Basic Course Reformed History and Theology

Transcription

1 Basic Course Reformed History and Theology Georg Plasger Lektion 1 The pre-reformation movements 2003 Reformed online Johannes a Lasco Library 1

2 1. The New Devotion (Devotio moderna) 2. John Wyclif 3. Jan Hus 4. The Waldenses 2

3 Each era is based on the experiences made by other eras. This is also true of the Reformation, which did not arise like a phoenix from the ashes. Already before the Reformation there were people and movements some of whose statements anticipated the ideas of the Reformation. For this reason some of these so-called pre-reformation movements and people will now be introduced. 1. The New Devotion (Devotio moderna) In Oktober 1340 in Deventer/Netherlands Geert Grote, the son of a rich merchant, was born. At the age of at least 30 - he had studied a great deal for a long period and had only recently become a canon (a member of the cathedral chapter) in Aix-la-Chapelle - he experienced a conversion. Resulting from this change in his life he wrote several "Decisions and Intentions" for his further life without calling them vows: forgoing income from the Church, reducing his possessions; the main focus being the salvation of his soul. He gives away the largest part of his possessions, becomes a guest in a monastery without himself becoming a monk and he reads many clerical works on the history of the Church. After three years he begins to preach, first of all in the Deventer area then also in other areas of the Netherlands. He preaches penance, calls for prayer and fasting. However, as he stresses, this must not be an outward exercise only but also be sincerely carried out: otherwise it is to no avail. Geert Grote is understood by many. Some begin to lead a communal life outside monastery walls. This model spreads: houses of the "Brethren and the Sisters of the Common Life" emerge in the Netherlands. Even though Geert Grote himself always remained true to the Church he was nevertheless forbidden to preach as a result of his great success; Grote retired and died in For Grote the pivotal point is the search for inner peace, which results from the denial of one's own self and is to be achieved by "ardour" and "silence". This is the heart of the "New Devotion", the "Devotio moderna". And these ideas took effect. For one among the laity, the "Sisters" or the "Brethren of the Common Life": many houses are founded in the Netherlands and in Germany. 3

4 But also a monastic reform movement takes place at the same time: followers of Geert Grote found a monastery in Windesheim near Zwolle in the Netherlands; many other new monasteries (e.g. in Frenswegen near Nordhorn in Germany) emerge; 100 years after the founding of the first monastery there are already 97 monasteries which belong to the "Windesheim Congregation". Not so much profound theological dispute but the renewal of the practice of living a spiritual life is of central importance in these monasteries. And so doing, the central concern is to immerse oneself in the life of Jesus and to imitate the life of Christ. The most important and extremely influential work documenting this is the "Imitatio Christi", "The Imitation of Christ", which is attributed to Thomas à Kempis who died in Thomas à Kempis mostly lived in seclusion in St. Agnetenberg Monastery near Zwolle, where he mainly copied books but also wrote some. The "Imitatio Christi" is one of the most widely read books in the world; up to now there are more than 3000 different editions. The book itself is to be interpreted as a "Diary of a soul on its way to perfection" (E.Iserloh): in many sentences of wisdom the imitation of Christ is to be achieved by renouncing the world and turning to Christ: "Disdain that which is superficial, dedicate yourself to your inner being and you shall see that the Kingdom of God grows inside you." (II,1,1f.) The "Devotio moderna" did not directly prepare the way for the Reformation. Perhaps Luther knew some of its representatives, but this is not certain. However, the Reformation did assimilate and remould this widespread reform movement, just as it also did, for example, with Humanism. During the Reformation the protest against all exterior piety becomes even more fundamental and the point is also that it is theologically specified. But the ground for a theological reform is certainly also prepared by the Devotio moderna. The fact that later on so many clergymen allowed themselves to be convinced by the message of the Reformation in Germany and the Netherlands makes the "Devotio moderna" a pre-reformation movement. 4

