () because o be married in June, Mary mus be living. The proposed assumpion (2) is no made because o be 2 years of age has nohing o do wih being married in June. Saemen: Live in Chaham Towers--New earhquake-proof aparmen complex. Proposed Assumpions: ) is possible o consruc a building ha is earhquake proof. 2) A high-rise aparmen complex is a desirable 'place o live.. 3) Chaham Towers is locaed in an area where earhquakes occur. 4) Chaham Towers is an expensive place o live. *Saemen: Elec James Riley - Beer Ciy Managemen. Proposed Assumpions: 5) James Riley is a ciy managemen exper. 6) f eleced, Mr. Riley promises o improve ciy managemen. 7) Riley believes he people wan beer ciy managemen. 8) James Riley is running for he office of mayor. ll Saemen: Our school's fooball eam is he greaes. Proposed Assumpions: 9) The school has a fooball eam. 0) The eam has won all of is games. ) The school has cheerleaders. 2) The eam has a winning season. 3) The school has a band. V Saemen: Suppor he Marine Ciy Slum Rehabiliaion Program. Proposed Assumpions: 4) There is a slum in Marine Ciy. 5) The slum rehabiliaion program has sufficien money o operae effecively.

38 r 6) Temporary housing is available for hose families who mus leave heir dwelling while i is being rehabiliaed. 7) The Marine Ciy Planning Deparmen suppors he rehabiliaion program. 8) The slum area in Marine Ciy can be rehabiliaed. 9) Residens of he slum area suppor he rehabiliaion program. 20) Rehabiliaion is he correc soluion for Marine Ciy's slum area. 2) There is a slum rehabiliaion program in exisence for Marine Ciy. 34

39 .4 35 ASSUMPTON RECOGNTON The Unied Saes canno afford o lose he war in Souheas Asia. The Viecong and Norh Vienamese are Communiss. f hey win, hey will hrus all of Vienam behind he ron Curain. Moreover, Communiss elsewhere will be encouraged o repea he acics hey have used in Vienam agains oher counries.. Communism is an unpleasan form of governmen. 2. Communiss never come o power by peaceful means. 3. The Nazis were no as evil as he Communiss. Z. Communiss are eager o expand he influence of Communism. The public school sysem as i is now se up akes children and urns hem ino compeiors, ready o ake heir place in he grea American ra - race. From he -earlies grades, school ahleics end o foser a passion. for winning raher han a desire for healhy exercise. Throughou he suden's school life, a seady barrage of ess and grades prevens him from exploring and enjoying his individual poenial and insead induces him o sruggle o bea ou his classmaes. The free schools are a sep in he righ direcion. 5. Compeiion is healhy. 6. Life would be much beer in America if people didn' feel he need o "ge ahead." 7. The aiudes of people are srongly influenced by he kind of schooling hey receive. 8. The mos imporan ask of he schgol sysem is o each children how o hink carefully and creaively. American sociey is squandering is resources by making places a is fines colleges and universiies available o women in ever-increasing numbers.

40 36 A a ime when a op-fligh educaion is more necessary han ever before for leadership in our sociey, we are gambling wih our naion's fuure if we do no insure ha nearly all of his limied number of places go o young men. While i is rue ha some women have made significan conribuions o sociey in he pas, by and large i is he men on whom sociey hruss is major responsibiliies. 9. Women should no be paid as much as men for heir work. 0. High qualiy educaion makes men beer leaders.. Women are oo emoional o be given major responsibiliies. 2. Colleges should challenge radiional sex-roles. Closer regulaion of he food indusry is essenial. Mercury in fish, insec Jfilh in processed meas, harmful chemicals added a every urn--conaminaion is everywhere. Do you expec he food processors o sop his on heir own? Why should hey? They make profis a every urn and pay no penalies. They care abou heir money, no your healh. They mus be forced o be responsible. 3. Privae enerprise is no good. 4. Curren governmen conrol over foods is oo weak. 5. You should buy your food in healh food sores. 6. Some chemical preservaives are bad for your healh. No one should be allowed o be he paren of more han wo children. Drasic acion mus be aken. Those who will no volunarily limi he number of heir offspring mus be compelled o do so. Oherwise, none of us will be able o live on he earh. The high crime rae, air and waer polluion, severe emoional disress--all our mos severe problems can only be deal

41 37 wih successfully if we achieve zero populaion growh. 7. Populaion growh is causing grea problems. 8. The dangers involved in leing governmen regulae family size are less serious han he dangers of coninued populaion growh. 9. The world will be a peace if here is zero populaion growh. 20. We canno expec naural forces o conrol populaion growh sufficienly. e.

42 Fill in he assumed value premise in each of he following argumens:. Value Premise: Facual Premise: The governmen of he Shah imprisoned people jus for disagreeing wih i. Conclusion: 2. Value Premise: Therefore, he governmen of he Shah was yrannical. Facual Premise: The Canadian Governmen gives a smaller pension o married elderly people'han o single elderly people. Conclusion: 3. Value Premise: Therefore, he Canadian governmen is unfair o married elderly people. Facual Premise: The P.L.O. fighers jeopardized heir lives during he Middle Eas conflics. +s Conclusion: Therefore, he P.L.O. veerans deserve recogniion Value Premise: f Facual Premise: The Free Voice is a newspaper ha publishes aricles favourable o he enemy during warime. Conclusion: 5. Value Premise: Therefore, The Free Voice ough o be oulawed. Facual Premise: mmigraion will increase unemploymen. Conclusion: 6. Value Premise: Therefore, immigraion ough o be discouraged. Facual Premise: The wase from he weapons program is a hrea o fuure generaions. Conclusion: 7. Value Premise: We ough o sop he wase from he weapons program. Facual Premise: Purchasing small cars is one way o reduce energy consumpion. Conclusion: We should purchaser smaller cars.

43 39 DRAWNG NFERENCES The reasoning process by which a conclusion is derived from one or more premises is called inferring. n undersanding he significance of a r spoken or wrien saemens i is frequenly necessary o be able o grasp implicaions or inferences which may no be saed direcly. The whole maer of grasping he meaning of saemens beyond he acual facs presened is a very imporan skill in hinking criically. To draw inferences, one mus read carefully and undersand he meaning of wha is read. nferring requires going beyond he facs presened and may require recogniion of unsaed assumpions. To es wheher an inference is warraned one mus look a he facs or premises o see if hey suppor he inference. f all of he facs or premises suppor he proposed inference, hen one is jusified in drawing i. is imporan for sudens o learn he limiaions of a passage as well as he inferences which may properly be drawn from i. For ha reason, several of he numbered saemens in he exercise following go beyond he informaion provided in he passage o he exen ha hey are no warraned as inferences. Pracice wih exercises of his ype will aid in developing in sudens he abiliy o draw conclusions or recognize correc inferences and also o recognize saemens which are unwarraned as inferences from daa provided. The above maerial is adaped from and he exercise following is aken from Seleced ems for he Teaching of Sudy Skills and Criical Thinkinq.

44 40 Below each of he following paragraphs here are a number of saemens. Read each saemen and, if you hink i may be properly inferred from he informaion given in he paragraph, pu a 'T' in fron of he saemen. Pu an 'F' in fron of he saemen if you hink he informaion given in he paragraph infers ha he saemen is unrue and an 'N' if you hink ha no inference can be drawn abou i from he paragraph. Paragraph A By he close of he hireenh cenury here were several famous universiies esablished in Europe, hough of course hey were very differen from modern ones. One of he earlies o be founded was one of he mos widely known. This was he Universiy of Bologna, where sudens from all counries came who wished o have he bes raining in sudying Roman Law. Sudens especially ineresed in philosophy and heology wen o he Universiy of Paris. Those who wished o sudy medicine wen o he Universiies of Monpelier or Salerno. Saemens. There were lawsuis beween people occasionally in hose days. 2. The professors were poorly paid. 3. n he Middle Ages people were no ineresed in geing an edu- 4. There were books in Europe a ha ime. 5. Mos of he eaching in hese medieval universiies was very poor. 6. There was no place where sudens could go o sudy. 7. There were no docors in Europe a his ime. 8. There was no veay o ravel during he Middle Ages. 9. f a suden waned o be a pries, he would probably aend he Universiy of Paris. 0. There were no universiies in Europe before he hireenh "cenury.. There was only one language in Europe a his ime. Paragraph B The lis of necessiies for he poor free labourer in ancien Rome was very small. He needed abou fifeen bushels of whea every year. Abou he only mea he had o ea was ha which he priess gave away afer a sacrifice on holidays. He needed abou a penny's worh of oil and anoher penny's worh of wine each day; his small porion of vegeables cos his much again. A pound of cheese cos relaively more, bu would suffice for several days. These foods consiued he aricles of his usual menu. The wool for he wo unics he needed each year cos abou $. Half his much would pay for a pair of sandals which he seldom wore. The sae supplied amusemens on holidays free of charge and also suppored he free public bahs, where friends could gaher. f he was ou of work he sae would also supply him wih grain. Therefore i was possible for he poor freeman o live and also o have a wife if his wife would spin and weave. (Abridged from T. Frank, Hisory of Rome, 923, pp )

45 4 Saemens 2. Even he labouring class had some recreaion. 3. The sae was no concerned wih he condiion of he poor people. 4. The living condiions of he Roman labourers were very poor. 5. Food and clohing were quie cheap in Rome in comparison wih modern imes. 6. The labourers did some of heir work a home, since he Romans had no facories. 7. Mos labourers were so poor ha hey could no ge married. 8. Some of he rich Romans were cruel o heir slaves. x 9. The sae was opposed o he organizaion of workers ino collegia, or guilds. 20. There was a relief problem even in he days of ancien Rome. 2. The Romans ae mosly cheese and vegeables, since hey did no like mea. 22. A labourer's wife ofen made his clohing for him. 23. Some priess were ineresed in he welfare of he poor. 24. The Romans did no have a well-organized governmen. 25. The living condiions of he slaves were beer han hose of he free labourers. Paragraph C The correc marriage among he Veddas of Ceylon is for a man o marry his faher's siser's daugher. The children of wo brohers or wo sisers can-. no marry, since such a marriage would be considered very improper. When seeking a bride, he man goes o his fuure faher-in-law wih a presen of dried deer flesh, grain, honey, or yams ied o his unsrung bow. The marriage ceremony is very simple bu appears o be absoluely binding, since cases of divorce or separaion are almos enirely unknol.vn. The women are jealously guarded by he men, who do no allow raders or oher srangers o see hem. (Abridged from C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann, The Veddas, 9, pp. 88 and 96.) Saemens 26. Family or kinship ies are very srong among he Veddas. 27. The force of cusom is respeced by hese people. 28. The Veddas are in a primiive sae of civilizaion. 29. Marriages beween second cousins are forbidden. 30. They do no undersand he use of weapons. 3. The Veddas are very supersiious, and worship he forces of naure. 32. is easy for explorers o ge phoographs of Vedda men, women, and children. 33. f he children of wo sisers were o marry, hey would be punished by deah.

