CHAPTER-I TEMPLES: ROLE AND INFLUENCE

Transcription

1 30 CHAPTER-I TEMPLES: ROLE AND INFLUENCE Temples reflect a well developed civilization. A number of temples or temple-sites are located in Kaveri region. An account of temples is found befitting here. The temple has had an enduring ideological importance in Indian history, which makes it the central focus of historical processes like religions, social, economic and political. Temple came to be the legitimating institution of the ruling elite, the king in particular, who acquired legitimacy and tried to convey the authority through the temple and its symbolism. As a super ordinate institution, temple acted as an integrating force for organizing society, economy and polity. In effect as miniature cosmos, it symbolized the territory enrolled by a ruling dynasty. It also needs to be understood that the temple being integral to this process is inseparably linked to the development of religion, sectarian traditions, society, economy and polity. History of mankind has shown that man cannot live without God. If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him declared Voltaire. Belief in God, in a cosmic power or cosmic law, in a super human spirit or Being is basic to all culture. As the race.progressed, temple became pivotal because they served as a sacred meeting place for the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were usually built at picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the sea

2 shore. Smaller temples or open air shrines can crop up first about anywhere-by the road side or even under the tree. 1 How and when the first temple took its birth is to anybody s guess. Temples did not seem to exist during Vedic period. The main object of worship was fire that stood for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo Aryans first started building temples for worship. The scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant idea of idol worship. God can be malevolent as well as benevolent in nature. It is important that the temple sight symbolize is one that will exhilarate him. The Puranas state the The God always play near the rivers and mountains and springs. Sacred sites in India therefore, are usually associated with water. Shades of trees and lakes of India are often considered to be sacred and they have heeling and purifying powers. Concept of Temple The gradual development of Mahayanism and Hinduism is evidence responsible for the erection of temple because Mahayana produced figural representation of Lord Buddha and Bodhisattavas which needed sacred places for worship Saradhamani, M., Historical Sites and Monuments along the River Noyyal (South India) Megalithic Period to Medieval Age- A Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 2013,p Kanakasabhai, V., The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, Reprint, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1979, p 232.

3 32 Evolution of Temples In the early ages temples were not constructed but only huts were provided which later on got evolution till it become a solid structure. During the inclination towards Brahmanism, the Hindu Gods needed a place for exhibition. They thus provided simple solid structure to shelter the sacred place for worship. During Gupta time the solid stone blocks were used to construct the temple. After this stage the rituals became more complex. Hence it required more deities and sculptures because of which the temple became larger in size with more elements. Evolution of Temples in Tamil Nadu The primitive Tamil was a believer in totems. Ancestral worship and totemic worship were insepararable and worship of the dead hero was the phase of ancestor-worship. But these belong to a period very much anterior to the Sangam period. Later the ideas of Godhead and modes of worship had reached a mature stage with most of the Tamils. The aborigines believed in Gods who were supposed to reside in the hollow of trees. The snake which resided in such hollows was a special object of worship. The Kantu, a piece of planted log of wood was an object of worship. 3 It served as God and it was preferably stationed in the shade of the Banyan tree. The trees themselves, being totems developed into religious institutions and particular trees came to be associated with particular gods and their temples, became local trees later Kalitogai (Sangam Tamil Literature),Verse-8 1:7. 4. Subrahmaniam, N., A Tamil Social History, Vol I, Chennai, 1997, p.362.

4 The Sangam cult centres like Kottam, Koyil and Nagar had no institutional character and even in the transitional phase they are described as centers which people are advised to visit for the worship of a particular deity. The references in the late and post Sangam works to Brahmanical forms, in which bloody sacrifices of animals and birds were made and belong to the transitional stage. The universalization of the Tinai (Land Division) deities and the institutionalization of the cult centre as a temple with Brahmanical forms of worship as the chief focus achieved its fruition in the early medieval period that is, in a totally transformed socio-political context. 5 Bhakti Movement Bhakti was a crucial element in the evolution and spread of Puranic religion, which emerged by the Sixth Century A.D., as a universal and formal 33 system in the Indian subcontinent as a whole. 6 In the Tamil region the expansion of Vedic religion was intrinsically linked with local and popular traditions and their interaction with Brahmanical religion is a two way process. It was a synchronic and at times, diachronic evolution. It would be too simplistic or facile to explain it as an interaction between the Great and Little traditions. 7 The major impact of Bhakti ideology was more significant and it led to the expansion of the role of the temple in restructuring society and economy. The temple based Bhakti was capable of developing into a transcendental norm 5. Champakalakshmi, R., Religion, Tradition and ideology Pre-colonial South India, New Delhi, 2011, p Pilllay, K.K., Historical Heritage of the Tamils, Chennai, 2008, p Burton Stein, South Indian Temples An analytical Reconsideration, New Delhi, 1978, pp

