"How did the ideals of State Buddhism inspire the creation of Art?" Win Myat Aung

Transcription

1 1 "How did the ideals of State Buddhism inspire the creation of Art?" Win Myat Aung Programme Officer, SEAMEO CHAT

2 2 Introduction "Religion prospers when the King prefers", is used to say in Burmese history. Indeed, it is the duty of king to support and promote the religion. This tradition is based on the concept of Dhamarmaraja. Many ancient kings regarded themselves as Dhamarmaraja and try to legitimize their rules and King Asoka (ca BC) of India during the Mauryan dynasty is most famous one. Kings of Myanmar is no exception. In this essay, the main focus is the development of Theravada Buddhism and its impact on the building of religious monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar (ca AD) and King Kyansitthar (ca AD). This period is regarded as the Golden Age of Pagan and with the ardent support of kings, many religious monuments appeared. Artists and architects of this period could display their best or ideal art in building of those religious monuments. In other words, it is the sponsorship of state that paves the way for the development of ideal art in the country. This amount of construction never happens in history of Burma during such a period of time. This essay is divided into three sections, (1) Development of Theravada Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan, (2) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar and finally (3) Selected Religious Monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar. (A) Development of Thaeravada Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan According to the Burmese Chronicles, Pagan was found in 1 st century AD. The Glass Palace Chronicle records that Pagan region was settled as early as 107 AD. It was comprised of 19 adjacent Pyu villages. The most famous early ruler was Pyusawhti who was son of a sun spirit and a snake princess. However, there is no reliable historical and archaeological finding to prove it. The first recorded ruler at Pagan is Anawrahta. He established Pagan based on agro-based economic policy on controlling the rice producing regions in Kyaukse, 150 kilometres northeast of Pagan and Minbu, 110 kilometres south of Pagan. (Stadtner, 2005, p. 23) Moreover, after the conquest of Thaton, he could also open up maritime trade with other areas in the region especially with India and Sri Lanka. Those relations have great impact on the

3 3 development of religious art in Pagan. Pagan, during the reign of King Anwrathar, rapidly developed and prospered. Religions in pre-anawrathar Pagan was complex. We can trace the practices of both Mahayana and Brahmanism there. As John Guy pointed out that there were traces of Mahayana practices in making the images of Bodhisattva in clay votive tablets in Pagan. It is because of the important theological development of worshiping the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshara and in locally it was known as Lokanatha. (Guy 2002, p. 27) Moreover, there is substantial epigraphical and physical evidence of strong Mahayana and Brahmanical practices prior to King Anawrathar's reign, but most of them are over looked by scholars ( Galloway 2002, p. 45). Even Thaeravada Buddhism was introduced; such beliefs and practices still existed. In King Kyansithar's palace inscription, not only Buddhist rites, but also Hindu rituals were performed at the ceremony of laying foundation stone for the new palace. In fact, Pagan is a place of transition where the practice of Mahayana, Thaeravada and Brahmanism met. However, with the conquest of Thaton in 1057 AD, a new spiritual value was introduced and its transformed Pagan to more Thaeravada Buddhism based society. This new era started during the reign of Anawrathar, however, gained momentum during the reign of King Kyansitthar. ( Bautze-Picron 2003, p. 3) So that we can assume that although Buddhism occurs in Burma early in the first millennium, the first appearance of the distinct Burmese style and the oldest Buddhist structural remains coincide with the Pagan period. In Robert E. Fisher's words, the assumption of the throne by King Anawrathar began the unbroken dominance of Buddhism and although Mahayana and Tantric practices did continue, the ultimate triumph belonged to the Theravada. Ananda temple which was built during the reign of King Kyansitthar could be viewed as the first indication of the shift to the Theravada, although influence from the adjacent Pala kingdom ensured continued Mahayana activity. (Fisher 2005, p. 183) Another important reason of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar's effort to promote religion was based on the traditional concept of the king as Champion of Buddhism which based on Indian models that originate with the first Buddhist emperor, and unifier of India, King Asoka. Like King Asoka, they viewed themselves as