5 Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (written probably between 1414 and 1425) From the second book, chapter 11: Few Love the Cross of Jesus JESUS has always many who love His heavenly kingdom, but few who bear His cross. He has many who desire consolation, but few who care for trial. He finds many to share His table, but few to take part in His fasting. All desire to be happy with Him; few wish to suffer anything for Him. Many follow Him to the breaking of bread, but few to the drinking of the chalice of His passion. Many revere His miracles; few approach the shame of the Cross. Many love Him as long as they encounter no hardship; many praise and bless Him as long as they receive some comfort from Him. But if Jesus hides Himself and leaves them for a while, they fall either into complaints or into deep dejection. Those, on the contrary, who love Him for His own sake and not for any comfort of their own, bless Him in all trial and anguish of heart as well as in the bliss of consolation From the second book, chapter 12: The Royal Road of the Holy Cross If you carry the cross willingly, it will carry and lead you to the desired goal where indeed there shall be no more suffering, but here there shall be. If you carry it unwillingly, you create a burden for yourself and increase the load, though still you have to bear it. If you cast away one cross, you will find another and perhaps a heavier one. Do you expect to escape what no mortal man can ever avoid? Which of the saints was without a cross or trial on this earth? Not even Jesus Christ, our Lord, Whose every hour on earth knew the pain of His passion. "It behooveth Christ to suffer, and to rise again from the dead,... and so enter into his glory." How is it that you look for another way than this, the royal way of the holy cross? The whole life of Christ was a cross and a martyrdom, and do you seek rest and enjoyment for yourself? You deceive yourself, you are mistaken if you seek anything but to suffer, 5

6 for this mortal life is full of miseries and marked with crosses on all sides. Indeed, the more spiritual progress a person makes, so much heavier will he frequently find the cross, because as his love increases, the pain of his exile also increases. (taken from: Thomas à Kempis, Imitation of Christ, modern English translation, Milwaukee) *** Questions on further work 1. The work by Thomas à Kempis is called "De imitatio Christi", The Imitation of Christ. What kind of understanding of Christ can be perceived, which is to be imitated? 2. Who can be considered to be a true follower of Christ? 3. What does Thomas understand by Loving God? 4. The centre of interest for Thomas à Kempis is the willingness to suffer. Is taking on suffering in following Christ a prerequisite for reaching glory? 2. John Wyclif John Wyclif, known as the "Morning Star of the Reformation", is born about 1325, roughly at the same time as Geert Grote, near Richmond in the English county of Yorkshire. Little is known about his childhood. From about 1345 onwards he studies in Oxford, where he stays for about 17 years. He dedicates himself in depth to theology and philosophy, interrupts his studies for different reasons and finally gains his doctor's title in But that is only the external account. The tracts and treatises preserved from that time show a 6

7 very well educated theologian who falls back on earlier ideas reaching back to St. Augustin, unlike the governing school of theology prevailing around him at the time, and who presents these ideas with oversubtlety. During the last years before doing his doctorate Wyclif already had the task of interpreting the Bible to students - and that characterizes the way that still lay ahead of Wyclif: the Bible becomes more and more important to him. To it no other work can compare, thus his realization, for him it is "the mirror in which we are enabled to see the eternal truths" (G.A. Benrath). In time he comes more and more to conclusions herein which correspond to opinions of the Reformation regarding the importance of the Bible. Due to his encouragement the Bible is translated into English in According to Wyclif the role of the sacraments, which according to Roman Catholic doctrine convey the presence of Christ, is taken over by the Bible: people are transformed by reading it. And it can achieve this because, according to Wyclif, Christ himself guarantees and vouches for the truth of the Bible. He fulfilled the law by his way of life and what he taught. Christ is the one who gave the commandments and he himself also fulfilled them. And it is the duty of Christians and the Church to follow this example. At the same time Wyclif especially emphasizes Christ's poverty, his humility and his patient suffering. The Church of Wyclif's time, however, fails to meet this standard, it has become too worldly, too complacent. Why? According to Wyclif because it does not take the Bible seriously enough. Therefore his suggestion of a therapy is as follows: expropriation of the Church, namely by the means of worldly force. Wyclif wants to change the existing system and therefore preaches a struggle against the possessions of the clergy. But Wyclif also speaks by way of theoretical texts. Wyclif opposes the enforced celibacy of the priests, the practice of indulgences, the last rites, requiems and also the veneration of saints - not one of these is prescribed by the Bible. The reaction is prompt: the "secular clergy" (i.e. the clergy who did not live in monasteries) took him to court in Rome - and he was condemned in But at the same time Wyclif was protected by th English state. More and more strongly Wyclif insists upon the right of the layman and the right of the state to point out the right way to a Church acting against the Gospels. The Pope is only to be 7