5 and hence acquired a centrality providing a focus for the achievement of uniformity among various sects given their differences.several non-conformist elements and religious sects who observed extreme forms of rites could also be integrated through Bhakti ideology. The Bhakti movement spearheaded by the Tamil Alwars (Vaishnavite saints) and Nayanmars ( Saivate saints) marks the beginning of the ascendancy of the Brahmanical socio-religious order, that is, the dominance of the Puranic Vaishnava and Saiva sects, and the decline of the religions of Jainism and Buddhism. The socio-economic and political context in which the conflict between the Brahmanical religions and the Jainism and Buddhist religions needs to be situated is the general decline of trade-inland and maritime from about the third century A.D., and the emergence of land as the economic resource through a land grant system to the temple. 8 Thus the change from the early historical to the early medieval period was one in which Brahmanical Hinduism assumed the significant position of the main stream tradition. The revival was more a transformation of society and religious systems through new institutional forces. Brahmanical Influence The context was the decline of trade and urbanism and the emergence of an agrarian order dominated by the Brahmanical Varna hierarchy, which had not consolidated itself in the early historical period. The change may be seen even from the Fifth Century A.D., marked by the earliest land grants to Champakalakshmi, R., op.cit., p. 438.

6 35 brahmanas and temples. 9 The land distribution and control through such institutions represented by brahmadeyas and temple-nucleated settlements, to oust the so called heterodox faiths. Brahmanical religions achieved this change through a process of acculturation by incorporating popular and folk elements in worship and ritual, and by assimilating tribal and ethnic groups into the social order through the temple. The societal change visible from the Sixth Century A.D., was the establishment of the varna hierarchy, in which the Kshatriya status was assigned to the new ruling families and the traditional ruling families, by the fabrication of impressive genealogies in the prasastis which were composed by the Brahmanas in return for royal patronage and land grants, with the kshatriya and the brahmana at the apex of the power structure. The rest of society was places at the lower levels of the stratified order, with a ritual ranking around the temple. The temple was not only the major institutional base for mobilizing and redistributing economic resources, but also an integrative force and orbit for social organization and the ranking of all the other occupational groups tribal and ethnic groups of forests and hills. 10 It is in the Kaveri region that this process is traceable through a rich corpus of early Tamil classics and transitional phase of the spread of Puranic- Brahmanical tradition. Bhakti was propagated through the vernacular language and phrase in their emotionally powerful hymns expressing devotion to a personal god housed in the temple. The Tamil hymnal literature expresses a 9. Nagaswamy, R., An Outstanding Epigraphical Discovery in Tamilnadu, in Fifth International Seminar on Tamil Studies, Madurai, 1981,pp and Champakalakshmi, R., op.cit., p.446.

7 protest against orthodox Vedic Brahmanism, and they were the recipients of impressive land grants from the ruling families. The temple, therefore, became the focal point of social organization and ritual ranking among various caste, occupational groups and ethnic or tribal people. All of there were brought into the sphere of temple society through Bhakti as the legitimating ideology for socio-political organization. These temples were controlled and managed by brahmana land holders, non-brahmana or vellala land holders of the Ur and the Nadu. 11 (Agrarian settlement and peasant region respectively) Viewed from various points, the post-sangam and pre-seventh century period was one of ascendancy for the non-orthodox creeds. The seventh century religious developments - which are generally regarded in conventional histories as a revival of orthodox forms- led to the serious conflict between the two in the royal and urban centers. This revival was achieved it is said, through Bhakti, which popularized the puranic religions. Royal conversion was the symbol of change and hence central to this conflict. The Bhakti ideal emanated and spread in a context of social differentiation where conflicts centered around patronage and social dominance as seen in Kanchi and Madurai. Presumably, the ideology of Bhakti throwing open the path of salvation to all, irrespective of caste, imbibed the ideals of the non-orthodox creeds, that is, birth and caste as being no obstacles to salvation, and thereby succeeded in rooting out heretical beliefs Subramaniam, N., op.cit., pp Champakalakshmi, R., Socio-Religious Movements in Tamilnadu AD , National lectures, UGC, New Delhi, , pp (unpublished)