46 42 NFORMAL FALLACES An argumen can be unsound for hree reasons: () because he conclusion does no follow logically from he premises (i is invalid or formally fallacious); (2) because one or more of he premises are false; or (3) because i conains one or more informal fallacies. The firs is a fallacy of form, whie he second and hird are fallacies of conen. The word 'fallacy' comes from he Lain fallere which means o deceive. Argumens can be fallacious inenionally or uninenionally bu, in any case, hey are decepive. Fallacious argumens are ofen used by, among ohers, poliicians, salesmen, adverisers, friends, minisers and newspaper columniss o convince us o voe, buy, do or believe wha hey wan. Fallacious argumens may conain worhwhile ideas bu hey do no provide any evidence or suppor for heir conclusions. There are a large number of informal fallacies and no all schemes classify hem in he same way or describe hem by he same names. seems less imporan for sudens o learn he names han i is for hem o be able o evaluae argumens using hem. n his secion we discuss some of he mos common informal fallacies.

47 3 HASTY GENERAL ZAT ON To generalize means o reach a general conclusion abou somehing based on a number of cases. There are hree ypes: ) universal - all A's are B's 2) prevalence - usually/generally A's are B's 3) probabilisic - he probabiliy ha an A is B is X (some number). Probabilisic generalizaions are beyond he scope of his manual. There is a vas lieraure on saisical probabiliy. The fallacy of hasy generaizaion (a generalizaion based on insufficien evidence) is a common reasoning error. As poor generalizaions obsruc criical hinking and ofen foser prejudicial aiudes, sudens should be encoupaged o examine hem inelligenly. Teachers can help sudens develop open-mindedness and a willingness o es generalizaions as new evidence becomes available by asking quesions like: s ha enough evidence? Wha would consiue adequae evidence? Should his be qualified in some way? is imporan o remember ha generalizaions can serve very useful purposes. would be unreasonable o hrow ou enirely a generalizaion ha is helpful in explaining some hings or evens jus because one can hink of an excepion. As is he case wih all argumens, we mus base our generalizaions on good and adequae reasons. How could he following saemens be modified so ha hey are no hasy generalizaions?. Door-o-door salesmen are all crooked. read in he newspaper las week abou a salesman who conned an elderly woman ou of all her savings. 2. Tha's he second woman his week 've seen drive hrough a red ligh. Women drivers are really bad! 3. was so sick afer ae all hose srawberries ha swore would never ea srawberries again. Plymouhs are really defecive cars. My uncle had a Plymouh and absoluely everyhing wen wrong wih i.

48 Pioneer sereo componens are he only ones o have. Two of my friends have Pioneers and he sound is fanasic. 6. People who are on welfare are lazy. The man nex door collecs welfare and he never ges up ill noon.

49 45 Direcions: ndicae which of he following argumens conain examples of he fallacy of hasy generalizaion.. Yes, 've been in California before. was in souhern California for a whole week in April 965. never saw he sun. To be ruhful, he sun almos never shines in souhern California. 2. During he year augh here, augh four classes, one of which was mosly Jewish kids. Le me ell you, on he basis of ha experience, know ha Jewish sudens are he bes in he world. 3. had an Asian shopkeeper ell me ha Americans make lousy cusomers. He had wo of hem in his shop. yeserday when i opened, and hey waned o ouch everyhing in sigh. made him so nervous ha he decided he does no wan Americans o come in again. 4. Galileo was excied when boh meal balls fell o he ground simulaneously. He had aken a small ball and a large one o he op of he famous Leaning Tower of Pisa, and dropped hem simulaneously. His experimen showed ha all falling objecs fall a he same rae, unless, of course, hey drop in he air like feahers. 5. was once hough ha ligh waves ravel hrough an eher in a way similar o he way ocean waves ravel hrough waer. (This was he eher heory.) n 887, Michelson and Morley conduced a famous experimen o es his hypohesis. Those who suppored he heory claimed ha if he eher heory were rue, wo ligh rays sen ou from he same source simulaneously o equidisan mirrors, placed 90 0 apar, would no reurn simulaneously. n heir experimen, he ligh rays did reurn a he same insan. Thus, Michelson and Morley assumed he heory was false. 6. Every culure has a word for God, bu in every culure he is described differenly. This does no happen wih 'cow' or 'house' which are simple nouns. Across all languages we can recognize cows and houses. There is only one definiion of 'house,' bu each culure has differen kinds of houses which fi ha definiion. mus be he same wih 'God'; each culure alks abou only par of God. Thus, God mus be a very complex being. Taken from Judgmen: Analyzing Fallacies and Weaknesses in Argumens Los Angeles: nsrucional Objecives Exchange, 974.

50 ..L... L 46 The following wo fallacies are similar o hasy generalizaion. FALLACY OF COMPOSTON People use his fallacy if hey reason ha if each member of a group has a specific characerisic, hen he group as a whole also has his specific characerisic. Andrew Johnson is a grea hockey player. for mus be grea oo. The eam he plays FALLACY OF DVSON This is he opposie form of he fallacy of composiion. Here he rea- soning goes from he whole o he par. Tha eam won he Sanley Cup las year. Andrew Johnson played cenre for hem. He mus be a grea player. The fallacies of hasy generalizaion, composiion and division fail o ake ino accoun all of he facors necessary o reach a sound conclusion. Below we describe some oher common fallacies which omi, ignore or misinerpre significan facs. FALSE CAUSE The Lain name for his fallacy is pos hoc, ergo proper hoc which means afer his, herefore because of his. The error in his fallacy lies in assering a causal link beween evens when here is insiffucieh grounds o esablish he link. To say ha he shooing of Archduke Ferdinand caused he Firs World War is oversimplisic (a fallacy in iself) and does no ake ino accoun he myriad oher problems in Europe in 94.

51 47 Many supersiions make use of his fallacy. should have known beer han o walk under a ladder on he way o wriing an examinaion. Tha's why did so poorly. Wha oher acions or objecs "cause" good or bad luck? BLACK OR WHTE FALLACY. When people argue using he fallacy of black or whie hey fail o ake ino accoun any inermediae posiions beween wo exremes. This fallacy can ofen be recognized by looking for 'eiher...or' and 'if...hen.' Eiher go o universiy his Sepember or will have o spend he res of my life digging diches. This would-be suden is no considering all he alernaives. Perhaps he could work for a year or wo o save enough money o go universiy in he fuure. f he governmen forces us o insall ani-polluion equipmen, hen our profis will drop so much we will have o shu down he plan. The.presiden of his company probably has more opions han he is suggesing here. As his company provides employmen o a number of men, perhaps he governmen will help wih low ineres loans o insall he equipmen or a emporary ax break. is unreasonable o jus shu down he plan. ARGUMENT OF THE BEARD OR BALD MAN ARGUMENT When people argue in his way hey use he inermediae sance o cas-doub upon he real differences beween he exremes. Thus he shading beween black and whie is really only a difference of degrees of grey. One can see how he names originaed if you ask how many whiskers are needed o make a beard or how few or many hairs one can have and sill

52 48 be considered bald. This kind of reasoning is used o suppor argumens like he following: migh as well ake ou anoher loan o go on vacaion--afer all, 'm already $35,000 in deb. Wha difference will anoher $2, 000 make? (Why no $5,000 or $0,000?) Wha difference will i make if have jus one more drink? 've had seven already and one more won' make any difference o my driving. (Why no wo more? or six more?) r beween good and bad? Scriven (976) uses an ineresing case o exemplify his ype of argumen. Ofen i occurs when rejecing an appeal by someone, say a prisoner on an indeerminae senence who's up for parole. The parole board may argue ha, while here are a number, -of poins o be made in favour of he prisoner, hese poins are raher small, whereas he difference beween a ruly reformed and faulless record in prison and he kind of record ha would be insanly urned down by -he parolé board is a very large difference... Afer all, he diffèrence beween cases where, alhough perfecion has no been achieved, enough meri is eviden o jusify graning parole, and cases where here isn' enough evidence, is only a difference of degree. This ype of reasoning becomes especially problemaic when i comes o making judgmens abou moral issues. s here really no any difference r i The rae of inflaion is so high because a dollar doesn' buy as much as i used o. Parioic ciizens are a grea asse o any counry. f a person loves his counry and is willing o figh for i under any circumsances hen he counry is sure o do well. n neiher of he above examples has any evidence been pu forward in suppor of he conclusion. BEGGNG THE QUESTON (CRCULAR REASONNG) People use his fallacy when hey avoid offering evidence for a conclusion and insead resae he conclusion in anoher way.

53 49 FALLACES OF RELEVANCE The fallacies described in his secion are commied when an argu- men is clouded or discredied by he inroducion of irrelevan evidence. AGANST THE MAN (ARGUMENTUM AD HOMNEM) When someone aacks he person agains whom he is arguing, raher han he argumen iself, he is using he ad hominem fallacy. You can' possibly ake his opinions seriously. Everyone knows he is a Communis. A public meeing was held so ha he residens of a communiy could express heir opinions abou wheher or no hey waned a refinery o be buil. An official was heard o whisper "Wha do hey know anyway? A lo of hem haven' even finished high school." Wheher or no a man is a Communis or wheher or no some of he communiy residens have finished high school are irrelevan consideraions o he quesions under discussion. The argumens should no be wrien off for hese reasons. The 'bad seed' fallacy is closely relaed o _a_la..lmenum ad hominem. Here he aack is agains he descenden of a "bad" characer. For example, a prominen German scienis has his work discredied because his faher was a Nazi. YOU'RE ANOTHER (TU QUOQUE) A person uses his fallacy when he responds o a charge agains him by hrowing he same charge back agains his adversary. "Pracice wha you preach" argumens are also u quoque fallacies. Who are you o judge wheher or no 'm a fi candidae for mayor? You're cerainly no!