8 obeyed in so far as he himself teaches properly and lives the right life, and this simply means: lives in poverty and propagates Christ's Law. The state, on the other hand, is to be obeyed because it is the authority appointed by God. The state must govern the people and ensure peace. Also regarding the understanding of the Lord's Supper he is critical, as far as the classical Roman Catholic understanding is concerned: No priest, according to Wyclif, has the authority to transubstantiate the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ: wine remains wine and bread remains bread. It is all the more true that the Eucharistic elements remain in the state they are in but are nevertheless Christ's body and blood. But they are effective only if the distributors and recipients have a worthy attitude, that is only if Christian discipleship is also truly practised. The criticism of Wyclif grows. His teaching about the Lord's Supper is declared to be heresy. However Wyclif does not yield. An attempt by his duke to move him to silence fails. This also leads to tension between Wyclif and the authorities. Wyclif himself later also includes all monastic life in his criticism of it not being compatible with the Holy Scriptures. In 1382 the dispute reaches a climax; Wyclif's teachings about the Lord's Supper, Church possessions and monastic life are rejected. As a result followers of Wyclif run into trouble, whereas Wyclif, who had withdrawn to a parish ministry, was himself not violated. Wyclif, however, becomes more and more severe and bitter. He denies the existing Church to be the Church. Instead the latter is to be found among the faithful poor who follow Christ. The crusades were proof to Wyclif of the Antichristian bearing of bishops and orders. On 31 December 1384 John Wyclif dies after a second stroke. Wyclif is a sharp critic of the Church of his time. He accuses it of secularization and demands reforms which, for most people, went too far. In his criticism of the existing Church and in his reverence for the Bible many of his statements are identical to those of the Reformation. For Wyclif the Church could be saved in the end by the repentance of the faithful and the 8

9 Church and by their turning towards a Christian discipleship in poverty, humility and suffering. And Wyclif earnestly means this, he sees herein a practicable way, which indeed includes a noticeable change in constitution, doctrine and possession of the Church, and thus would have given the Church a completely new look. In 1415 Wyclif's teachings are condemned as being heretical by the Council of Constance which even carries out the execution symbolically by burning his remains. Even if most of Wyclif's complex reform programme later fell into oblivion, still many of his impulses continued; for instance in the simple sermon of the socalled "Lollards" whom Wyclif during his life had already begun to send out as preachers. They later on influenced the English Reformation. But Wyclif also became an inspiration outside of England in Bohemia, namely to Jan Hus about whom we will talk in the next section. Was Wyclif already an anticipatory Reformer? Yes and no. Yes, in his criticism of the Church of the Middle Ages, yes, from the point of view of the Reformation in the many aspects he emphasized in his reform programmes, yes, not least because of his very high regard of the Bible. But there is also the "No". What Martin Luther, for instance, said about "justification", that God in Jesus Christ saves mankind - Wyclif lacks this dimension for the most part. And as a result, from the point of view of the Reformation, he also lacks the possibility of qualifying human ability. Wyclif was a reformer of the Church upon whom the Reformation could build and carry on where he had left off. 3. Jan Hus (* about 1371; ) Jan Hus is born of poor parents about 1371 in the small village of Husinec after which he is named. From about 1390 he studies in Prague, first af all the standard general sciences. He gets his master's degree and teaches university entrants. Subsequently he begins the study of theology, is ordained priest in 1400 and only two years later becomes preacher in the "New Bethlehem" Church. This church was special inasmuch as it was a church 9