8 Thus the concept of Bhakti acted in two distinct ways in establishing the Brahmanical temple as a pivot for the enactment of the various roles of society. One was by encountering the increasing influence of the heterodox religions, which led to their ultimate decline of subordination. In fact, Jainism, which was more widespread and influential than Buddhism, became as much a part of puranic religion and temple based cult as Vaishnavism and Saivism were. The other was more significant, in that it induced messianic expectations among the lower orders of the varna-based society through the ideal of salvation. The temple based Bhakti was also capable of developing into a transcendental norm and hence, acquired a centrality that provided a focus for achieving uniformity among different religions and sects, given their differences. There is, however, no evidence of royal initiative or participation in building canonical temples till the end of the ninth century A.D. 13 On the basis of epigraphic evidences, it would be possible to show that both Saiva and Vaishnava Bhakti centers are known only through the records of Parantaka-I and Aditya I. 14 The temple was a determining factor in the expansion of the sacred and temporal domains, which were stupendous royal projects and which mark the apex of the Bhakti movement Swamy, B.G.L., The Date of Tevaram Trio: An Analysis and Reappraisal, in Bulletin of the Traditional Culture, Madras, January- June l975, pp Bala Subramaniam, S.R., Chola Temples, New Delhi, 1971, p Champakalakshmi, R., Vaishnava Iconography in Tamil Country, New Delhi, 1981, pp

9 The temple, as the major channel of socio-pohtical communication, conveyed the royal orders through inscriptions. Equally important was the fact that it became the venue of the enactment of plays that narrated the king s achievements both in sacred and the political spheres. Temple entertainments included music and dance. Festivals instituted by the royal family on birth asterisms and on their victories, and the setting up of royal images in addition to these Bhakti saints also sewed to glorify royal power. There is a record of reciprocal flow of money, gold and land gifts to the temple, and their investment with local institutions in different regions. 16 Auditing of temple accounts and reorganisation of the redistributive system through royal officers suggest royal penetration into local organization through intervention in the working of the ideological apparatuses. Imperialistic Rule Chenkanan, a pre Vijayala Chola king, who is known to the Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars, counted as one of the Bhakti saints mentioned in Tiruttondar tokai and the Periya Puranam. 17 He ruled after the Sangam or early historical period, which is Fifth and Sixth Centuries A.D., but well before the establishment of the Imperial Cholas. 18 Tevaram suggested the number of the temples namely five hundred to be staggering for the Seventh Century A.D. Hence the temple building activity should be located in the early Chola period and not before. However, apart S.I.I., Vol.II, No Vellaivaranan, K., Panniru Thirumurai Varalaru, Part III, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, 1980, pp Tiruttani and Velanjuri Copper Plates, Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 1979, p 60.

10 from the temple building activity credited to Chenkanan, the prevalence of temples built of brick and other perishable materials, earlier than the Seventh Century is attested especially by the Mandagapattu Inscription of Mahendravarman I 19 and the recent excavated shrine (believed to be of Lord Subramanya) on the coastal site near Saluvan kuppam, and the earlier Kaverippumpattinam brick structures. This testimony of Hieun Tsang who visited Kanchi in the Seventh Century A.D. is significant as he refers to many the numerous Shiva temples, apart from Buddhist structures and the still numerically strong Jains (Nigantas) were brick ones. 20 There is a problem to confront the dating of these temples and corroborating the literacy and the epigraphic sources for example, most of the temples sung by the Alvars and Nayanmars do not contain inscriptions of a period of earlier than the middle or later Chola kings. 21 The specific reference to stone temples, Karrali, erected in this period, is also somewhat curious, for it may also indicate the re-erection in stone of earlier brick temples and occasionally, an entirely new temple in stone. 22 The history of temple in the Tamil country begins for all practical purposes with the rise of Pallavas in the seventh century AD. Under the Pallavas, the architecture and sculpture in stone made great advances. It was later on continued by the Pandyas and the Cholas S.I.I., Vol.II, No Walters, T., and Burhell, S.W., Yuan Chwang s Travels in India AD , Vol.II, London, 1904, pp Champakalakshmi, R., op.cit., 2011, pp Epigraphica.Carnatica, Vol.II, 334. pp

11 40 Imperialistic Influence over Temples The royal temples of the early medieval rulers are to be understood as a statement of political power. They have proved to be an institution of enduring importance, as a symbol of authority and political power. The temples, royal projects in the capital cities were designed in such a way as to symbolize power or authority, drawing upon cosmic symbolism, and equating the king or monarch with the deity and the temple as cosmos or territory. The creation of the ruler s image as a protector, controller of his domain and also the royal upholder of dharma was similarly reinforced by the image of the god as the protector and upholder of Dharma. Temple is a monument which stands as the most powerful expression of the political authority of its royal patron. 23 At the apex of the centralized administration and the political control over harnessing and mobilizing the resources for government, was the authoritative position enjoyed by the rulers, the creators of the temples. This was based on Bhakti ideology that was consciously fostered by the rulers, the creators of the temples. This was Bhakti ideology that was consciously fostered by the Cholas to make the temple the focus of the underlying socio-cultural process of an art tradition, which reached its maturity in the highly stylized visual and verbal representation of the dominant image of the god or king. They built up this political imagery and consolidated their power thereby they transcended micro level monarchical systems and integrating the whole of Tamil region into a cohesive politico- 23. Champakalakshmi, R., op.cit., 2011, pp