54 50 John: really wish you wouldn' drink so much a my office paries. embarrasses me. r r Mary: You're a fine one o alk! You're hardly a eeoaller yourself! APPEAL TO FORCE (ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM) This fallacy is used when one issues hreas or appeals o fear insead of offering good reasons o advance an argumen. Teacher o Sudens:. have old you my heory abou how he world began. f you don' believe me you migh wan o keep in mind ha assign he marks in his class. An ad baculum fallacy is no he same as a genuine hrea. For example,, if your employer says, "Don' be lae again, Wilson, or you'll be ou of a job!" he is issuing an order, no making an argumen. There is no fallacy inehis case. APPEAL TO PTY (ARGUMENTUM AD MSERiCORDAM) f one ries o win accepance of one's views by arousing sympahy in he lisener, hen he fallacy of ad misericordiam is commied. f a suden goes o a professor asking her o please give him a passing grade because he has had such a hard ime his year, his reasoning is fallacious. The hard ime, however, could possibly be used as evidence for an argumen ha he be graned he privilege of wriing a supplemenal examinaion. Similarly, if a defence aorney aemps o win he jury's sympahy for a clien in order o prove his innocence he is using he fallacy. His case may be moving bu i is irrelevan o esablishing guil or innocence. f he aorney used he same moving argumen o appeal for a lenien senence, he is providing evidence relevan o senencing and, in his insance,

55 i l i would no be fallacious. ARGUMENT FROM GNORANCE (ARGUMENTUM AD GNORATUM) This fallacy is commied if one ries o prove one's conclusion sound by disproving he opposie. n fac no reasons are offered in suppor of he conclusion. As here is no evidence ha here is inelligen life on oher planes, we have o conclude here is no. There is one excepion o his fallacy. The legal principle ha a person is assumed innocen unil proven guily seems o use he failacy of argumen from ignorance. f a defence aorney can legiimaely claim ha he prosecuor has no proven guil, hen he accused mus be found 'no guily:' This legal principle is also an ehical principle, reflecing our belief in he imporance of jusice. - auhoriy. APPEALS TO AUTHORTY ;Everyone has, a one ime or anoher, been augh o obey and respec Parens, friends, eachers, docors, governmen officials and minisers se down rules for us o follow. The fallacies inroduced here ake advanage of he fac ha we are condiioned o obey 'auhoriies' who, of course, know more han we do. We are relucan o challenge wha famous people say, or wha long-held radiions and popular beliefs dicae. adverising business is paricularly adep a using he fallacies of appealing o au.horiy in order o induce us o buy cerain goods. The 5

56 TEACHNG CRTCAL THNKNG: N CORRECTONS NSTTUTONS A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS Carol La Bar LB.RARY MNSTRY OF THE SOLCTOR jm-, 2 98? BBLOTHÈQUE MNSTÈRE DU SOLLCULJK GÈNÉRAL This projec was funded by Educaion and Training Division, Pacific Region. Solicior General of Canada Projec Direcors: Dr. lan Wrigh and Dr. Jerrold Coombs. Faculy of Educaion The Universiy of Briish Columbia

57 52 POPULAR SENTMENTS Here he emoions and aiudes of a group of people are appealed o in order o gain accepance of a paricular posiion. A business firm i appeals o you by saying ha energy conscious Canadians insulae heir homes and, herefore, you should oo. A popular chariy saes ha anyone who really cares abou he handicapped will send hem a donaion. Obviously if you don' send a donaion i is because you do no really care abou he handicapped. POPULAR PEOPLE The error here consiss of arguing ha somehing mus be rue if some well-known person believes i. This is fallacious because a claim, o be rue, mus be based on evidence, no on someone's name. This ploy is r r r.ofen used in adverisemens where a 'famous' person is used o endorse a paricular produc. f a 'sar' uses produc X, hen i mus be good and you ough o buy i. TTLES This fallacy is no based on he populariy of paricular people bu, raher, on heir iles. f docors recommend produc X, hen i mus be good; if economiss say ha Y is rue, hen i mus be rue. Once agair;, he claims are no based on evidence, bu on he appeal of a ile.

58 53 TRA Dl T ON Here he appeal is made ha somehing is rue or good because i has radiionally been rue or good. For example, i is ofen argued ha because women in he pas were housewives, herefore oday hey should remain in ha role and no have careers, or ge involved in poliics. LARGE NUMBERS One of he mos widely used fallacies of auhoriy is ha of large numbers. One may read ha 'he majoriy of Canadians wan o limi immigraion' or adverisers will claim ha 'more people smoke Brand X han any oher cigaree.' These claims may be rue, bu one should no jump o he conclusions ha we ough, herefore, o limi immigraion or smoke Brand X. f hese argumens were accepable we should have o gran ha, for a while, he earh was fla because large numbers of people believed ha o be rue. RRELEVANT OR FALSE AUTHORTY This fallacy is commied when an auhoriy in one area is used o suppor a claim in an enirely differen area. For example, a hockey sar is likely o be an auhoriy on hockey, bu surely no on poliics. We migh accep his views on hockey because, in he pas, he has demonsraed experise in his area. However, we may no accep his views on poliics becau-se his compeence in ha area has no been demonsraed. 'Sudens can gain pracice in idenifying hese fallacies by searching hrough magazines and newspapers for hem. Alernaively, eachers may wan o pu ogeher a collecion of fallacies and have sudens idenify hem.

59 54 The following are no acually fallacies, bu are ways of misusing langu- age and clouding good reasoning. COMPLEX QUESTON When one phrases a quesion in such a way ha i canno be answered wihou graning a cerain answer o some oher unasked quesion hen one is using a complex quesion. Have you sopped beaing your wife? One canno answer his quesion eiher way unless one is prepared o admi ha one once has beaen one's wife. For his o be a reasonable quesion, one should be asked firs, "Do you, or did you ever bea your wife?" f you answer in he affirmaive i may hen be appropriae o ask you "Have you sopped beaing your wife?" Adverisers can use his echnique o ad- vanage. Does your curren cold medicine work as fas as our produc? Can you afford o ake a chance wih'.your presen home burglar alarm sysem? CONFDENT MANNER This occurs when, insead of presening a legiimae argumen, someone behaves so confidenly ha we are sure o accep his view. Ofen his is done by using posiive language, by cerain gesures, by bluffing (as in a card game), or even by shouing. A person running for poliical office says: "Ladies and genlemen. am absoluely cerain ha our pary will form he nex governmen." Those voers no srongly aligned wih a specific pary may voe for his candidae in order o be on he winning side.

60 55 JARGON When a claim is made o appear sronger by using echnical sounding language, one is appealing o he auhoriy of jargon. For example, o make a job sound more aracive, one adverises for a 'saniary engineer' when he job is acually a garbage collecor or, similarly, a 'cusodian' is acually a janior. Adverisemens ofen use echnical sounding language o describe a produc his 'improving' is presige. A ape deck is adverised wih he following feaures: Sof-ouch Logical Direc Change Mechanism, Long Life SC (Sendus Core) Head, 3-Color Change Peak ndicaors, 3-sep Bias and 3-sep Equalizer Swiches.

61 56 NFORMAL FALLAC ES Below are some bis of argumens or saemens. They all conain a leas one of he informal fallacies hasy generalizaion fallacy of composiion fallacy of division black or whie fallacy argumen of he beard begging he quesion agains he man you're anoher appeal o force lised below. Can you idenify hem? appeal o piy argumen from ignorance popular senimens popular people iles radiion large numbers irrelevan or false auhoriy false cause. STUDENT: " don' see why you don' admi ha he school elecion was rigged. You haven' given me one single bi of evidence ha i was no." 2. He played on he fooball eam ha won he Rosebowl las year, so naurally he is one of he bes players in he counry. 3. Black Tower is he impored whie wine ha's easy o ask for. 's igh, refreshing ase is preferred by many people. And since good company shares similar ases, Black Tower is found more and more - in he company of friends. 4. Now hink abou i, genlemer-2. f you are no prepared o negoiae on our erms, we migh as well call his meeing off. And if his meeing is called off, hen he merger is an impossibiliy. 5. E_yery ime say up lae, smoke heavily, and drink several bo!es of Coke, wake up wih a headache. No more cokes for me. 6. n he simpliciy of yeseryear, amids heavy imber and river-rounded sone, Harves serves succulen prime rib, delecable chicken breass, savory beef sew and seafood wih breads sill warm from he oven and vegeables fresh from he farm. 7. Someone asked a successful businessman how he managed o work so hard, and he businessman replied ha i was jus a maer of puing ou a lo of effor. 8. The opposiion has no righ o criicize our pary for no having curbed inflaion. They didn' do any beer v./hen hey were in power. 9. Nancy Green prefers Mars bars o any oher chocolae bar. 0. Jus wai ill you ge ino your senior year. Those senior eachers are really errible. had one for a subsiue his year and know.. He quesioned he wisdom of some of he Presiden's decisions. can see ha he has radical enciencies and undoubedly doesn' believe in consiuional governmen.

62 57 2. John: see hey gave ha embezzler a suspended senence. Jim : Wha else could he judge do? Afer all, he poor fellow did smash up his car and kill his family while was running away. You can' send a guy o prison afer somehing like ha. 3. don' undersand why Susie can' sar school his year. She will be five years old in December. Mrs. Brown's lile boy will be five in November and hey le him go. Wha difference does a monh make? 4. know would have made beer grades in English if i had been scheduled for he firs period insead of he las one. 5. Moher o daugher: Make up your mind, eiher forge abou his silly love affair or hrow your life away by marrying ha supid Charlie Nobel and spend he res of your life in some dingy aparmen wondering where he nex meal is coming from. 6. don' hink here is any poin in geing him o speak a our nex meeing. He's a lef-wing subversive and we won' be able o believe a word he says. 7. A ribe of people in Africa was sricken wih smallpox shorly afer.hey were visied by a camel caravan. Since hese were he firs camels ever seen by his ribe, he members of he ribe concluded ha camels cause smallpox. 8. Ever since sared geing pleny of sleep. a nigh and aking Super Pep Tomic feel full of energy. Super Pep is he answer o ha ired feeling. 9. Jack Daniel's Tennessee Whiskey is made jus like i was over a cen- Wry ago. Our reirees here help see o ha. These men learned heir jobs from Lem Molow (who learned i himself from Mr. Jack Daniel). And hey've passed on heir knowledge o he younger generaions who make our whiskey oday. Our reirees can ell you more abou whiskey-making han any men we know. 20. Leer o Edior, Macleans: Once again Barbara Amiel has managed o combine her rare gifs for disorion, insufferable arrogance and plain old bad ase ino a piece of exraordinarily shabby journalism. 2. The governmen mus change he law on aborion. Two hundred and fify housand Canadians have signed a peiion saing heir opposiion o he presen law.