4 4 Cakkavatti or Universal Monarch. Another concept was they regard themselves as Dhamarmaraja, a king who power is based on the accumulation of merit of past existence. Finally, there was a concept of Sangaraja, a monk king who is the embodiment of total scare and temporal power. (Strachan 1989, p. 11) It is also related with the concept of esoteric Buddhism. According to Davidson, "the central and defining metaphor for mature esoteric Buddhism is that of an individual assuming kingship and exercising dominion. Thus the understanding of such terms as tantra in Buddhist India would invoke, first and foremost, the idea of hierarchical power acquired and exercised through a combination of ritual and metaphysical means. Based on this power, the varieties of understanding and of personal relationships become subsumed to the purpose of the person metaphorically becoming the overlord (rajadhiraja) or the universal ruler (cakravartin). (Davidson 2002, p. 121)" These conceptions of kingships were an integral part of contemporary statecraft, and to prove the validity of such title and appellations, a king was required to build stupas and temples. Kings together with the people build numerous monuments decorated with marvelous religious art are undeniable evidence at Pagan. Donating temples, stupas or monasteries were considered good works that accumulated merit for specific religious aims that hinged on the concept of future rebirths (Stadtner, 2005, p. 38) Moreover, the merit accumulated by royal temple building activities was part of the national interest. Temple building secured the release of the king's subjects as well as the king himself. The king was often style as a bodhisattva, a future Buddha: incarnate in this world to assist mankind in their quest for salvation. (Strachan 1989, p. 10) In building religious monuments, Pagan gets the legacy of religious art from Pyu which was much influenced by the India. There still exit the traces of Indian influence on the remains in cities of Pyu. When Pyu fell to Nancho in AD 832-5, there was a

5 5 power vacuum and Burman stepped in not only their political power, but also their culture. It is no surprise that the early Pagan temple type is derived from the early brick temples of the Pyu capital of Shri Kshetra, such as Be-be and Lei- myet-hna temples. The architecture of those temples such as radiating arches and a voussoir type brickwork are found in Pagan too. (Strachan 1989, p. 9) Another significant fact is, though Mahayana Buddhism assumed to be tolerated at Pagan as we can see many examples of Mahayana elements in Pagan art and architecture, the dominant religious movement was Theravada Buddhism. However, Pagan Theravada Buddhism took some elements of Mahayana, and then adapted such elements to suit their Theravada context. Thus, as Paul Strachan pointed out, the religious art of pagan is a mixture of Mahayana and Thaeravada. In other word, it is something like Mahayana temple forms and designs, and even practices, were applied to magnify the rational of the orthodox Theravara religion and state. (Strachan 1989, p. 10) The style of religious art transformed to more distinctly Burmese artistic style during the time of King Kyansittar. It is corresponds to a period when Buddhism was taking on a particularly Burmese form. The building of Ananda temple is significant example. It is the brain child of Kyansittar and he oversaw the building of it. The dominance of the Ananda temple even today can lead us to believe that it embodies the contemporary ideals of Buddhist thoughts during the times of its construction. The depictions of the Jataka stories on tiles decorating the exterior were excellence. (Galloway 2002, p. 48) Since King Kyansitthar's time, Burmese Buddhism has consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and the iconography has become standardized and far less variable. (Galloway 2002, pp.51-52) (B) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar King Kyansitthar is very important for the development of state religion in Pagan. If King Anawrathar is regarded as the one who planted the seed of Theravada Buddhism in Pagan, King Kyansitthar is the one who nature and garden it. During his reign, Burmese Buddhism has consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and many religious monuments had been built. Among them, Ananda Temple is the most

6 6 significant. According to the old Burmese inscription of Pagan period, Kyansitthar was known as Hti-Hlaing Min or King of Hti-Hlaing. There are differences on placing where Hti-Hlaing is, but Professor G. H. Luce assumed it is near Kyuk-se. Because he thaught that though King Kyansitthar is a Burman, he loved Mons, and wrote old Mon like a master. He must have been brought up in a Mon environment and that point to Kyaukse. (Luce, April 1966, p. 54) There is also controversial about his parents. Some Burmese Chronicles said he was the son of King Anawrathar and the daughter of the King of Vesali. But there is no concrete evidence about it. Anyway, Kyansitthar played very important role in the unifying campaigns of King Anawrathar and became a right hand man for him. King Anawrathar was succeeded by his son King Saw Lu (ca AD) and his reign was ended up by rebellions led by some Mon chieftains. Kyansitthar crushed the rebellion and conquered them. And finally, he ascended to throne in 1084 AD. But he could only held Abhiseka ceremony 1 after two years later in 1086 AD. May be he has to pacify the country even after his conquest of the rebellions. With King Kyansitthar lacking the legitimacy of royal descent, he used the FB Inscription 2 to legitimate his assumption of kingship. The legitimation takes the form of the Buddha foretelling that; the ascetic Visnu would, in the future, become Kyansittha, King of Pagan, the form having for its model the foretelling by the Dipankara Buddha that the ascetic Sumedha would, in the future, become a Buddha. (Tun Aung Chain, 2011a, p. 1) Mentioning in the form of Visnu also indicates the strong influence of Brahmanism at the Court and the effort to achieve legitimation in that aspect as well. In his other inscription written by Sanskrit, he always called himself as Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja, "Fortunate Buddhist king, Sun of the Three Worlds" (of men, devas and brahmiis). This kind of title becomes, with various amplifications, the regal style of most of his successors in later period. (Luce 1969, Old Burma, p. 53) Another significant aspect is the assertion of himself as King of Dhamma. It is reinforced in the FB Inscription by the announcement:

7 7 "A Lord Mahāthera who possesses virtue, who is the Charioteer of Dhamma (dhammasārāthi), King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja shall make his spiritual teacher. King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja shall say in the presence of the Lord Mahāthera abounding in virtue, the Charioteer of Dhamma, Together with my Lord will I cleanse the Religion of the Lord Buddha." (Translated from original inscription by Tun AUng Chain, 2011a, p. 4) Being a Dhammarājā, King Kyansittha protected and promoted the religion of Buddha by revering and nourishing of the Three Gems 3. The PR Inscription 4 describes Kyansittha s undertakings: "For the holy temple of Srī Bajrās [Vajrāsana, Site of Enlightenment, the Mahābodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya] which had been destroyed by other kings, King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja got together jewels of various kinds and sent them in a ship to build again the holy temple of Srī Bajrās, to buy land, to dig a tank, to irrigate arable land, to make dams. The Three Holy Pitakas which had become obscured, the King proceeded to collect and purify. All the Lord Sangha who dwelt in the City of Arimaddanapūr, King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja presented with the four necessaries." (Translated from original inscription by Tun Aung Chain, 2011a, p. 5) According to Rajakumar 5 's stone inscriptions, engraved in duplicate in Pali, Pyu, Mon and Burmese, King Kyansitthar was seriously ill before his dead. Rajakumar recorded the death bed scene. In that stone inscription, it mentioned that: "Remembering the great and many favours with which the king had nourished him, he made a beautiful gold image of the Buddha, and entering with ceremony presented it to the king, saying this golden

8 8 Buddha I have made to help my lord. The three villages of slaves you gave me, I give to this Buddha. May my lord approve!' And the king, though his mind was troubled by disease, rejoiced and said well done well done (Translated from original inscription by Luce, April 1966, pp ) (C) Selected Religious Monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar (i) Shwe Sandaw Stupa King Anawrathar built this pagoda in 1057 after his conquest over Thahton. It is believed that some sacred hairs of Buddha which was obtained from Thahton were enshrined in it. Because of the presence of Hindu gods-brahma, Vishnu and Siva at the four corners of the Pagoda, it is also known as the Mahapeinne or Ganesha Pagoda. It is a cylindrical solid stupa with five terraces, while others have only three. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 45) It is probably because of the influence of Mahayana in early Pagan period that is the coming of the fifth Buddha, Maitrera Buddha. Some scholar assumed that it the first stupa on a massive scale at Pagan. It is being composed of a pyramidal arrangement; with steeply climbing that sharply recede at corners, and a tall elegant superstructure.( Strachan 1989, p. 57) 3. Three Gems: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha 4. The PR Inscription mean Promotion of the Religion Inscription made during the reign of King Kyansitthar 5 Son of King Kyansitthar

9 9 Figure-1: Shaw Sandaw Stupa (ii) Shwe Zigon Stupa The building was started by King Anwrathar and completed by King Kyansitthar. There is no concrete record about the date of construction and finishing. It is probably round about late 11 th centrury A.D. King Kyasitthar constructed his palace near Shwe Zigon and named "Jayabumi", or land of victory. Professor Luce assumed that the modern name Shwe Zigon is a corruption of this Pali word. (Strachan 1989, p. 57) It is solid, cylindrical structure quite distinct in style of architecture from other and it is a prototype of similar structure in Burma. Around the terraces of Pagoda, there are, set in panels, enameled plaques illustrating scenes in the previous lives of the Buddha. It is believed to contain the frontal bone and a tooth of the Buddha. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 22)

10 10 Figure-2: Shwe Zigon Stupa There are three terraces rising steeply to an octagonal band from which bellshaped anda rises. This is the standard arrangement in Burmese stupa. The terraces are all tall and thickly moulded with panels intended to hold Jataka plaques and are crenellated. There are medial stairways and the terraces carry a blend of the kalasa pot and miniaturized stupa at its four corners. (Strachan 1989, p. 57) Shwe Zigon tells the story of the development of Theravada Buddhism initiated by King Anwrathar and accomplished by King Kyansithar, in Paul Strachan words, it is the ultimate symbol of the triumph of the purified Buddhism propagated by the early Pagan Kings.

