Component-I (A) Personal details:

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1 Component-I (A) Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. Prof. V. Venkata Ramana Reddy Director, O.R.I., S. V.University, Tirupati. Prof. V. Venkata Ramana Reddy Director, O.R.I., S. V.University, Tirupati. Prof. V. Kannan University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.

2 Component-I (B) Description of module: Subject Name Paper Name Module Name/Title Indian Culture Vedic, Epic and Puranic culture of India Vedic Culture, Society & Rituals Module Id IC / VEPC / 05 Pre requisites Vedic Culture and Social institutions in early Indian Society Objectives To know about Vedic society, divisions, professions and ritual practices of the Vedic Ages Keywords Vedic society / Vedic Culture E-text (Quadrant-I): 1. Introduction to Vedic Age According to some scholars, the culture that existed between 1500 BC and 600 BC in Northern India is known as Vedic Culture. This is yet to be come into consensus as the dating varies from 1L BP to 5000BP. It is called Vedic Culture because the Vedic literature are the chief source of information. Vedic Culture was broadly classified into two stages, Rigvedic Period and Later Vedic Period. In the initial stage the settlements were limited to a geographical extent and subsequently in the latter stage the people have migrated to different region of the Indian sub-continent. Substantial and scientific evidence like the dimensions of skeletal remains found in the Indus Valley sites, pottery, Some set of scholars believe that Vedic poeples came to India a little earlier than 1500 BC, They came in waves, a group after group. They were resisted by the dark skinned local people called Dasyus by the Vedic poeples in the Vedic literature. However, the local people were overpowered by the Vedic poeples due to better weapons and chariots driven by horses. Vedic people lived in thatched houses in rural areas and depended extensively on cow and horse. People were divided into four varnas : Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. They believed that gods would be pleased with religious sacrifices (yagnas) conducted by priests. They personified force of nature and worshipped them as Vayu (air), Maruts (storm), Indra (rain), Varuna (water), Surya (sun), Agni (fire), Prithvi (earth), Aranyani (forest) etc. "The multiplicity of the manifestations of the Indian genius as well as their fundamental unity gives India the right to figure on the first rank in the history of civilized nations. Her civilization, spontaneous and original, unrolls itself in a continuous time across at least thirty centuries, without interruption, without deviation." -Sylvain Levi (French Orientalist) 2. Geographical Extent of Vedic Civilization Rigvedic Period: Early Vedic settlements were in the Saptha Sindhu region corresponding to the region occupied by modern East Afghanistan, Punjab and fringes of Western UP. Possibly, they did not know the land beyond Yamuna. Himalayas were mentioned but no mention of the Vindhyas. Ganges was mentioned only once in a later hymn of Rig Veda.

3 Later Vedic Period: The Vedic people occupied first Ganga - Yamuna doab (the land between two rivers) and later spread themselves in the entire Gangetic plain and also penetrated into Deccan. Vindhyas and the two seas on the east and west were mentioned. In the great teaching of the Vedas, there is no touch of sectarianism. It is of all ages, climes and nationalities and is the royal road for the attainment of the Great Knowledge. Henry David Thoreau ( ) American Philosopher, Unitarian, social critic 3. People of Vedic Civilization Rigvedic Period: Tribes were led by tribal chiefs known as Rajan. The type of rule was that of tribal monarchy. Monarchy was based on hereditary succession though election was also known. The king was kept in check by tribal assemblies like Sabha (probably council of elders), Sam it hi (probably general assembly), Vidatha (whose exact function was not known). The important officials were the Purohitha (priest), Senapathi (commander), etc. Wars known as Gavasthi were fought for cows not for territory. Janapadha (kingdom in a definite area) was not even mentioned once. However, Jana (tribe) was mentioned quite often in Rigveda. Rajan (king) had no standing army. King had no direct rights of tax collection but received bali (voluntary gifts) and war spoils. Later Vedic Period: Position of king became important. Gradually the concept of divinity began to be attached to the king. The king performed various ceremonies like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha to assert his superiority. The powers of tribal assemblies faded as they could no longer check the king. They were dominated by nobility. The strength of the staff of the king increased. Important officials were Purohita, Senapathi, Yuvaraj, Samgrahitri (treasurer), Bhagadugha (tax collector). The king had no standing army. Whenever there was war tribal militia were gathered. The concept of territorial administration emerged as Janapadha 4. Social Life in Vedic Period Before the arrival of the Vedic age, an urban culture had thrived in the Indus river valley. It was already in decline, partially due to desertification, According to some scholars it was conquered by the cattle-herding Vedic poeples, who brought with them horses, chariots, and iron weapons. In addition they also brought a patriarchal society based around the sacrificial worship of the sky god. Over the course of the Vedic period, a transition was made from a cow-based herding economy to an agrarian one. Still, in early Vedic India, cows were the basis of the entire economy. A man's wealth was measured in the number of cows he owned and the word for war was gavisti, 'searching for cows.' ("India") The agrarian economy was based more on the growth of wheat (rice in more southern areas) an activity that was dependent upon the monsoons and the rivers that crisscross the Indian subcontinent. The importance of both cows and rivers has survived even in modern Hinduism the ancestors of modern Indian culture. The society was advanced as can be seen from the list of professions listed in Vedas Carpenter Potter Blacksmith Goldsmith Gem-specialist Hunter Star-gazer/Astronomer Charioteer/Driver