63 58 A RATONALE FOR TEACHNG VALUE REASONNG Value conflic in our sociey has become pervasive and apparenly ineviable; i is now considered a basic ingredien of social, iner-generaional, poliical and culural affairs. People, for insance, are confroned wih conflicing or conradicory claims abaou he meris of economic growh versus he need for environmenal proecion. Dispues over he advanages and disadvanages of such issues as nuclear energy or increased immigraion are common. Mos people lack raional means of dealing wih he bewildering range of value choices ha confron hem in modern sociey. How can educaors conribue responsibly o meeing his problem? Obviously, he oucome o be sough is no ha people will be indocrinaed in any paricular value posiions, bu ha hey will ac _according o cerain sandards of reasoning in arriving a judgmens and decisions. This implies, of course, ha here are sandards of reasoning for deermining which values are worh holding and which are no. Many will disagree wih his asserion. Values, hey argue;' are "jus maers of individual ase or opinion." f such were he case, hen, when value conflics occur, hey could be seled only by persuasive appeals o emoion--or by force. We believe ha, a leas for some value areas, hese people are misaken; ha in some value areas i is possible o give adequae reasons for holding o some values while disavowing ohers. To be raional abou some of one's values requires an educaed undersanding of moraliy and he moral poin of view. -Human beings are able o view heir world from many disinguishable perspecives or poins of view. f, for example, hey wish o acquire sophisicaed knowledge of processes which occur in naure, hey view he world from he perspecive of one of he naural sciences. To do his,

64 59 hey mus learn he key conceps and mehods of hinking peculiar o ha branch of science. This enables hem o learn wha is he case in he world of naure. Their compeence consiss of a complex se of capabiliies, such as he masery of cerain conceps, possession of cerain generalizaions, undersanding some procedures, having cerain kinds of skills, and so on. Schools, colleges and universiies have esablished exensive programs o develop such capabiliies in people. The aim of such programs ofen is o each people how o hink from a scienific poin of view. Oher hings being equal, he beer a person knows how o hink scienifically, he beer he will be able o ell wha is he case in he world abou him. Mos people now agree ha he conceps and mehods of he naural sciences enable us o disinguish beween beliefs ha are defensible and hose ha are no. Bu many of hese same people also believe, as indicaed earlier, ha where values are concerned we do no have eiher he conceps or he mehods o disinguish raional from non-raional or irraional values. The error ha hese people ofen make is o assume ha all values are n6hing more han ases. Tha his is an error canno be shown in deail in he space we have here. For hose ineresed in pursuing he maer furher, here is now abundan lieraure. * For he presen, we simply, indicae ha here are imporan feaures of human life which are clearly based on he assumpion ha no all values are merely ases. A person who says ha he values equaliy and libery is no merely saying he has a ase for hese; he is assering ha libery and equaliy ough o be' feaures of human life. *Hare, R.M. Freedom and Reason. London: Oxford Universiy Press, 963. Coombs, J. Objecives of Value Analysis, in Mecalfe, L. (ed.) Values Educaion, Raionale, Sraegies and Procedures. Washingon: Naional Council for he Social Sudies, 97.

65 60 Moreover, we do engage in serious discussions abou values; and we assume in hese discussions ha people can give reasons for heir views, and ha hese reasons are no merely persuasive appeals o our emoions. Thus, we disinguish beween indocrinaing people and educaing hem. Similarly, if we say ha some acion is good or righ, or ha someone ough o do such and such, we find i quie sensible ha we should be asked why we hink he acions are righ: And we may hen ry o give reasons, no merely propaganda or emoional pleas, as our response. For hese and many oher reasons, we believe ha here are conceps and sandards of reasoning which make i possible for people o develop he abiliy o deal raionally wih many value issues. Where value issues require ha one adop he moral poin of view he conceps, skills and undersanding required are a leas as complex as hose needed o ake he perspecive of he naural sciences. The following are some of he skills needed o make raional value decisions:

66 6 VALUE DECSON-MAKNG COMPETENCES. The abiliy o disinguish descripive claims from value claims. 2. The abiliy and disposiion o gaher facual evidence relevan o one's moral decisions. a. The abiliy and disposiion o assess he ruh of empirical claims b. The abiliy and disposiion o assess he reliabiliy of auhoriy 3. The abiliy and disposiion o reason accuraely in coming o moral decisions. a. The abiliy and disposiion o deec complee and incomplee moral argumens. b. The abiliy o assess he validiy of moral argumens. c. The abiliy o deec and clarify vague or ambiguous claims in a moral argumen. 4. The abiliy and disposiion o imaginaively ake he role of anoher and o judge one's acions from he perspecive of ha role. 5. The abiliy and disposiion o imagine he consequences of everyone's aking he course of acion proposed and o judge he course of acion in erms of hose consequences. 6. The disposiion o do wha one has decided is he righ hing o do and o eschew doing wha one has decided is wrong.

67 62 JUSTFYNG VALUE JUDGMENTS Earlier in his manual we deal wih disinguishing facual claims from value claims and he logical srucure of pracical syllogisms. ion we propose o discuss he jusificaion of value judgmens. n his sec- n addiion o sandards of logical validiy, ruh of premises (reliabiliy of auhoriies and reliabiliy of observaion saemens) for evaluaing he soundness of an argumen, value judgmens require evaluaion from addiional sandards. Pracical Syllogism A value judgmen is raional or jusified o he exen ha one has good reasons supporing i. Whenever anyone makes a value judgmen, he is commied o having some reason or grouns for his judgmen. The reason is always some fac abou he value objec. For example, if claim ha srip mining in he Kooenays is undesirable, i is appropriae for you o ask "Why?" or "Wha makes you hink so?" And if my judgmen is o be aken seriously, mus be able o cie some fac abou srip mining in he Kooenays which is a reason for regarding i as undesirable. n his case migh give as my reason he facual claim ha srip mining will poison many sreams in he Kooenay region. Bu his facual claim is no he whole of my reasons. My reasons also include a value sandard or principle which accep, and which is relevan o judging he value objec. The necessiy of employing a value sandard can be seen more clearly if we ry puing my value reasoning in he form of an argumen wih he value j,..idgmen as he conclusion of he argumen and he facual claim as a premise. Facual claim: (premise) Value judgmen (conclusion) Srip mining will poison many sreams in he Kooenay region. Srip mining in he Kooenays is undesirable.

68 63 is premise: Noice ha he conclusion of his argumen does no follow logically from ha is, i would be conradicory o accep he premise and rejec he conclusion. Someone migh hink poisoned sreams are desirable. Someone could sensibly agree ha srip mining would poison sreams and ye could deny ha i is undesirable. To make he conclusion follow logically, we have o add anoher premise, and his premise mus be some value sandard or principle which indicaes how he facual claim is relevan o he conclusion. The complee argumen migh look like his: Value premise (principle) Facual premise is undesirable o poison sreams. Srip mining in he Kooenays will poison sreams. Value conclusion Srip mining in he Kooenays is undesirable. -This, hen, is he basic srucure of value reasoning, ha is, reasoning by which we jusify value judgmens. consiss of a leas one facual claim and one value sandard or principle. These ogeher mus form a deducive argumen from which he value judgmen o be jusified can be validly deduced. Borrowing from Arisole, we call his basic srucure of value reasoning he "pracical syllogism." should be noed ha value reasoning can be, and ofen is, very complex, involving many facual claims and value sandards. same. Noneheless, is basic logical srucure remains he Consequenly, finding ou wheher or no our value judgmens are' jusified requires a leas hree hings.. Finding ou wheher or no we have correcly deermined he facs abou he value objec. 2. Finding ou wheher he value sandards or principles we are employing. are accepable. (We shall discuss laer he ess for deermining he accepabiliy of value principles.) 3. Finding ou wheher he value judgmen follows logically from our value principles and facual beliefs.

69 64 Fill in he missing par o make each of he following a valid pracical syllogism.. Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: We should do wha we can o reduce air polluion. Air polluion can be reduced by insalling exhaus emission equipmen on auomobiles. 2. Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: Handicapped people are no reaed wih respec. Handicapped people should be reaed wih respec. 3. Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: One ough o do wha one can o conserve energy. Therefore, one ough o recycle one's garbage. i. Value Premise: 'Facual Premise: Conclusion: Refusing o hire someone because hey are no Caucasian is discriminaion. Refusing o hire someone because hey are no Caucasian is wrong. 5. Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: Our governmen should ensure ha every ciizen has a decen sandard of living. A decen sandard of living minimally includes adequae food, sheler, clohing and medical care. 6. Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: We should devise safe and reliable means of wase disposal before nuclear power faciliies are consruced. Nuclear power plans should no be consruced ye. 7. -Value Premise: Facual Premise: Conclusion: Every suden should learn hol,v o hink criically. Jules is a suden.

70 65 UNDERSTANDNG DFFERENT KNDS OF VALUE JUDGMENTS (PONTS OF VEW) Because acions, objecs, and so on can have very differen sors of value, or can have worh for differen sors of reasons, a number of significanly differen kinds of value judgmens can be disinguished. Consider he following value judgmens: a) Srip mining is dangerous. b) Srip mining is efficien.. C) Srip mining is beauiful. d) Srip mining is immoral. Each of hese judgmens requires a differen sor of reason as jusificaion. Judgmen (a) mus be suppored by a reason ha refers o he effecs of srip mining on healh and safey. Judgmen (b) mus be suppored by a reason ha refers o is cos/benefi raio. Judgmen (c) mus be suppored by a reason ha refers o is sensory qualiies. And judgmen (d) mus be suppored by a reason ha refers o how persons ough o be reaed. One useful way o characerize he differences among hese value judgmens is o say ha hey represen judgmens from differen poins of view. Noice ha he rame value objec may be evaluaed posiively from one poin of view and negaively from anoher poin of view. Judgmens (a) and (d) make negaive evaluaions, while he evaluaions made in (b) and (c) are posiive. Below is a lis of various poins of view from which value judgmens can be made and some posiive value erms ypically associaed wih each: Moral: jus, fair, ehical, moral, righ. Aesheic; beauiful, prey, elegan, exquisie Healh and Safey: safe, healhy Economic: cheap, useful, efficien, funcional, pracical Prudenial: wise, smar, shrewd, clever, pruden

71 66 nellecual: scienific, raional, rue, valid, reliable, logical Environmenal: clean, non-polluing Religious: pious, devôû, godly, sinless shôuld be noed ha he above lis represens only one of many possible classificaions of poins of view. is one ha we, as well as ohers, have found useful. However, differen erms can be specified where hey beer clarify he naure of he argumen. One mus be careful no o confuse "poin of view" as used here wih is use in such saemens as "From my poin of view ha was a good break," or "From Frank's poin of view he oucome couldn' have been befier." "Poin of view" as we use he phrase has nohing o do wih he perspecive of any paricular person. Raher i has o do wih he kind of value judgmen being made, or wih. he kind of reasons and value principles needed o jusify i. n addiion o making value judgmens from a paricular poin of view, one may make an overall judgmen of he desirabiliy of some objec or course of acion. One could, for example, judge a car o be good from he safey poin of view, bad from he aesheic poin of view, and good from he economic poin of view, and hen make an overall judgmen ha i is no a good car. There are wo reasons why we should have some awareness of he various poins of view. Firs, such awareness is valuable when we are rying o make a raional, responsible judgmen abou he overall desirabiliy of an. objec or course of acion. The more relevan facs we ake ino accoun in making such a judgmen, he more raional he judgmen is. Knowing all he poins of view from which value judgmens may be made