10 purely for sermons and held 3,000 people. And in this church, which was built at the end of the 14th century, from the beginning the preaching was done not in Latin but in Czech, that is in the vernacular. It was an expression of the reformatory effort of the Bohemian Church. Many of the sermons which Hus gave in the Bethlehem Church have survived. They show a preacher who criticizes the immorality of society and especially sharply criticizes the vice of the clergy: averice, usury and purchasing ministries are objects of his criticism with which he calls for repentance. And he is heard and understood - by ordinary people and by royalty alike. Hus gets inspiration fundamental to his position by reading John Wyclif's texts, without simply adopting them. And it is also part of Wyclif's tradition that Huss demands a reformed and renewed Church. The heart of the sermon and criterion for the church service is the ruling Word of God, the Holy Scriptures. Head of the Church is Christ, not the Pope. (N.B. At that time there were two rival popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon.) Besides his function at Bethlehem Church Hus also acts as interpreter of the Bible in the theological faculty of the University of Prague. Hus was by no means the only person in Bohemia influenced by Wyclif and striving for reforms. But he soon becomes the spokesman for the reformers who had won a majority at the University of Prague; in 1409/10 Hus was even rector of the University of Prague. However, in 1411/12 Hus cuts short his planned path towards a doctor of theology because of opposition which had arisen. Already from 1403 onwards disputes arose at the university about Wyclif's doctrines which are suspected of heresy. From 1407/8 onwards the Roman Curia intervenes, in 1409 the dispute escalates. Hus had brought an action under eclesiastical law against the Archbishop in 1408, and then against the Pope, in order to have the condemnation of Wyclif's doctrines annulled. Both this attempt at court action and the approaches at reform made by the "Wycliffites", as Hus and others are called, lead in 1410 to the imposition of a ban on preaching in all chapels (and with that in the Bethlehem Church). Hus does not keep to the ban and protests; but to no avail, on the contrary: in August 1410 Hus is excluded from the sacraments, in March 1411 Hus is 10

11 imposed with excommunication. And at least a year later the final verdict is pronounced: the great excommunication. Jan Hus must leave Prague. The Bohemian nobles take up the cause and give Hus protection in their castles during the ensuing years until During this time he is busy writing, interprets theapostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer and writes a study "On the Church". Also here he proves to be a follower of Wyclif, but Hus is much more moderate than Wyclif in many respects. In many letters Hus keeps in contact with the Bethlehem congregation and with his followers. In 1414 the Bohemian King was called on to explain to the Council in Constance the case of his subject Jan Hus. Hus could not very well avoid this request, particularly since he was guaranteed safe conduct. A few weeks after his arrival Hus is arrested in Constance. After a trial lasting for several months, after several hearings, after Wyclif's doctrines had again been damned and despite the vehement intervention on the part of the Bohemian and Moravian nobles, Hus is condemned to death and is publicly burnt to death on 6 July He had not recanted. During the following period attempts are made on the one hand to dispose of the "Bohemian heresy". But in the end they are not successful. On the other hand the Bohemian nobles violently protest against the burning to death. His thoughts continue to live, or rather: "Not until Hus was dead did his thoughts actually come to life." (L.v.Ranke) A "Hussite" movement emerges, which amongst other things demands the celebration of the Lord's Supper with wine; Hus had been more hesitant in this matter despite his basic agreement to it. The wine-chalice later becomes their distinguishing feature, however there were different opinions among them about the question of how radical the protest should be. The radicals, grown in numbers, demonstrate their resistance to King Wenceslaus and capture Prague in July For eighteen years a war rages in Bohemia; there are atrocities on both sides. Also in the Church moderate and radical forces cannot agree, so that it ends up becoming different Hussite Churches. At the time of the Reformation there is a move towards reconciliation between the Hussites and the Reformation; in 1575 the Confessio Bohemica appears, the Bohemian Confession of Faith, which closely follows the Confessio Augustana, the Confession of Augsburg, drawn up by Philip Melanchthon. The Hussite historiography talks of the First (Hussite) Reformation and the 11