4 Dancer Singer Musician Fisherman Merchant Surgeon Elephant-rearer Shepherd Weapon-manufacturer Conch-blower Gardener Watchman Calculation Expert The social structure of Vedic India had a number of important features. The government early on was largely by the rule of chieftains, but as time went on these chiefs became kings, and their territories, kingdoms. The word for chieftain was raja, and though the Vedas tell us little of the political situation, it can be inferred that the early government was a clan based system, which eventually became a true government, with taxes and a bureaucracy. These small kingdoms were widely separated and had little contact with one another, although they shared many cultural principles. Likewise, there was little contact with the world beyond India. Later such contact would blossom as would contact within India, eventually resulting in the great Indian empires. There was an intimate connection between the priests and the chieftains. The priests performed the ceremonies that confirmed the rule of the raja, and granted the ruler status and closeness to the gods. The raja supported the priests and gave them wealth, influence and the stability necessary to support an elaborate religious hierarchy. Varities of grains cultivated as mentioned in the Vedas Vreehi & tandula = paddy&rice Maasha = blackgram Tila = sesame oilseed. Mudga = greengram Godhooma = Wheat. Yava = barley Some more are. Khalva Masura Priyangu Anu Shyamaka Neevaara

5 5. Family, Household and Lifestyle Kinship was considered to be the crux of the social organization, where the reputation of a man was directly related to the clan he belonged to. The Vedic family, or kula, was the rudimentary unit of society, firmly patriarchal and patrilineal, within which there was dominance of the grihapati, the head of the household. Although the women of society did enjoy a rather respectful status, they were still treated as subordinates by their husbands. (Singh ) The constitution of the family not only included parents, children and slaves, but also included other related people. Linguistics suggest that there was only one word for nephew, grandson, cousin, etc. and hence, it can be said that the family was one large joint unit due to the absence of basic differentiation. The Vedic people had a fondness for music and dance where flute, lute and the harp were played along with forms of percussion to create music. Reference has also been made to possibly professional dancing girls. Another recreational activity for the Vedic people was gambling, as indicated by poems in the Rig Veda called Gamester s Lament. Other than gambling, the Vedic People had a particular liking towards chariot-racing and intoxicating drinks like soma and sura. 6. Caste System in Vedic Period The priests and rulers were members of distinct classes. Along with two others, this comprised the basis of the caste system, another part of Vedic India that has survived to modern day. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna, meaning 'color,' and the division of the castes may have had something to do with keeping the Vedic poeple people separate from the conquered natives. This theory is supported by the fact that the names of the upper three castes are of Indo-Vedic origin, while the name of the fourth caste is of non-vedoc origin. Whatever the reasons for the caste system may be, the system pervaded the society of Vedic India. There were four major castes: the Brahmins, or priestly caste; the Ksatriyas, or warrior/noble caste; the Vaishyas, the farmer and tradesman caste, and the Shudras, a caste containing servants and menial workers. It was believed that these castes arose from the dismembered body of the god Purusa. 7. Religion in Vedic society The religion of Vedic India was sacrifice based, taking as its example the primordial sacrifice of the god Purusa. Because of the importance of sacrifice, the gods Soma and Agni were among the most important in the Vedic pantheon. Agni was the god of the sacrificial fire, and Soma the god of the sacred drink and the moon. 'I invoke Agni, in his role of official of this cult, god of sacrifice, officiant, oblator who confers treasures beyond measure. Agni is worthy to be invoked by the ancient prophets, just as by the present ones; may he escort the gods here.' (Comte p. 26) Thus it is written in the Rg Veda, the most important of the four Vedas. Most offerings were burnt, and so Agni attained utmost importance, for without him, the all important sacrifices could not be performed. He was the agent of communication between heaven and earth and the 'mouth of the gods', who consumed their share of the offering through him. He was the god of all fire as well, including the fire of life and inspiration. 8. Vedic Gods and Religion Given the limited technology and knowledge, the Vedic poeple peoples failed to comprehend certain aspects of nature such as rain, mountains, rivers, seas and celestial bodies like the sun and moon. Their fascination with these natural phenomena led them to gather that the nature was not unplanned nor unregulated and wasn t disorder, but cosmos. This cosmos was divided into three segments sky (dyu), earth (prithvi) and the middle realm (antariksha). To explain this, the Vedic poeples regarded the aspects of nature as divine powers and personified them with human characteristics. This led to the belief in various divinities, deities and gods whom they worshipped. Nymphs called apsaras, celestial beings