12 cultural region with a puranic world view and vernacular idiom of Bhakti as ideology. 24 Secular Functions of the Temple The religion of a community is not something unrelated to its secular activities any more than the religious experience of an individual is apart from his general mental development. The temple likewise was a powerful social and economic entity besides being a source of religious inspiration for the people. Inscriptions give us some idea of the diverse secular functions of the Hindu temples were designed to discharge: they were fortresses, land holders, employers, treasuries, court houses, parks, fairs, exhibition sheds, the halls of learning and of amusement, the consumer of goods and services, as banks, schools, museums, hospitals and theatres. Most of the activities centered round the village temple, which had grown by the time of the Cholas to dominate every aspect of social life all over the country. The role of the temple in the secular life of its neighborhood can hardly be exaggerated and the temple and its affairs were among the chief preoccupations of the local assemblies; and the temples had separate group who were in charge of their managements; but these authorities were subject to the double control of the local assemblies who exercises a general supervision and of the officer of the king who audited the accounts. The temple was the center of all the institutions popular culture and amusements. The assemblies often set apart land for the maintenance of 24. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, (From the Stone Age to the 12th Century), Delhi, 2009, pp

13 persons who expounded in the halls of the temples, the national epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the puranas; was called Bharata-p-pangu and was usually made tax free. 25 Music and dancing, and theatrical presentation of popular tales and legends, formed part of the ordinary routine works of the temple and received special attention on festive occasions. And natakasalas were specially constructed for this purpose. 26 The office of Manrattu is very much connected with temple. Manradi, the in charge of the office of Manrattu was made responsible for executing repairs in the temple and was in charge of collecting the income due to the temple. 27 An epigraph from Kaveri region refer to that the temple treasury was lost, which was to be replenished by way of a grant of land as Ponvilai devadanam and both the Devakanmis and the Manradis were involved in the transaction. Further the temple accounts had to be supervised by the Sivabrahmana, appan Virarajendra Chola Chakravarthi; who was conferred with the office of Manrattu of the temple by the king. Thus the office of 42 Manrattu was very much connected with temple administration. The contextual analysis of the epigraphs referring to Manradi from this region and elsewhere indicates that the term manradi was an office connected with temple affairs A.R.E., 63 of 1897: 48 and 50 of A.R.E.,157of 1905, 199 of 1907, of 1914, 398 of 1921,152 of A.R.E., 91 of 1915, 13 of A.R.E., 428 of 1959.

14 43 The Multi role of the Temples During medieval period the Hindu temple attained the zenith of its influence on the social life of the country. 29 It ceased to be a small structure of brick and mortar providing a centre of a simple worship attended by the people. The construction of stone structure has provided employment to the architects, artisans, sculptors and laborers i.e., of much skill and taste in it s planning and decoration. With its rise, there also came up a varied and complex routine in each temple sustained by the rich accumulations in land and gold, the result of pious gifts,, offered with a generosity and administered with a very care. Religious and musical discourses have helped the propagation of religion, music, dance, and other arts which received great encouragement and provided pure and elevating type of entertainment to the devotees. Being a centre of learning, the temple helped in the acquisition and propagation of knowledge. Both scholars and students found shelter there. With its enormous wealth, it also acted as a bank to the needy, giving easy credits. It brought the people into more and more intimate business relations with the neighborhood. The granaries of the temple helped to the hungry, and these unable to earn their livelihood due to disease and deformity. There are several instances of even hospitals and dispensaries being run by the temple. The temple played the role of a court of law for settling disputes. The temple also gave shelter to the people during wars. 29. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., The Colas, Madras, 1955, p.652.