72 s 67 gives us a good picure of he range of facs ha are relevan o our judgmen. Governmens ofen make less han raional judgmens abou he desirabiliy of cerain projecs when hey ake ino accoun facs ha are relevan from he economic poin of view bu no hose ha are relevan from he poins of view of aesheics or ecology. The second reason for being aware of various poins of view is ha such awareness helps us avoid he misake of supporing a judgmen from one poin of view wih reasons ha are appropriae o a differen poin of view. Mos poins of view do no become confused in his way. However, he wo mos basic and significan poins of view, he moral and he prudenial, ofen do become confused. Kohlberg's sudies show, among oher hings, ha a grea many people ypically give prucienial reasons in suppor of moral judgmens.* " is wrong for me o refuse o hire ha man because he is ndian because he law provides penalies agains discriminaion." f a person makes his sor of a misake, his moral reasoning canno be adequae. ' The moral poin of view is a basic poin of view in wo senses. Firs, a decisive judgmen from his poin of view overrides judgmens from ail oher poins of view in deermining he desirabiliy of a course of acion. To pu he maer more concreely, if judge ha an acion is morally wrong, hen mus conclude ha i is undesirable even if also judge i o be aesheically beauiful, economically producive, and shrewd. Similarly, my judgmen ha a course of acion is morally required will ouweigh judgmens from all oher poins of view. is only when a course of acion is neiher morally required nor morally prohibied (ha is, i is morally all righ) ha judgmens from oher poins of view become decisive in deermining *L. Kohlberg, Social Educaion (April 976), vol. 40, no. 4.

73 68 he overall desirabiliy of he acion. The second sense in which he moral poin of view is bic is ha facs which are relevan o judgmens from many oher poins of view are also relevan o moral judgmens. For example, facs abou he economic consequences a given acion would have for oher people are relevan no only o judging he acion from an economic poin of view bu also o judging i from a moral poin of view. Similarly, facs abou he effecs of he acion on he healh and safey of oher people or on heir aesheic environmen are relevan o making a moral judgmen of he acion. Prudenial judgmens are basic in his same sense. We cleermine he wisdom of an acion by deermining he consequences i has for our economic well-being, our healh, our aesheic saisfacion, and so on. The non-basic poins of view--hose oher han moraliy and prudence--pick ou he significan ineress or concerns human beings have. Boh moral and prudenial judgmens are aemps o deermine he worh of acions (a leas in par) by deermining heir effecs on hese significan ineress and concerns. The primary difference beween he moral and he prudenial is his: a prudenial judgmen akes ino accoun only he consequences he acion has for he ineress and concerns of he acor; a moral judgmen, on he oher hand, akes ino accoun he effecs of he acion on he ineress and concerns of people in general. Though i is an oversimplificaion, i is no far from he ruh o hink of prudenial judgmens as self-regarding and moral judgmens as oher-regarding. Undersanding he whole range of poins of view is useful in geing clear abou he moral poin of view. Raionaliy in morals is difficul o aain wihou being clear abou he moral poin of view, for here is he ever-presen danger ha we will fail o adop he moral poin of view

74 69 when i is called for or will accep prudenial reasons for moral conclusions. When should we ake he moral poin of view? Whenever here is he possibiliy ha a conemplaed acion will hreaen he sianifican ineress and concerns of oher people. Tha is when we mus ask "s i morally righ?" and no jus "s i wise?". e

75 70 Sae from which poin of view (moral, aesheic, healh and safey, economic, prudenial, inellecual, environmenal) he following value judgmens are made.. Paying axes is beneficial for sociey. 2. Euhanasia is a jusifiable acion. 3. Beehoven was a fine composer. Canada will benefi by leing in more immigrans. 5. You should rea your grandmoher wih respec because she migh leave you somehing in her will. 6. Elderly people should be reaed wih respec. 7. is oo expensive o mainain legal aid schemes. 8. No one should be deprived of educaional opporuniy because of he colour of his skin. 9. Smog deracs from he beauy of a ciy. 0. Smog is dangerous o people wih respiraory ailmens. People who are criically ill should be allowed o die because life-mainaining drugs and machines are so expensive. 2. John always gives such convincing argumens o persuade us.,o do as he wans. 3. Having children is an economic liabiliy. 4. People of all races are eniled o live wih digniy. 5. We should encourage everyone o conserve energy. 6. Jogging is good for you. 7. Teaching people o hink logically will be good for hem as hey will be able o recognize sound argumens. 8. Learning o recognize fallacies will be a help for me in being a good consumer.

76 7 BENG ABLE TO TEST THE ADEQUACY OF VALUE PRNCPLES We have seen ha he validiy of' an argumen can be checked hrough he use of he "pracical syllogism." Le us now consider how we can es he accepabiliy of he value premise of a value argumen. This process is called Principle Tesing. Four ess are explained below--role Exchange, Universal Consequences, New Cases, and Subsumpion. Role Exchange Tes The sandard applicaion of his es involves our asking wheher we n would be willing o exchange places wih he person(s) mos disadvanaged in a siuaion. f no, hen somehing in he siuaion is probably moraliy wrong. The es can be used only if we can imagine wha i would be like o be'he disadvanaged person.. Some basic seps in he Role Exchange Tes: *. Be sure he value judgmen menions proposed or acual acion of some person ( s). 2. denify persons or groups significanly affeced by he acion being evaluaed, especially he mos adversely affeced. 3. magine yourself in he circumsances of he mos adversely affeced person or group; hen imagine he consequences of he acion for his person or group. 4. Decide o accep or rejec he consequences for he mos adversely affeced person or group. 5. Decide o accep or rejec he value judgmen and is acion in he ligh of he consequences o he mos adversely affeced person or group. (A rejecion in sep 4 logically requires a rejecion in sep 5.) Universal Consequences Tes We ofen use his es in everyday discussions abou wha i is righ or wrong o do. can be saed in a variey of ways: "Bu wha would *W. Evans e a{., Raional Value Decisions and Value Conflic Resoluion (Uah Granie School Disric, Souh Sal Lake Ciy, 974). "

77 72 happen if everybody did ha?" "Bu if everybody did ha, he consequences would be disasrous." "How would you like i if everyone did ha?" Consider he following example. Think of a sree corner where he lawn of he propery on he corner grows righ ou o he sidewalk. There are hen wo ways ha people can round he corner. They can say on - he sidewalk, or hey can cu across he grass. Suppose i is he case ha if a lo of people walk across he grass, he grass will be killed. And suppose furher ha people are inclined o walk across he grass because i is he shorer pah o follow. Here we have a siuaion in which people would quie naurally apply he Universal Consequences Tes. magine wo people, Ned and Ted, meeing on he sidewalk jus afer Ned has walked around he sidewalk and Ted has cu across he grass. Ned: You shouldn' do ha. Ted: Why no? Ned: Because you will wreck he grass. Ted: Don' be ridiculous. How could d o. any serious damage jus by walking across i once? Ned: Tha may be rue, bu wha if everybody walked across i? Ted: W-e---, suppose ha would wreck i. Bu so wha? Ned: is easy o see wha. f everybody walked across i, i would wreck he grass. And everybody should be reaed fairly. Tha means we should all be reaed alike unless we can show ha here is somehing special abou us (or our circumsances) ha meris our being given special privileges. So, unless you can show ha you are special in a relevan way, you should say off he grass. This reasoning is based on several imporan consideraions. Firs, we hink ha an acion is wrong if i leads o bad consequences. From his we conclude ha if he consequences of everyone's doing an acion (e.g., walking

78 73 on he grass) are bad, hen i is no he case ha everyone has he righ o engage in he acion. Noice ha i may be all righ for some people o engage in he acion on some occasions. How, hen, are we o deermine when i is all righ for a person o do he acion? The principle of respec for persons requires ha we no be arbirary in his maer. requires raher ha all persons be reaed he same unless here are good reasons or jusificaions for reaing hem differenly. Thus in a case where no every person has he righ o engage in he acion, he principle leads us o conclude ha no one has he righ o engage in he acion wihou good reasons or jusificaion. Some basic seps in he Universal Consequences Tes:. Be sure he value judgmen menions proposed or acual acion of some person(s). 2. Apply he acion involved in he value judgmen o everyone in similar circumsances. 3. magine he consequences of everyone in similar circumsances engaging in he acion. 4. Decide o accep or rejec he consequences of everyone n -Similar circumsances engaging in he acion. 5. Decide o accep or rejec he value judgmen and is acion in ligh of he consequences of he value judgmen. (A rejecion in sep 4 logically requires a rejecion in sep 5.) New Cases Tes This es applies he principle used in one value judgmen o similar relevan cases in order ha we may ascerain wheher o accep or rejec he value principle. is based on he idea ha we can accep a principle only if we can accep all he judgmens ha issue from i. Suppose he principle is suggesed ha "The sae should no inerfere in he lives of ciizens." Then we could apply i in he following new cases in order o

79 f i i. ascerain wheher or no we are willing o apply i consisenly. New case New case New case New case A child is being abused by her parens. A facory is dumping chemical wases ino he river which is also a waer supply. A ciy inspecor discovers ha he local bucher has been puing all manner of hings ino his ground beef. A major auomobile manufacurer has been found o be building cars wih seriously defecive brakes. f he judger is willing o hold o his principles in all he above cases, hen he can be said o have a consisen sandard. However, if he is no willing o hold o he principle in one or more of he above cases, hen he principle has o be rejeced or modified. For example, if he deems ha he sae is jusified in inerfering in he lives of ciizens if he healh and safey of people is endangered, hen anoher principle is being used as a sandard-- ha he healh and safey of people are more imporan han he sae no inerfering in he lives of ciizens. The seps in applying he New Cases Tes:. Make he value principle explici. 2. Choose a new case which logically falls under he value principle. 3. Use he value principle o make a judgmen of he new case. 4. Decide wheher or no he value judgmen is accepable o you. 5. Decide o accep, rejec, or modify he iniial value principle. Subsumpion Tes This es is based on he idea ha a value principle we use in making a value judgmen is accepable if i follows logically (can be deduced) from anoher value principle which is accepable. Applying he Subsumpion Tes 74

80 75 is hus a maer of finding ou wheher or no our value principle follows logically from a higher-order value principle which is accepable o us. n he following dialogue, Novice ges Mary o apply he Subsumpion Tes by i i r puing cerain quesions o her. Mary: You shouldn' kick soccer balls agains he school. You migh break a window. () Novice: How does ha make i wrong? (2) Mary: You're desroying propery unnecessarily. (3) Novice: Mary: Yes. (5) So you hink people shouldn' desroy propery unnecessarily? (4) Novice: Why do you hink ha? (6) - Mary: Novice: Mary; Yes. (9) People have o work o produce propery. f you desroy i, you're making people work unnecessarily. (7) You hink i is wrong, hen, o make people work unnecessarily? (8) in uerance (), Mary makes a value judgmen and gives her facual reason-= for i. i n uerance (2), Novice aslss for an elaboraion of he reason, which Mary supplies in uerance (3). n uerance (4), Novice aemps o formulae he value principle Mary has used in making her value judgmen. Mary, in uerance (5), confirms ha his formulaion is correc. This is he firs sep in he Subsumpion Tes--geing a clear formulaion of he value principle. Noice ha his is done by consrucing a "pracical syllogism" wih he value judgmen as he conclusion and he facual claim as premi se : Facual premise Value conclusion Because i breaks windows unnecessarily, kicking soccer balls agains he school desroys propery unnecessarily. You shouldn' kick soccer balls agains he school.