12 Second (German) Reformation. The present-day Protestant Church of the Bohemian Brethren in the Czech Republic sees itself consciously as the heir to both reform movements. Jan Hus is not responsible for the aftermath and especially not for the armed conflicts after his death, they were not what he intended. His goal was a renewal of the Church and society. In the end the pivotal question for him was obedience to God and this one of God's commandments has absolute importance. This ethical rigour hinders us from wanting to discover already in his teachings one of the Reformation doctrines, justification through Christ. From that point of view he is not to be identified with the Reformation, neither simply as an anticipatory reformer. Actually he represents the want of reform in the Church of the Middle Ages, and this in plain-spoken words. This criticism of his, however, also moved Luther, who was able to call Hus a "holy man". 4. The Waldenses Chronologically the Waldenses do not follow Jan Hus. Nor do they continue where John Wyclif and the Devotio moderna left off. The Waldenses are older than all the pre-reformation movements named up to now and they still exist today. Their history begins with Peter Waldo (Valdes). Little is known about him, not even his Christian name is quite certain. Likewise the date of his birth is not known. He lived in Lyon and was probably a merchant. One day he decides to lead a new and better life; that happened about He sells his possessions and with a part of the proceeds he makes provision for his family, with another for the translation of the Bible into the language of his country and another part he hands over to the poor. And Waldo began to preach in the vernacular. These three actions specify the main features of the content of the doctrine of the Waldenses, also its piety, as it was at the beginning: poverty, the sermon in the vernacular, the Bible. Very soon Waldo is joined by followers who call themselves "the Poor of Lyon". (The use of this term for the pre-reformation Waldenses has, as a rule, for the most part gained acceptance in research.) Preachers, men and women(!), are sent out as travelling preachers in order to preach this 12

13 message; they are called "Barbes" (uncles). These Barbes call on the people to repent. They are by no means the only ones who for instance call for poverty. Besides the many church-oriented groups which exist in Southern France there are also the "Cathari", a group which could hardly still be called Christian. A big part of the population sympathize with the "Poor of Lyon" and the Roman Catholic Church supports them too from time to time and instructs, among others, the preachers of the "Poor of Lyon" to preach against the Cathari. However it remained a controversial question who should give instructions to preach. In this matter the Roman Catholic Church insists on its monopoly and thus Waldo and others are finally forbidden to preach by the Bishop of Lyon. Waldo turns to Rome and there requests confirmation of his orthodoxy: in vain. Nevertheless Waldo and his companions continue to preach because they plead that they are called by a higher divine duty. For this reason the "Poor of Lyon", together with other heretical groups, are condemned in 1184 by Pope Lucius III. However this did not mean their fall but their growth as an underground movement: groups of Waldenses develop in the whole of Europe. Central to the piety of the Waldenses is the Bible: it is heard (many could not read) and directly applied to one's own life. Logically Waldo encouraged a translation into the vernacular. The travelling preachers must above all study the Bible. The teaching they take from the Bible is simple: there is the wrong way and the right one. The right way is that of faith corresponding to life, thus a life based on the principles of the Sermon on the Mount. Apart from the rejection of purgatory and the intercession for the dead the Waldenses in no way regard themselves as heretical; they also stress this again and again: as far as the interpretation of the sacraments, the ordination of priests, faith and practice are concerned there is no difference of opinion to the Roman Catholic teaching. At the most, the central position taken by the sacrament of Confession, as a connecting link between the individuals in the community, is conspicuous. In 1218 a unification of the groups of Waldenses which were drifting apart is achieved. Because of the increasingly intense persecution a lot of Waldenses retreat to the valleys of the Cottian Alps. There, in the valleys which could only be reached with difficulty (to the west of Turin, near the present day French 13

14 border; the most well-known place is Torre Pellice), the Waldenses were able to survive despite severe persecution, now and then outwardly conforming. About 1530 the Waldenses took up contact with the Reformed Protestant reformer Wilhelm Farel and in 1532 officially joined the Reformation at the Synod of Chanferan. While doing so the Waldenses adopted ideas from the Reformation (e.g. only two sacraments; the repeal of celibacy, their own church buildings etc.). From their own point of view the Waldenses, who make up the Reformed Protestant Church in Italy today, stress a continuity reaching back to their beginning at the time of Peter Waldo. (For the present day situation of the Waldenses in Italy cf. Lesson 5.) Peter Waldo most certainly belongs to the Pre-Reformation reformers. Early on he pointed to the central position of the Bible. And to the fact that one "must obey God more than men"; after all two quite central ideas of the Reformation. These convictions which remained kindled throughout all the years of the Waldenses movement, even when underground, then made it easy for the Waldenses to regard that part of the Reformation which was of Reformed Protestant character as a continuation of their own teaching. 14