15 The elaborate arrangements made for the management of the affairs of the temple and carefully recorded in the inscriptions on its walls, summed up the best practices of the time in this regard by the rulers and set a model for the future. In short, temple as a nucleus unit which gathered round it all that was best in the arts of civilized existence and regulated them with humaneness born out of the spirit of dharma. The medieval period temple has few parallels in the annals of mankind. Being attracted with the wealth of Kaveri region, the strategic position and the trade routes, Aditya conquered this region. A plate of Sundara Chola state that Aditya built rows of tall stone temple. 30 The Chola Ruler, Karikala wanted cure from his dreadful disease, to tour the Kaveri region and built big and small temples. 31 The system of temple management mentioned in this work ought to be given credit. 32 A host of temple servants was obviously employed and the whole range of them was described as from Nambi to Thiruvalagu meaning the Pujari and the sweeper respectively, the alpha and the omega of temple service. 33 A notable feature of the study region during the ancient and medieval period was that the people belonged to different religious dominations such as Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnavism. They were found living together in the important urban centers of Tiruchirappalli region. The temple Ramamurthy, V., History of Kongunadu, Prehistoric period to 1300 A.D., Part-I, Madras, l986, p Arokiaswamy,M., The Kongu Country, Madras, 1956, pp Subbarayalu,Y., The Chola State, in Studies in History, New Delhi, 2002, pp Cholan Poorva Pattayam, Palm Leaves, Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras, p.104.

16 was a powerful social and economic entity besides being a source of religious inspiration for the people. Inscriptions give some idea of the diverse secular functions of the temples which were designed to discharge. Those spheres of activity in which the temple acted as the monument touched the sphere of the life of the people of this region. The inscriptions found in the temple present varied information. The progress of epigraphical research since then has enabled us to get a large number of inscriptions which are as varied in their contents as they are copious in their details. In this group one may note all those record facts of a quasi political, judicial, religious and economic character. The numerous records which register the date of construction of tanks, planting grooves, repair the tanks, wells and sluices, erection of resting places are useful and enable to get an idea of the methods of charity and relief in the country. The records of visits of kings to the temples are valuables because visits of kings to temples are availed of by the local gentry to apply for grants or leases the terms of cultivation are specified. 45 Tiruchirappalli epigraphic records which register the dates of construction of various parts of the temple, planting grooves, repair of the tanks, wells and shrines sales and exchange of lands, donations and endowment agreements among the villagers about the construction of a dam for irrigation (Twelfth Century A.D) agreement among the land holders, trade guilds to make gifts. The above inscriptions helped the historian to have a

17 visual of the ancient and medieval period. They provide valuable information about the customs and manners existed in those days. 34 An interesting record at Tiruchirappalli refers to an auction done during those days. This temple priest had a due i.e., not paying the donated amounts to the treasury. Unable to repay the amount, he sold his rights to a high price. The inscriptions which record sales and exchange of land, the bulk of the former class register donations and endowments made to gods, to priests on behalf of temples and charitable institutions and to religious communities. Some records gave information about the agreements among merchants communities and trade guilds to make gifts or to regulate common affairs, agreement among the land holders of neighboring areas regarding the holding and redistribution of land or irrigation or among caste men for the regulation of social customs or privileges or the settlement of disputes. Such corporate feelings were fairly well developed in the social and religious life of the medieval period. To build a temple or endow a math, to attach a school or a hospital to either, to reclaim land and to promote irrigation such were the most common roads to social eminence and public recognition. Temples constituted a sort of reserve bank with branches in every village which observed and retained the surplus wealth of the absorbed and retained the surplus wealth of the community in normal times, and released it for use in seasons of financial stringency, and was even ready to help the community to turn a sharp corner. A 34. Ganesan, M., Kongunadu Kalvettu, (Tamil), Mahakavi Bharathiar Noolagam, Coimbatore, 2003, pp , Kongu Country Inscription Nos

18 destructive flood or prolonged drought might have wrought for more permanent damage to the economic of a locality if it were not for the assistance its people derived from the resources of the temple accumulated by the piety and industry of generations of their ancestors. Learning There were recitations of sacred hymns in Tamil and Sanskrit in the course of daily worship in the temples and the assemblies sometimes gave shares from the common lands of the village for the maintenance of these services. Schools of higher learning and so were hospitals. Endowments of lands as Bharatappuram, for reciting Mahabharata, Tiruppaliyappuram, for reciting Thevaram and Nattuvapuram for the dance master attached to the temple are also known from epigraph. 35 Every temple mandapa and the foliage of some tall spreading tree found comfortable enough to hold disquisitions. The recitation of the Vedas, the epics, Tiruppathikam and Thiruvasakam were regularly carried on during the period and numerous endowments private and royal were made for their maintenance. The same thing was arranged into the dancers and dance masters by the temples are also known from epigraphs. One damaged epigraph at Tiruchirappalli, which provided. Bhattavritti for expounding of the Vedas and for the reading of the Mahabharata. 36 The history of Kaveri bears great and important connection with this region from historical times. Many Tamil authors and commentators belonged A.R.E., 163 of 1909, 192 of 1920; S.I.I., Vol V, No A.R.E., 176 of 1919, 159 of 1925, 202 of 1912; S.I.I.,Vol. V,No. 233.