6 called gandharvas and evil forces called rakshasas and among the other god-like beings that are mentioned in the Rig Veda. The yajmana was the patron of sacrifices he funded them and hosted them, while they were conducted by brahmanas. Offerings like ghee, milk, grain and occasionally, meat were put into the fire along with the chanting of sacred hymns, in order to bring health, wealth, sons and longevity to the yajmana. With 250 hymns dedicated to him, Indra, also referred to as Purandara is the god of most importance. He is the god of rain and is credited for the rainfall. Attributed to Indra, was the role of a mighty commander that steered the Vedic poeples to the path of victory to defeat the demons, aided by his weapon the thunderbolt. He fights alongside the Maruts, who are considered to be his companions that personify the storm to compliment the rain. Second to Indra, is Agni the god of fire. Agni s omnipresence is represented by the fire that burns forests, enemies and the cremation pyre; the heat of tapas (austerity) and sexual desire. However, the most important form of Agni s fire is that of the sacrificial altar. The offerings that are cast into the sacrificial fire are transmitted into the sky, to the gods, in the form of smoke. One god, unlike others, is offered balls of food thrown on the ground during sacrifices. The one that instills fear and mass destruction, Rudra is a god seldom mentioned in the Rig Veda, but shares traits very similar to those of lord Shiva. Throughout the Rig Veda, there are numerous references to several other gods and deities like Varuna, Mitra and Surya, among others. However, there is reference to a number of female divinities such as Aditi the goddess of freedom and Ushas the goddess of dawn, who symbolizes prevalence of light over darkness. Other female deities include Raka, Sinivali, Prithvi, Vach, Ida and Saraswati. Although these goddesses are given importance and respect, due to the patriarchal society of the early Vedic age, the male gods were held at a much higher stature than the female. Soma was a moon god, the bringer of the cool of night and measurer of the rhythm of time. Soma, however, was also a drink, distilled from a plant of heavenly origin, possibly a mushroom. It was a beverage of the gods that brought immortality. The soma sacrifice was among the most important, for the consumption of soma was believed to bring one closer to the gods and the universe. Just as Agni, as the sacrificial fire, was an emissary between gods and men, so was Soma, for his drink brought intimate communion with the divine. There were many other important gods in the Vedic pantheon. One of them was Varuna, an ocean god who bares strong resemblance to Poseidon. Originally, he was not the god of the sea but rather the god of the night sky, and all the stars were his eyes. It was said that when two people spoke, Varuna was the third party present. He was one of the two sovereign gods (the other being Mitra) and he was the master of magic and the binding force that held the world together. Varuna was the cosmic judge and the overseer of rta, the rhythm that pervaded the universe. The yajmana was the patron of sacrifices he funded them and hosted them, while they were conducted by brahmanas. Offerings like ghee, milk, grain and occasionally, meat were put into the fire along with the chanting of sacred hymns, in order to bring health, wealth, sons and longevity to the yajmana. 9. Tribes, Polity and Social Structure The term vis has been used repeatedly in the Rig Veda in reference of tribes, which were divided into gramas, that are essentially smaller groups. Family, or kula was the elementary unit of society, a group of which formed a grama. The several words used to denote a household unit, like griha, gaya, kshiti, etc. signify that there might have been a variety of households. The tribes had a leader termed as rajan (literally, king ), who didn t possess any absolute power. The rajan was merely a chieftain whose primary purpose was to protect the tribe, the