81 76 To find he value principle used in making he value judgmen, you mus find he principle which bes complees his deducive argumen so ha i is a valid argumen. The value principle which bes complees he argumen above is ha which Novice suggess in uerance (4), namely: "People shouldn' desroy propery unnecessarily." The value principle is, in effec, a value judgmen abou he class of hings described in he facual claim. The second sep in he Subsumpion Tes is o consider he reasons you have for acceping or holding he value principle. These reasons will be facs abou he class of hings judged by he value principle. The bes way o ge someone o consider hese reasons is by asking her why she acceps he value principle. This is wha Novice does in uerance (6), and in uerance (7) Mary gives her facual reasons for acceping he value principle. n giving hese reasons, Mary is bringing o bear a higher-order value principle from which her original value principle can be derived. The hird sep in he Subsuinpion Tes is o ge a clear formulaion of his higher-order principle. To do his, we consruc a second pracical syllogism. n his case, he original value principle is he conclusion, and he facual claim supporing he principle is a premise. Facual premise Value conclusion f you desroy propery unnecessarily, you are making people do unnecessary work. People shouldn' desroy propery unnecessarily. The higher-order value principle from which he original value principle can be derived is he one which bes complees his argumen so ha i is a valid argumen. Novice formulaes his higher-order principle in uerance (8) as follows: " is wrong o make people do unnecessary work." The fourh and final sep in he Subsumpion Tes is o judge wheher or no he higher-order principle from which our value principle derives is *Because he abiliy o fill in he missing premise in a pracical syllogism is necessary o using he Subsumpion Tes, several exercises in his manual focus on is developmen.

82 77 iself accepable. f we are in doub abou his, we can apply he Subsumpion Tes o our higher-order value principle in he same way as we applied i o our original value principle. Alernaively, we may apply he New Cases Tes o i. Mary, you will noe, affirms in uerance (9) 'na she does accep he higher-order principle. Since Mary's original value principle can be logically derived from a higher-order value principle, which she acceps, she has good grounds for acceping her original value principle and he value judgmen she has made by using i in his case. Thus we can say ha Mary's value principle passed he Subsumpion Tes. How does a value _principle fail he Subsumpion Tes? Basically, here are wo ways in which his can happen: he higher-order principle from which he value principle derives is unaccepable, in ha he person making he value judgmen canno accep i.; and he judger can give no reasons for holding he value principle, and hence has no higher-order principle from which i can be derived. f a value principle fails in he firs way, hen we have TO good grounds for holding i or for acceping he value judgmen i led us o make. ndeed, we have good grounds for reconsidering our accepance of he principle and he value judgmen ha issued from i. f a value principle fails in he second way, we sill have no good grounds for acceping i. Bu in his case, we have no good grounds for rejecing i eiher. We mus apply oher kinds of principle ess o decide he issue. n he following dialogue, Novice ges Ria o apply he Subsumpion Tes o he value principle "People should no le heir grass grow long." Novice: Ria: Why do you hink ha? Because heir neighbours won' like i if hey do.

83 78 Novice: Do you hink, hen, ha people should no do somehing if heir neighbours won' like i? Ria: Well, no, don' really hink ha. n his example, Ria's value principle has failed he Subsumpion Tes. This means ha Ria mus eiher: () find new or addiional facual reasons for holding he value principle (which would allow her o derive i from a differen and accepable higher-order value principle); (2) rejec he value principle and he value judgmen ha she has made on he basis of i; or (3) find new reasons for her value judgmen (calling ino play a ne.w value principle ha mus be esed for accepabiliy). The seps in he Subsumpion Tes may be summarized as follows:. Formulae as clearly and as accuraely as possible he value principle you are using in making your value judgmen. 2. Sae carefully your facual reasons for holding he value.principle. 3. denify he higher-order value principle from which your value principle derives. 4. Deermine wheher or no his higher-order value principle is one you can accep. 5. rf you canno accep he higher-order principle, find new reasons for holding your original value principle, or rejec i and reconsider your value judgmen,

84 r. 79 NTEGRATNG THE VALUE REASONNG ACTVTES n order o show how ail he various aciviies fi ogeher, we will use a Reasons Assembly Char on he issue "immigraion." The seps in he formaion of he char are as follows:. Formulae a value claim (value saemen) on he issue--for example, "mmigraion should be sopped." "mmigraion" is he value objec in his saemen, and "should be sopped" is he value erm. - Clarify he value objec. is of he umos imporance o clarify he pars of he value saemen before any furher seps are aken. Many bier argumens occur before proagoniss discover ha hey are no really arguing abou he same hing. For example, wo people could be debaing he "core curriculum" and each could be inerpreing his erm in a differen way. Basically here are.wo ways of clarifying a value obje: by definiion, and by examples: Definiion: Examples: "mmigraion" means "o come o a counry of which one is no a naive or ciizen for he purpose of aking up permanen residence." families who come o live; people wih landed immigran papers; people who come and do no inend o reurn. "Non-examples" can also help in he clarificaion: foreign sudens, ambassadors, ouriss, ec. - Clarify he value erm. n some insances his enails finding ou he poin of view being used. For example, in he senence "Chris is a good suden," we are no sure wheher Chris is academically "good" or simply well behaved. n he immigraion example, i is relaively clear wha "should be sopped" means. However, should i be sopped now? nex year? for a while? forever?

85 80 2. Se up a Reasons Assembly Char for he value saemen by drawing a line down he cenre of he board or paper under he saemen. The lef side of he line will be for argumens supporing he saemen and he righ side for argumens agains i. Posiive mmigraion should be sopped Negaive 3. nvie sudens o make facual claims relevan o eiher he posiive or he negaive side of he saemen. Mos claims offered would be sraighforward, bu sudens may make he following misakes. Your ^ r job is o urn hese misakes ino learning experiences. - Sudens may proffer value judgmens as facual claims. "We ough o have more immigrans because we need heir skills." Review he fac/value disincion, and have he sudens idenify he facual claim in he saemen--"lmmigrans have skills ha we need." - There may be disagreemen abou facual claims. For example, i may be ha some sudens hink ha immigraion causes unemploymen for naive Canadians, whereas oher sudens hink i does no. n his case, invie he sudens o provide evidence o suppor heir claims. - Anoher complicaion migh be ha he facual claim may no be genuinely relevan o judging he value objec. For example, a suden may

86 8 say, "We allow foreign ouriss o say in Canada for a holiday, so why no le hem say here as immigrans?" Examine he differences beween saying in Canada for a holiday and living here permanenly. Someimes i is no clear wheher or no a reason is relevan. Suppose a suden said, "mmigraion should no be encouraged because he majoriy of Canadians do no wan more immigraion." is a fac, if he Gallup Poll is aken as valid, ha a majoriy of Canadians do no wan more immigraion. However, he reason may no be relevan. You would have o use one of he principle-esing mehods o find ou if sudens believe i is righ o do whaever he majoriy wans. Someimes a suden will make a facual claim which anoher suden will no see as being relevan o he issue. For example, if one suden makes he facual claim ha "mmigraion increases culural diversiy," he may make he judgmen ha culural diversiy makes Canada a more ineresing and desirable place o live, and herefore argue ha immigraion should no be sopped. Bu facual claims are only relevan o an issue if here is a rule or sandard ha makes hem relevan. f, in his example, anoher suden has no rule or sandard for judging he facual claim (ha is, he judges diversiy as being neiher good/bad, righ/wrong), hen his claim is irrelevan o him. f he claim may in fac be relevan, he eacher mus focus on is ramificaions. The eacher should probe he consequences of he firs suden's claim--wha culural diversiy migh mean, on he one hand in erms of increased access o variey in poins of view, skills, and lifesyles, and on he oher hand in erms of increased pressures and coss for public services such as language courses, manpower raining programs, ranslaion and counselling services for newcomers. is likely ha he second suden has a

87 82 sandard on some of hese maers. f he can now use hese sandards, hen probing he consequences of he facual claim may help him o formulae a sandard ha relaes he claim o he overall quesion. The quesion of relevance of facual claims is crucial when we focus on moral reasoning as a capabiliy we wan he individual o gain. ^ The necessary links in a moral argumen are no, afer all, value sandards in he absrac bu he sandards ha each suden holds and believes ina Therefore, he following objecives should be sressed: Sudens will undersand ha a facual claim given as a reason for a value judgmen is in realiy only par of he supporing argumen for a value judgmen. A facual claim doesn' suppor a value judgmen a.all unless i is coupled wih a value sandard in a valid deducive argumen wih he value judgmen as is conclusion. Consequenly, hey will undersand ha when he value sandard is acceped, held, believed in, hen and hen only can he facual claim suppor he judgmen in a value argumen. They will also become aware ha some of he value sandards hey r offer are no heir own bu are quoed from parens or friends. For example, he inconsisency of he claim "mmigrans find i hard o mix wih oher Canadians" backed by he value sandard "People should say wih heir own kind" could sugges o is proposer his own confusion beween wha he has a vague feeling migh be a good r l hing (mixing) and wha his parens or ohers are always saying. - Sudens will learn o idenify and o formulae he value sandard presupposed when a facual claim is offered as a reason for a value judgmen.

88 83 - Sudens will learn ha a facual claim is no relevan o a moral judgmen unless he implied value sandard is a moral sandard. A facual claim may be cied as a reason because he judger believes he implici value sandard bu is misaken in hinking i has o be a moral sandard. For example: Facual premise Value premise Sopping immigraion would limi he diversiy of ar forms. is morally wrong o limi he diversiy of ar forms. The principle offered, while high-minded, is ulimaely aesheic raher han moral. - Sudens will learn ha he same facual claim may be offered o sup- por boh he posiive and he negaive sides of he argumen. The claim "mmigraion increases culural diversiy" was seen o have ramificaions ha could pu i on eiher side of he argumen. A suden may make a claim wihou saing which side of he argumen he suppors--for example, "mmigrans have differen lifesyles." n his case, have he suden clarify wheher his is being used posiively or negaively on he issue of wheher or no immigraion ino Canada should be sopped. f he claim is ha differen lifesyles will enrich Canadian culure, hen his is presumably agains sopping immigraion; if he claim is ha differen lifesyles will cause conflic, hen his is presumably for sopping immigraion. 4. Formulae syllogisic argumens in which he value principle is clearly specified as one of he premises. For example, if he facual claim is "mmigrans cause unemploymen" and he conclusion is ha immi- graion should be sopped, hen he principle is "Unemploymen is undesirable."