11 11 Figure-3: Glazed stone jataka plaque, ground floor terrace, Shwe Zigon Stupa (iii) Ananda Temple It is one of the finest and most venerated temples at Pagan. It was built by King Kyansitthar in 1091 AD. According to the Burmese chronicles, it was built according to the plan furnished by Indian Buddhist monks, which purported to be their cave-temple in the Nandamula Mountain in Himalaya. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 27) The ground plan of Ananda Temple is based on a perfect Greek cross. The vestibules are lower than the main building. The lower half of spire is adapted from temples of India and the upper half is based on the bell-shaped pagodas of Pagan. The interior consists of two vaulted and high but narrow corridors running parallel to each other along four sides of the temple. In the centre, there are four colossal standing Buddhas of the present world who have appeared and entered mahaparinirvana. Of these images, only North and South are original and the others two in East and West are added later to replace the original ones which had been destroyed. ( Lu Pe Win 1955, pp )

12 12 Figure-4: Ananda Temple There are also numerous glazed terracotta tiles ornamenting the base and the receding terraces which represent the Jataka stories and the temptation of Mara. The inner walls are honey-combed with niches in which are set small stone Buddhas in various postures. The most notable sculptures are a series of eighty reliefs in two lower tiers of niches in the outer corridor, illustrating the life of the Buddha from his birth to the attainment of enlightenment. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 29) It is easy for the devotees to understand the life of Buddha by creating such images. Image is undoubtedly of primary importance in the Jataka narratives, especially in the context of Pagan in which the rate of literacy cannot be supposed to have been high. (Tun Aung Chain 2011, p. 94) Because of its finest art and style, it has been worshiped continuously and regarded as the religious and cultural prestige of Pagan. For that reason, the numerous temples built throughout Burma closely base on its ground plan and elevation. (Stadtner 2005, p.115). Moreover, Ananda represents the Pagan's development of her own architectural style from a combination of indigenous prototypes and the latest Northern Indian artistic fashions. It is the culmination of prevalent architectural currents

13 13 in early Pagan and is not a direct imitation of a North Indian model (Strachan 1989, p. 66). Figure-5: Standing Buddha in central niche, gilded wood, south side, Ananda Temple

14 14 Figure-6: Mahosadah decides the case of bull, Mahosadah jataka, glazed tile number 671, Ananda Temple Figure-7: Birth of Buddha, lower tier, north, Ananda Temple

15 15 Figure-8: Buddha departing from the palace, top tier, west, Ananda Tempe (iv) Nagayon Temple It is an important temple not only because of the architectural style, but also for its story related to King Kyansitthar. When there was a royal displeasure between Kyansitthar and the then King Saw Lu, son of King Anawrathar, Kyansitthar had to flee for his life. In the course of his flight he fell asleep on a spot, and according to a tradition, a serpent shielded him with his hood as protection. In order to commemorate this event, Kyansitthar had built a temple on the spot where the serpent gave him protection, when he had become king. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 53). In fact such story might be the interpretation of local believes in nature gods during that time. Similar stories could be seemed in other Southeast Asian countries. Nagayon temple is a square structure with a vestibule on the north where only entrance is provided. The dark corridors within are lighted by perforated windows. The architecture of temple is typically Mon. The external form of the temple is elegant and is assumed to be

16 16 prototype of the Ananda Temple. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 53) Figure-9: Nagayon Temple's compound wall and gats Figure-10: Geometric design of glazed tiles on the terraces of Nagayon Temple

17 17 (v) Abeyadana Temple It is very peculiar temple in Pagan for keeping both Theravada, Mahayana and Tantric paintings and sculptures. It was assumed to be built by the chief queen of Kyansitthar, Abeyadana. Even though there is no record from Pagan period, an inscription from 15 th -16 th century, states that this temple was built by the chief queen of Kyansitthar. The temple faces north and consists of a square basement surrounded by a stupa. The basement is ornamented with perforated stone windows, and there is a vaulted corridor inside running round the central block. In the latter there is a deep recess forming a sanctum to the north, and in it is enshrined a large image in brick of a seated Buddha. Figure-11: Rear view of Abeyadana Temple The chief interests of the temple lies in the paintings with which the inner faces of its walls are decorated. These mural paintings represent divinities of the Mahayana Buddhism ( Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 54) However, as Paul Strachan pointed out that despite the presence of Mahayana, Tantric and Brahmanic deities, the essential Thaeravada