19 to this region. It proves the high literary level attained in Kaveri region during the period. Kaveri region had produced great men of learning of that period, which is itself a proof positive of the high state of learning that had obtained here at that time. 37 There was a Tamizh Sangam existed in Tiruchirappalli during ancient period and also a school prevailed. Though we have no direct evidences on the spread of literacy as such, the frequent mention of schools, teachers and scholars maintained by the endowments. The Jain palli denotes even today for the mention of the schools. Among the four dhanas mentioned by the Jains, Sastra dhana is one, which means to educate the people freely. 38 Temple as an Employer The position of temple as an employer providing work and the means of livelihood for a number of people is the most striking thing in this connection. The epigraphs inform us that many servants had to perform various duties in the temple and were paid by grants of land. The list includes Siva Brahmanas, the drummers, the dancing girls, singers, stage managers, gardeners, potters, washer men and accountants (Manradi). Professors were appointed to teach the Vedas and the men put in charge of conducting the hostel and hospital in the same place. Appointments to temple offices were generally hereditary. Temple also employed laborers for temporary works such as executing repairs in the shrine and the wages paid took the form of gifts of land and a Arokiaswami, M., op.cit., pp Ganesan, M., Pazhankaraiyin Pandaiya Varalaru (Tamil), Pazhankarai, 2008, pp 34-35

20 house site. Two carpenters (Thachcharya) served as recipients of land under this tenure, with the stipulation that they had to attend to the ten kinds of repairs (Dasakiriyai) in the temple. Sirpasiriyan Maniyan Kayilayan (Sculptor) alias Viracholan Achcharyan was assigned land by the king for having built the temple of Viracholeeshwaram Udaiyar and for some other services in the Temple at Uraiyur. 39 Ten kinds of temple repairs performed by two artisans, who were given the kanikkai or gift of an endowment called Tachariyakkani which meant apparently a tax-free land. The Uraiyur appraises of the appointment of a priest for two temples in that region with privilege to conduct worship, to settle people in its premises, collect dues, etc. on the payment of some fees. The wages received by the employees are often reckoned in terms of land. Acharya bogam, Uvachakkani, Sirpasiriyakkani, Tachariyakkani and Manrattukkani were assigned to the services of priest (Achcharya), drummer (Uvachan), sculptor (Sirpasiriyan), carpenter (Tachcharya), administrative officer (Manradi) respectively. 40 Temple as Landlord The ownership of the land assumes a greater significance in an enquiry about the agrarian system in Kaveri region, since it had an internal frontier till very late period which can be reclaimed for cultivation, thereby creating new land ownership A.R.E., 403 of 1908,138,188 of A.R.E., 137,144,188 of 1909 and 203 of 1920.

21 The primitive slash burn cultivation had made individual plots. The land 50 was held commonly by the tribal village authorities. The process of de-tribalisation started with the advent of Cholas could have resulted in the dismemberment of collective land holdings, resulting in the emergence of single family owner farms. 41 According to Manu, the Indian Law giver, the king or the state was the owner of all lands in the e country. The truth is that the rights of the king are only theoretical, and he is no more the actual proprietor of the soil than he is of his subjects. Two inscriptions from Tiruchirappalli region mentioned the sale of land by private person in accordance and acceptance by the Mandru or Sabha of the village. It could be noted that the common ownership was the most ancient form of ownership and private ownership emerged as a result of accumulation of wealth and grants, which was very much visible during the medieval period of the study region. As for the right of the king, it was only theoretical, confined to the claim of a share of the revenue. The medieval epigraphs were concerned with the land grants of a religious nature the recipients being temples, mathas, salais, etc., though the most common category of land grant to temple was known as the devadana, specific nomenclature were used to the grant of a land to a particular sect or religion such as Tirunamattukkani or Saivite shrines, Tiruvidiyattam for Vaishnavite shrines and Pallichandam for Buddhist and Jain shrines. Further, 41. Manickam, V., Kongu Nadu (A History upto A.D.1400), Chennai, 2001, p 383.