89 84 Value premise Facual premise Value conclusion Anyhing which causes unemploymen is undesirable. mmigraion causes unemploymen. mmigraion is undesirable. For any value conclusion o be defensible, i mus be suppored by rue premises and mus logically follow from such premises. The exercises on he pracical syllogism are included in his manila l o enable sudens o learn o idenify and use good reasoning in dealing wih issues, and o help sudens idenify he principles upon which hey base heir value conclusions. 5. denify he poin of view on which he principle is based. 6. Tes hose principles in which he moral poin of view is being used. We can use 'The Flamingo Moel' (see over page) o explore all four principle-esing mehods.

90 85 The Flamingo Moel* A young school eacher, Fred Hardwick, was eaching in a school in norhern Saskachewan. He and his wife wen ino he ciy of Prince Alber for he weekend. They sopped in fron of he Flamingo Moel, and Fred wen in o book a room. The manager of he moel said here was no vacancy. Fred hough his was a bi unusual because i was 0 o'clock in he morning and his "No Vacancy" sign was no urned on. Fred asked, "How come your 'no vacancy' sign is no on?" The manager replied, " jus haven' go around o urning i on ye." "Well, urn i on, hen," said Fred, somewha irriaed ha he had sopped unnecessarily. The manager refused o urn on he sign. was a his poin ha Fred hough here migh be somehing else bohering he manager. He hough he manager had decided he wasn' married because he looked so young. He offered o show he manager boh heir driver's licences, bu he manager said ha was no he problem. Fred became angry and phoned he police. Fred: "My name is Fred Hardwick and am a he Flamingo Moel. The manager refused o give me a room." Policeman: "Well, if he doesn' wan o give you a room guess he doesn' have o. 's his moel." Fred: " am quie sure he has o give me a room unless have done somehing wrong." Policeman: " will send a police car up." Fred urned away from he phone, and he moel manager asked him wha he police had said. Fred old him hey were sending up a police car. The manager became very nervous and said he was having a lo of problems wih whie people bringing ndians o his moel and having wild paries. Fred hen realized ha he manager hough Fred's wife, who was siing in he car, was ndian. Tha was he reason he didn' wan o ren he room. *Adaped wih permission of J. Kehoe, Faculy of Educaion, Universiy of Briish Columbia.

91 sè The New Cases Tes. Suppose he principle is suggesed ha "Everyone has a righ o do wha he wans wih his own propery," hen he following new cases could be presened: Le us say ha a couple wih wo small children ener a moel and are old ha here is a vacancy. The faher signs his name in he moel regiser as M. Levin. The manager asks him if he is a Jew, and he faher replies ha he is. The manager says he does no accep Jews in his moel and asks he family o leave. n his case, should he moel manager have he righ o deny access? f he response is sill affirmaive, a furher analogy could be presene4 in he form of a quesion such as, should he moel manager have he righ o deny access o people in wheelchairs? f i is argued in principle ha he moel manager should no have he righ o deny access, hen he following example could be used: Mrs. Webser, who depends upon her boarding house as a source of income, has four female boarders. A male boarder applies for he fifh adverised posiion. Mrs. Webser will accep him, bu her four female boarders say hey will leave if she acceps he male boarder. n his case, should Mrs. Webser have he righ o deny a room o he male boarder? As a furher analogy, shouid he moel manager have a righ o refuse rooms o a moorcycle gang? The Role Exchange Tes. Sudens are asked o pu hemselves in he role of Fred Hardwick and o consider how he would feel and wheher or no he had any righs in he siuaion. The same procedure s'nould be

92 a 87 used for he' role of he moel manager. Having "imagined" wha i would be like o be in eiher role, he sudens are asked o evaluae he original i r principle and o consider wheher or no i is sill jusifiable. The Universal Consequences Tes. To respond o a quesion such as "Wha would he consequences be if every moel manager denied Fred and his wife J a room, hinking her o be ndian?" The suden has o imagine he consequences if everyone behaved in his way. Sudens hen have o judge he accepabiliy of such consequences. f sudens deem i righ ha he moel manager accep anyone who wishes a room, including a moorcycle gang known o cause rouble, hen he quesion can be posed as o wheher he universal consequences of his principle would be accepable. Does he principle need modifying on he basis of relevan differences? The Subsumpion Tes. This asks he suden o show ha he value principle is a case of some more general value principle. would seem o be useful o discern he general value principles on boh sides of he conflic and hen ask he suden o make a choice. For example, in he Flamingo Moel sory, he principles in conflic seem o be: () People who own propery should be able o do as hey wish wih ha propery, and (2) No business should be allowed o discriminae agains people. A suden can be asked o decide which general principle he acceps and hen o indicae wha facs make he general principle relevan o his posiion on he presen`case. 7. Arrive a your own conclusion on he issue, basing i on he facual claims whose relevance you accep.

93 88 SUMMARY We will finish his general discussion of he process of value reasoning wih a summary of he seps and a furher example.. denify and clarify he value issue. 2. Formulae a Reasons Assembly Char. 3. denify facual claims which are relevan o he value issue. Assess he ruh of he facual claims. 4. denify he principle (value sandard, rule) which logically relaes he facual claim o he value conclusion. 5. denify he poin of view of each principle. 6. Tes he principles using he New Cases, Universal Consequences, Role Exchange, and Subsumpion ess. 7: Arrive a your own conclusion o he value quesion. As a furher example, le he issue be capial punishmen and wheher or no i should be reained. - The seven seps would be applied as follows:. Clarify he value quesion. Definiion: Capial punishmen--legal execuion of a person conviced of a capial offence. Examples: Non-examples: hanging, elecrocuion, gas, firing squad, beheading, injecion--bu hey all have o be legal as in he definiion. assassinaion, killing prisoners, hose no legal as in he definiion. f he issue is limied o he Canadian conex, hen capial punishmen would be relevan only in he case of convicion for capial murder or for reason, and hanging would be he only form of execuion relevan. However, oher forms of execuion migh be discussed, especially if sudens suppor capial punishmen bu are opposed o hanging as a mehod. Then he issue becomes one of which is he

94 89 "bes" way o execue someone, no wheher or no capial punishmen is ever jusified. The erm "reained" will also need clarifying as o ime--for now? forever? 2. Formulae a Reasons Assembly Char (see page following). 3. denify facual claims relevan o he issue. Ensure ha wha are proposed are facual claims, no value claims. For example: Posiive:. The majoriy of Canadians wan capial punishmen for conviced mui-derers. i s Negaive: 4. Capial punishmen means ha a life is aken for a life. 5. Wih capial punishmen we run he risk of execuing innocen people. 6. Capial punishmen rules ou rehabiliaion, he conviced murderer becoming a useful member of sociey. Assess he ruh of facual claims. be subsaniaed. verify saemen. is conflicing evidence. available evidence. Facual claims can,in principle, For example, Gallup Poll resuls can be used o To "prove" saemen 2 is more difficul, as here Saemens 3 and 6 can be checked agains Saemen 4 is analyical and can be checked by 2. Capial punishmen deers poenial murderers. 3. Capial punishmen coss he axpayers less han would he mainenance of a murderer in prison for life. recourse o definiion. Saemen 5 can be verified by examples from hisory. 4. denify he principle (sandard, rule) which logically relaes he facual claim o he value conclusion. f he claim is ha capial punishmen should be reained because he majoriy,of Canadians wan i reained, hen he principle is ha wha he majoriy of he people

95 le SO OM are Ole alle #. OS no ire Oa erb dui a an Capial punishmen should be reained Posiive Negaive Poin of view Principle Facual claim Facual claim Principle Poin of view Moral/ poliical Wha he majoriy of he people wan should be done The majoriy of Canadians wan capial punishmen for conviced murderers. Capial punishmen means ha a life is aken for a life. Taking a life for a life should no be done Moral Healh/. safey Whaever deers poenial murderers should be done. Capial punishmen deers poenial murderers. Wih capial punish- Wha risks he lives men we risk exe- of innocen people Moral cuing innocen should no be done. people. Economic Whaever coss he axpayer less should be done. Capial punishmen coss he axpayers less han would he mainenance of a murderer in prison for life. Capial punishmen rules ou rehabiliaion, he conviced murderer becoming a useful member of sociey. Whaever denies he opporuniy for rehabiliaion should no be done. Prudenial o

96 9 wan should be done. f he facual claim is ha capial punishmen rules ou rehabiliaion, hen he principle is ha wha rules ou rehabiliaion should no be done. (See char.) should be noed here once again ha for a facual claim o be relevan o he issue, he principle mus be acceped by he person who advances i. f, for example, a person does no really believe ha we should do somehing because i is wha he majoriy wan, hen he claim ha he majoriy of Canadians wan o reain capial punishmen is irrelevan for ha person. (However, he person may sill suppor capial punishmen on oher grounds.) 5. denify he poin of view of each principle. Noe ha i is someimes difficul o idenify he poin of view wih cerainy. may no be absoluely-clear why (saemen ) we should do wha he majoriy of Canadians wan. s he basis of he argureen moral (wha is fair), poliical (wha is democraic), or somehing else? N.B. While seps 2 o 5 have been described as hough all facual claims are firs idenified, hen all assessed, hen all principles idenified, ec., once he sudens have grasped he processes he normal procedure should be o carry ou seps 2 o 5 wih each facual claim as i is advanced. 6. Tes he principles using he New Cases, Universal Consequences, Role Exchange, and Subsumpion ess. For example: Role Exchange. How would you feel if you were a conviced murderer? f you were a relaive or friend of he murderer? f you were a relaive or friend of he murdered person? f you were he hangman? f you lived nex door o a conviced murderer who had jus been released from prison?

97 92 New Cases. Afer a person has been conviced and execued, new evidence is forhcoming and he "real" murderer idenified. A conviced murderer, senenced o life imprisonmen, swears ha he will escape and kill again. A close relaive is conviced of murder and senenced o deah, bu you are posiive ha she is really a good person and will never murder again. Universal Consequences. Would he consequences of execuing all conviced murderers be desirable or undesirable? Would he consequences of puing all conviced murderers in prison for life be desirable or undesirable? Subsumpion Tes. Which is more imporan, he life of one individual or he proecion of sociey? 7. On he basis of he aciviies carried ou above, he individual de- cides wheher or no «capial punishmen should be reained and saes he principles he or she used o suppor he conclusion.