18 18 texts remains prominent in the painting cycles and the bumisparsamudra Buddha, the most sacred of Thaeravada Buddhist icons remains the primary object of worship. (Strachan 1989, p. 59) In fact Abeyadana reflects the co-existence of Mahyana and Thaeravada Buddhism in Pagan. Figure-12: Bodhisattva holding sword, upper row, outer corridor, Abeyadana Temple Figure-13: Hindu god Shiva upon his bull, shrine wall, west, Abeyadana Temple

19 19 Figure-14: Two tantric deties in caves, outer corridor, rear, Abeyadana Temple Conclusion Bagan is the centerpiece of religious and cultural heritage of Myanmar. Nearly three thousand brick monuments dot the landscape along the banks of Ayarwaddy. With the ardent support of their rulers, local architectural creativity shone in their masterpieces of complex brick vaulting techniques, while mural painters and stone carvers fashioned a distinct style of art. Religious monuments in Bagan tell how the State sponsorship of religion supported the creation of an innovative and unique heritage, an ideal art of that time.

20 20 References: 1. Bautze-Picron, Claudine (2003), The Buddhist Murals of Pagan: Timeless vistas of the cosmos, Orchid Press, Bangkok. 2. Brown, R. Grant (June 30, 1921), The Pre-Buddhist Religion of the Burmese, Folklore, Vol. 32, No. 2, Taylor & Francis on behalf of Folklore Enterprises Ltd. (JSTOR) 3. Davidson, Ronald M. (2002), Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, Columbia University Press, NewYork 4. Fisher, Robert E. (2005), Buddhist Art and Architecture, Thames and Hudson, London 5. Galloway, Charlotte (2002), "Relationships between Buddhist texts and images of the enlightenment during the early Pagan period", in Alexandra Green and T. Richard Blurton (edit.), Burma: Art and Archaeology 2002, The British Museum Press, London 6. Guy, John (2002), "Offering up a rare jewel: Buddhist merit-making and votive tablets in early Burma", in Alexandra Green and T. Richard Blurton (edit.), Burma: Art and Archaeology 2002, The British Museum Press, London 7. Houtart, Francois (October, 1976), Buddhism and Politics in South-East Asia: Part One, Social Scientist, Vol. 5, No. 3, Social Scientist Stable (JSTOR) 8. Kitagawa, Joseph M. (July 1962), Buddhism and Asian Politics, Asian Survey Vol. 2, No.5, University of California Press. (JSTOR) 9. Klokke, Marijke J. & Degroot Véronique (edit.) (2013), Materializing Southeast Asia's Past: Selected papers from the 12 th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Volume 2, NUS Press, Singapore 10. Lu Pe Win, U (1955), Pictorial Guide to Pagan, Ministry of Union Culture, Myanmar 11. Luce, G. H. (April, 1966), The Career of Htilaing Min (Kyanzittha). The Uniter of Burma, fl. A.D , The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1/2 (Apr., 1966), Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (JESTOR)

21 Luce, G. H. (1969), Old Burma-Early Pagan, Artibus Asiae and The Institute of Fine Art, New York University. 13. Stadtner, Donald M. (2005) (Photography Michael Freeman), Ancient Pagan: Buddhist Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p Strachan, Paul (1989), Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma, Kiscadale Publication, Singapore 15. Tun Aung Chain (2011), Texts and Images: Glimpses of Myanmar History, SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition, Yangon 16. Tun Aung Chain (2011a), Kyansitthar in His Inscriptions, Lecture Series, SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition, Yangon Figure-1: Shwesandaw Stupa List of Figures Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 234 Figure-2: Shwe Zigon Stupa From: Private Collection, Courtesy of Saw Tun Lin Figure-3: Glazed stone jataka plaque, ground floor terrance, Shwe Zigon Stupa Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 222 Figure-4: Ananda Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 96 Figure-5: Standing Buddha in central niche, gilded wood, South side, Ananda Temple.

22 22 Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 105 Figure-6: Mahosadah decides the case of bull, Mahosadah jataka, tiles number 671, Ananda Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 103 Figure-7: Birth of Buddha, lower tier, north at Ananda Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 109 Figure-8: Buddha departing from the palace, top tier, west at Ananda Tempe Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 112 Figure-9: Nagayon Temple's compound wall and gats Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 180 Figure-10: Geomatric design of glazed tiles on the terraces of Nagayon Temple From: From: Private Collection, Courtesy of Saw Tun Lin Figure-11: Rear view of Abeyadana Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 186 Figure-12: Bodhisattva holding sword, upper row, outer corridor, Abeyadana Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 191 Figure-13: Hindu god Shiva upon his bull, shrine wall, west, Abeyadana Temple

23 23 Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 187 Figure-14: Two tantric deties in caves, outer corridor, rear, Abeyadana Temple Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 190