22 when a whole village was granted as devadana, the settlement invariably received the place name suffix Nallur. 42 Besides the devadana grants, Nimatappuram endowment of land were also made to defray expenses connected with a particular rituals or requirement in the temple. From Uraiyur,a record that a grant of land called Nimantappuram was made for the supply of senkalunirtthamarai, water supply in the temple of the place also referred to an epigraph as Senkalunirppuram. There is an interesting reference to the grant of land as Ponvilai Devadanam in a Uraiyur record, which was ear marked for providing the deity with jewellery, and it is specially stated in the record that the temple authority were to replenish the treasury of the temple, which is said to have been lost, by utilizing the land. A record refers to the assignment of land, sowable with three kalams of Paddy seed, by the king to the Senapathi, named Ganaradittan Ganapati alias Rajaraja-pangala Nadudaiyan. Epigraphs make a reference to the grant of land for specified services in the temple as follows: Amuthu padippuram, endowment of land for the ritual of food offering; Manttiraponakam for food offering; Tiruchennelpuram for ritual offering of red rice (Chamba) Unnalikkappuram for the upkeep of the sanctum sanctorum; Tirumelukkuppuram for dousing the floor with cow dung; Putukkupuram for renovating the temple ; Vilakkupuram for the upkeep of the Ibid., p. 384.

23 lamp; Amavasipuram for the rituals on new moon day ;Tiruvottachamappuram for the midnight rituals; Tiruvanandapuram to be used as the flower garden. 43. Temple acted as the landlord having many tenants under it. The most striking feature in this history of this temple donation is the spontaneity with which the king, prince, queen and princess, government employees, traders and even most ordinary of the king s subjects came forward to help the cause of the temple. 44 The gifts, purchases and by confiscating lands for misappropriation of temple property and in a few cases by bequest of property by pious people or by accepting land in lieu of taxes due to the temple. The temple had generally had large areas of land in its possession often marked out by the Tirucchulam or the Tiruvali. Some temples had large income or other less, the richer temples in few cases being prepared to help their poorer neighbour with their surplus income. 45 How far the temple as a land owner differed from other private land owners, we have no means of ascertaining, that the temple had a special character of its own was maintained by the fact that leases were entered in the name of Chandeeshwara, the first servant of God, thus reminding the tenants that they held of God and not of human agency. Temple as Consumer The temple was also a consumer. Coconut, sandal, rice, turmeric, incense, leaves, flowers lights, ghee, oil, pulses, sugar, plantain, curd, salt, 43. S.I.I., Vol.V, No.40; S.I.I.,Vol.V, No.241; A.R.E. 428 of Arokiaswami, M., op.cit., pp A.R.E., 203 of 1912, 431 of 1919 and 330 of 1921,113 of 1911 and 537 of

24 53 pepper, areca nut, and betel nut were being generally used. 46 Panneer (rose water), camphor, kasturi, kumkum were in demand cverywhere. Women were placed as restraints in their social life and activities, though modesty was considered the highest among their graces. The inscriptions gave many examples of women of the upper classes owning property in their own right and disposing of it as they chose. Names of the individuals very often gave little indication of their social status. Chilambamoovi, queen of Virarajendran donated paddy and rice to a temple in Tiruchirappalli. Araiyan valli, maid of queen Vanavan mukkoor kilanadi, wife of Virarajenran, donated gold coins for the lighting of lamps in the temple of Uraiyur. Queen Mallikesi donated gold coins in lighting ae temple near Tiruchirappalli. Devadasi, Umaiyalarmai, Iravukanni donated gold coins for the sandhya deepam light) in the temple of Virappur. Gowri, wife of Malan (merchant) also did the same at Karkudi Thirumalai temple. Relations between Villagers and the Temple Of the village assemblies proper, one can notice two types distinguished by the names Ur and Sabha. A third kind of local assembly was the Nagaram confined to the mercantile towns. The Ur was the simplest type of assembly of the residents of the localities concerned and regulated all their common concerns. The Sabha is variably an assembly associated with the Brahmin village, Chaturvedimangalam. 46. Appadorai, A., Economic Conditions in Southern India ( A.D.), Vol.I, Madras, 1982, pp Sridhar,T.S., Coimbatore Mavatta Kalvettukkal, Vol.I, Madras, 2006, p

25 That the villages were little republics which had a large measure of autonomy in the management of their own affairs is seen from the powers of taxation for local purposes. It reveals that the existing rights were protected when new arrangements were introduced the priority of rights of the cultivators to use water from an existing dam was recognized while constructing another dam nearby. It also reveals the rulers of Tiruchirappalli region gave autonomy to villages and village Panchayat to run the administration. But when there is a need the ruler would interfere and proves his integrity. Sthanikas of the temple were the counterpart of the village head men, who carried on their work with the help of committee of advisors called the temple committee. A host of temple servants was obviously employed for the temple service. 48 Though the particular man was appointed to see to its day to day administration, the general control was always in the hands of the whole of the village and particularly its assembly or Sabha which came into the picture in all important matters. The merchant class was always willing to help the temples carry on their work, festivals and repair by contributing generously towards their expenses. A subject of repair and maintenance of temples received the attention of our ancestors more than it receives from the common people. 54 The bigger villages had several temples each in their precincts. In other ways also the temple kept in touch with the villagers. The temple tenants were 48. Cholan Poorva Pattayam, op.cit., p.104.