98 93 BBLOGRAPHY Ayim, Maryann. "Pre-College Philosophy: Defined and Defended," Canadian Journal of Educaion. Vol. 5 #2 980, pp Aylesworh, Thomas G., & Reagan, Gerald M. Teaching for Thinking. New York: Doubleday & Co., nc., 969. Black, Max. Criical Thinking. 2nd ediion. New York: Prenice-Hall, nc D'Angelo, Edward. The Teaching of Criical Thinking. B.R. Gruner Amserdam, 97. Engel, S. Morris. Wih Good Reason: An nroducion o nformal Fallacies. New York: S. Marin's Press, 976. Ennis, Rober H. Logic in Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prenice-Hall, nc., 969. Ennis, Rober. "Presidenial Address: A Concepion of Raional Thinking," Philosophy of Educaion 979. ed. J. R. Coombs. Normal, llinois: Philosophy of Educaion Sociey, 979. Fraenkel, Jack R. Helping Sudens Think and Value. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prenice-Hall; nc., 973. nsrucional Objecives Exchange. Judgmen: Analyzing Fallacies and Weaknesses in Argumens. Los Angeles: 0X, 974. nsrucional Objecives Excha'nge. Judgmen: Deducive Logic and Assumpion Recogniion. Los Angeles: 0X, 97. Lile, Winson W., Wilson, W. Harold, Moore, W. Edgar. Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 955. Applied Logic. Michalos, Alex C. mproving your Reasoning. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenice Hall, nc., 970. Morse, Horace T., & McCune, George H. Seleced ems for he Tesing of Sudy Skills and Criical Thinking. Washingon: Naional Council for he Social Sudies, 97. Pearson, Craig, & Sparks, David G. (eds.) Taking a Sand: A Guide o Clear Discussion of Public ssues. Middleown, Conn.: American Educaion Publicaions, 967.

99 9 Salmon, Wesley C. Logic. 2nd ediion. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prenice-Hall, nc., 973. Scriven, Michael. Reasoning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 976. H Wilson, John Thinking wih Conceps. Cambridge: Universiy Press,.

100 95 l APPEN D! X ANSWERS TO EXERCSES

101 96 Answers (Fac/value disincion). Fac 3. Value 2. Value 4. Fac 3. Fac 5. Fac 4. Value 6. Value 5. Fac 7. Fac 6. Value 8. Fac 7. Value 9. Value 8. Fac 20. Value 9. Fac 2. Fac 0. Value 22. Fac. Value 23. Value 2. Fac Answers (Recognizing Reliable Observaions). b 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. a 0. c Answers (Evaluaing Sources of nformaion ). C 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. A 7. C 8. B Answers (Evaluaing Sources of nformaion ). 3, 2, 2. 2,, , 3, 4. 3, 2, 5. 2, 3, 6. 3,, ,, ,, 2

102 97 Disinguishing Premises from Conclusions n each of he following argumens, underline he conclusion and pu brackes around he premises:. The Sovie Union should no have invaded Afghanisan because (i's wrong o inerfere in anoher counry's affairs.) 2. (Puing a heavy ax on gasoline) would be beneficial as i (will force people o drive less.) This would resul in less gasoline consumpion. 3. (f you work hard you will pass your nex mahemaics es.) As (you have worked hard) you will undoubedly pass he es. 4. really don' hink i will be possible for us o go on a vacaion his year. (We jus can' afford i.) (Things are so expensive hese days.) (Everyhing--food, moels, enerainmen--jus coss oo much and, besides ha, our morgage paymens have gone up subsanially.) 5. As a resul of he Conservaive pary's defea in he las elecion, he. r counry is even worse off han i was when hey formed he governmen. (The morgage deducibiliy ax scheme did no go hrough, inflaion is increasing, and he Albera governmen won' sele on an oil price.) 6. (f we can' ge Roberson on our eam,) we surely will lose he game. (Roberson is sick and won' be able o play) so we are sure o lose. 7. (All people should receive equal pay for equal work) and as (women are people) hey should receive equal cay for equal work. 8. Homeown Chemicals Ld. should be prosecued for dumping polluans ino he river. (Facories ha pollue rivers should be prosecued) and las week we read in he newspaper ha (Homeown had done his). 9. am cerain ha you will like he resauran have chosen for dinner. (They have he kind of food you like o ea on he menu) and (he amosphere is very good.) 0. (Because Roger has been working so hard) - and (has done such good work, ) his employer should Uive him a raise.

103 98 Answers (Condiional Syllogisms). Valid 8. Valid 2. Valid 9. Valid 3. Valid 0. nvalid 4. nvalid. nvalid 5. nvalid 2. Valid 6. nvalid 3. nvalid 7. nvalid Answers (Pracical Syllogisms) There are obviously many differen ways ha a specific facual claim can be made ino a valid syllogism. We have compleed each in one of he possible ways.. John broke his promise. VP: is wrong o break your promise. Conclusion: John was wrong o break his promise. 2. The Sovie Union invaded Afghanisan recenly. VP: Any counry which invades anoher should be condemned for commiing an aggressive ac. Conclusion The Sovie Union should be condemned for commiing an aggressive ac. 3. The B.C. Land Commission was se up o preserve agriculural land. VP: We should suppor hose who preserve agriculural land. Conclusion: We should suppor he B.C. Land Commission. 4. Refusing o hire someone on he basis of sex consiues discriminaion. VP: Conclusion: Discriminaion is immoral. Refusing o hire someone on he basis of sex is immoral. 5. Some ranian sudens are holding 50 Americans hosage. VP: Conclusion: Hosage aking is unfair. Some rahian sudens are unfair.

104 99 6. A Vancouver facory was found guily las week of discharging chemicals ino he Fraser River. VP: Conclusion: Facories ha are found guily of discharging chemicals ino rivers should be fined heavily. Tha Vancouver facory should be fined heavily. 7. There was a 0% rae of inflaion in Canada in 979. VP: Conclusion: People ough o be concerned if he inflaion rae is over 0%. People in Canada ough o be concerned. 8. There are many people in Asia who do no ge enough o ea. VP: Conclusion: We ough o give aid o hose who do no ge enough o ea. We ough o give aid o many people in Asia.

105 00 Answers (Assumpion Recogniion ). made 2. no made 2. no made 3. no made 3. made 4. made 4. no made 5. no made 5. no made 6. no made 6. made 7. no made 7. made 8. made 8. no made 9. no made 9. made 20. no made 0. no made 2. made. no made Answers (Assumpion Recogniion ). made. no made 2. no made 2. no made 3. no made 3. no made 4. made 4. made 5. no made 5. no made 6. made 6. made 7. made 7. made 8. no made 8. made 9. no made 9. no made 0. made 20. made Answers (Missing value premise) is unlikely ha sudens will use he exac same words used here. However,' hey should be similar in form.. Any governmen which imprisons people jus for disagreeing wih i is yrannical. 2. A fair governmen should give every elderly person, married or single, an equal pension. 3. Any people who jeopardize heir lives during conflics deserve recogniion. 4. Any newspaper ha publishes aricles favourable o he enemy during warime ough o be oulawed. 5. Anyhing ha will increase unemploymen ough o be discouraged. 6. We ough o sop anyhing which is a hrea o fuure generaions. 7. We should do vhaever we can o reduce energy consumpion.

106 0 Answers (Drawing nferences) A.. T 5. N 9. T 2. N 6. N 0. N 3. F 7. F. N 4. T 8. F B. 2. T 7. F 22. T 3. F 8. N 23. T 4. T 9. N 24. F 5. T 20. T 25. N 6. N 2. F C. 26. T 29. N 32. F 27. T 30. F 33. N 28. T 3. N Answers ( Hasy Generalizaions) The following conain insances of he fallacy of hasy generalizaion:, 2, 3, and 6. Commens:. A hasy generalizaion has been made on he basis of one week's evi= dence. The evidence is relevan. So his fallacy of 'hasy generalizaion has been commied. 2. One class of Jewish sudens is no enough o base conclusions abou all of he sudens in he world. Fallacious. 3. Also an insance of he fallacy of hasy generalizaion. There is no reason o hink ha hose wo Americans were sufficienly ypical of all Americans o generalize heir acions. 4. There is no hasy generalizaion here. The experimen was conduced in such a way ha he condiions relevan o he generalizaion which was being esed were compleely ypical; for example, boh bodies had he same air resisance, and hey were boh dropped ogeher. 5. Also a careful scienific experimen. The condiions were carefully conrolled so as o be compleely general. No fallacy has been commied here. 6. There is a hasy generalizaion here. On he basis of he wo words 'cow' and 'house' a generalizaion is being made which supposedly includes he word 'God' oo. The word 'God' belongs in a differen caegory. Wih his realizaion, i is easy o see ha mos of he evidence given is irrelevan.

107 02 Answers (nformal Fallacies). argumen from ignorance 2. fallacy of division 3. popular senimens and large numbers (many people) 4. appeal o force 5. false cause 6. radiion 7.. begging he quesion 8. you're anoher 9. popular people 0. hasy generalizaion. agains he man 2. appeal o piy 3. argumen of he beard 4. false cause 5. black or whie 6. agains he man 7. false cause 8. false cause 9. radiion 20. agains he man 2. large numbers

108 03 Answers: Pracical Syllogism Compleion. Conclusion: We should insall exhaus emission equipmen on auomobiles. 2. Value Premise: All people should be reaed wih respec. 3. Facual Premise: Recycling of garbage conserves energy. 4. Value Premise: Discriminaion is wrong. 5. Conclusion: Our governmen should ensure ha every ciizen has adequae sheler, food, clohing and medical care. 6. Facual Premise: We have no ye devised safe and reliable means of nuclear wase disposal. 7. Conclusion: Jules should learn how o hink criically. Answers (Poin of View). economic, moral 2. moral, economic 3. aesheic 4. economic, moral, aesheic, inellecual, prudenial 5. prudenial 6. moral * 7. economic 8. moral 9. aesheic 0. healh and safey. economic 2. inellecual 3. economic 4. moral 5. environmenal, moral 6. healh and safey 7. prudenial, inellecual 8. prudenial LBRARY MT\STRY OF THE SOLC0R-: 'L L UL WLY 9P MN STERE NER. AL...

109 SOL GEN CANADA LF3(li r ll P NM Hill iv \i\QJ,c-

110 enes eife-a -cree Dae Due /Lelele' O3 DEC %7 DM Ar HV La Bar, Carol Teaching criical L3 hinking : a manual for c.2 eachers in correcions insiuions.

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