7 cattle (that earned him the title of gopati) as well as win victories in war. While in war, a priest, or purohita, the tribal medicine-man joined the rajan whilst reciting prayers and performing rituals to boost chances at victory. The rajans were not associated with divinity or religion, except to conduct and order sacrifices for the general benefit of his tribe. Although judiciary functions are expected from a king, there is no particular mention of them in the Rig Veda although it is assumed that there would have been some sort of punishment for crimes committed. Some clans didn t even have a rajan, but instead, a tribal council. The sabha and samiti were two assemblies that tended to have influence on both, the selection of their rajan, as well as his activities post his accession. The sabha was a smaller assembly, consisting of mostly the noble and the elite, while the samiti was rather large, comprising of heads of the general tribal families and clans. A vidhata, on the other hand, was another assembly, where the booty from raids and conquests was distributed amongst the tribe. Although there was no particular system of taxation, the term bali was used to address obligatory gifts and offerings to the gods, which were directed to the rajan. 10. Economy of the Early Vedic Age The importance of cattle during the Vedic age was underscored by pastoralism being of utmost significance. Agriculture was also practiced, but was more closely associated with the non-vedic poeples. However, an argument by R.N. Nandi refers to a variety of implements such as the khanitra, srini, kulisha, meaning hoe, sickle and axe, respectively. More references to notions of fertility and leveling of fields for cultivation as well as cereals such as dhanya and yava suggest a certain amount of importance given to agriculture. The Vedic poeples didn t have a developed system of economy and depended on the barter system as a means of economic transaction, which brought to the fore, the importance of the cow. Cattle were considered a symbol of wealth due to their productive nature. Many a war was fought over cows and cattle and the innumerable references to cows and bulls in the Rig Veda only suggest the predominance of pastoralism. As a symbol of wealth, even land did not qualify, as private land ownership was not yet established. Even the gifts received by priests and rajans were usually cows or dasis (women slaves). Vedic poeple carpenters, chariot-makers, weavers, tanners and potters were spoken highly of in the Rig Veda and formed an important aspect of the society s economy. Items such as houses, horses, food, jewels, chariots, children, fertile fields and fame were also valued, as they were included in prayers and sacrifices. Slavery was a common occurrence during the Vedic age and slaves were treated as property, where they did not possess rights, power, autonomy or honour and were relegated to a very demeaning level. Dasa and dasi were used to address slaves, but it has been made clear that they didn t engage in production-related activities and were solely occupied with working in the household. Female slaves were often used for sexual purposes as well, while they were given as gifts. 11 Economy of the Early Vedic Age Rig Veda were composed between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, while other sources claim other dates. There are several different theories about who the Indo-Vedic poeples were and where they originated from. Over the centuries that have passed, all these questions have remained unanswered, with only hints that lead scholars to more theories. The Rig Veda was centric around gods and religion and is considered to be of utmost importance with the purpose for its composition being to recite hymns and prayers to the gods. The Rig Veda raises questions about the idea and meaning of varna and its connotations in the context of the Vedas as well as the Dasas and Dasyus, the dark-skinned races looked down upon by Vedic poeples. Descriptions of family and societal structures; polity and politics and aspects of occupations, economy and livelihood provide historians with the means to lay down a foundation for what is said about the Vedic age today.

8 Goals in life Goals of life in Vedic Society can be listed as Prosperity भ त क म Progeny प रज क म Cattle-wealth पश क म Food अन नक म Kingdom ग र मक म Health ज य क ज व म Divine glow ब रह मवर चस Longevity आय ष क म Splendour र क क म Rains व ष ष क म Nourishment प ष ष क म Victory जय म Eyesight र क ष ष क म Vedic Eligibility स म पपप स प नन Cleanliness अपप प म न Sinlessness पवघ नव ण free of obstacles धन Money ह णण य Gold यशस क म Fame सम न न leadership म न Greatness इष न य व Potency प रत ष ठ Stability अन न द Ability to enjoy सल क Paragati क मर ण Travel-capacity द ढ Strength

9 Review Rig Veda mantras were in vogue between 7500 BCE and 1000 BCE, while different sources claim different dates. The Rig Veda was centric around gods and religion and is considered to be of utmost importance with the purpose for its composition being to recite hymns and prayers to the gods. The Rig Veda raises questions about the idea and meaning of varna and its connotations in the context of the Vedas as well as the Dasas and Dasyus, the dark-skinned races looked down upon by Vedic People Descriptions of family and societal structures; polity and politics and aspects of occupations, economy and livelihood provide historians with the means to lay down a foundation for what is said about the Vedic age today.