26 exempted from certain customary taxes, they being in reality expected to give them instead to the temple. 55 Uraiyur grant appraises the appointment of a priest for two temples in that region with privileges to conduct worship, to settle people in its premises, collect dues etc., on the payment of thirty gold coins by him. 49 Inscription from Tiruchirappalli contain records of privileges accorded to Kammal an Ironsmith and to other artisans. These privileges were granted by Chakravarti Konerinmai Kondan. The privileges were, the blowing of two conches, the beating of drums and so on at domestic occurrences good or bad; the use of sandals when they went out of their homes; and plastering of the walls of their residences with lime plaster. The construction of houses with two storeys and with double doors is also mentioned together with the right to decorate the front of their houses with garlands of water lilies. A contribution from the farmer for a lamp was being daily collected evidently meant for offerings. The temple was authorized to collect a certain amount from cities, villages and military stations to provide fund for repairs. The amount that the individual had to pay was determined by his caste or occupation. 50 No public activity of man is so much recorded in the inscription of the day at his activities in relation to God and the temple. A record from pazhankarai mentioned the donations for food to the God by the villagers. 49. S.I.I., Vol. II, No. 5. Section 15; A.R.E. 309 of Ganesan, M., op.cit., Inscription No. 242.

27 The temple management, day to day administration and its general control was always in the hands of the whole of the village and particularly its assembly or Sabha which came into the picture in all important matters. The study of the temple in its economic aspects may be noted that the temple served as an agency in breaking the isolation and promoting self sufficiency of the villages. The temple by its ownership of land in different localities made its necessary for its economic relations to be maintained with the village. The employees who served it were drawn from different localities which paved the way to maintain contact between different villages. The Wealth of the Temple The temple had surpluses from its annual income. Occasionally such surpluses were utilised in celebrating festivals etc or in helping the poor people. Kings, chiefs, merchants and land owners vied with one another in presenting rich offerings to their favorite places of worship. The gifts of the temple were of numerous kinds. In several ways, the temples centers of hoarded wealth. The temple was a growing institution of uncommon influence of great wealth and power. Besides being a center of religious worship, it also functioned as a center for the learning of cultural enjoyment and of economic and political transactions. 51 The village assembly often met in the local temple and transacted its business. It possesses a large acreage of the devadana lands, which were given for cultivation to the riots under agreed contracts. Its vast premises housed A.R.E., 163 of 1910.

28 many families of working people like weavers and oil pressers. They served the temple in their own turn, which the king recognised and rewarded them with the remission of certain taxes. Often the temple authorities collected taxes on behalf of the king and paid him in a lump amount. 52 Indirectly the gifts of land to temples being considered meritorious, pious people thought it worthy to reclaim land in order to gift it to the temple. Gifts of money to the temples are numerous in the records of this region. They were made for various objects like the maintenance of services in temples, festivals monthly annual or occasional, the feeding of Brahmans and improvement of tanks. Gifts in kind took the form of animals like sheep or oxen, produce of the fields, vessels and ornaments useful for the gods. The growth of urbanization and the expansion of commerce were interlinked possesses which unfolded with the over-arching frame work of the temple and evolved into an integrative central institution in medieval Tamil Nadu. Donations to the temples were made by several classes of donors - royalty, landed elite, military officials, merchants as well as corporate bodies. It was the income from the donation or deposit which would be used to pay for the service for which the endowment was made. Most of the services for which endowments made were lamps, the ritual bath, turmeric paste, flower garden or supplying flowers and so on. There are references to the endowment of land belonging to the village, which formed the part of the common land of the Sabha in this village. All Appadorai, A., op.cit., p.292.

29 sorts of income were remitted to this temple. Another inscription mentioned Konerinmai kondan Virarajendra Chola about the donation of a village to the Panchavaraveswarar temple of Uraiyur as devadana. 53 Thus temple played an important role in various transactions of the society and it had great influence among the people of the region. The temples of today have grown from the humble beginning. Its evolution was in gradual 58 way. The Bakthi movement of medieval Tamil Nadu promoted the temple worship. The Brahminical influence in temple practices was kept in tact through the ages in Tamil Nadu. Being cultured and religious, the Rulers of Tamil Nadu built many temples in various parts of Tamil Nadu. The temples served as a venue for the public activities and professionals to display their talents. Temples reflects a well developed civilization. It has played a multirole in the past and present. 53. Sitaram Gurumurthy, Coimbatore Mavatta Kalvettukal, Vol.II, Inscriptions. No. 957/2003, p.91.