E nglish Literature. The Theory of Karma

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1 Since March 2002 An International, Registered & Referred Monthly Journal : Research Link - 150, Vol - XV (7), September , Page No ISSN RNI - MPHIN Impact Factor The Theory of Karma E nglish Literature The Sanskrit word "karma" basically means "to do or act". In most basic terms, the law of karma states that one reaps what one sows. The law of karma implies that every thought or deed, whether they are good or bad, will count in determining how an individual will be born in their next life on earth. So an individual with bad karma could be born many different times into lower castes of humans or even into lower forms of animals. In Hinduism, the person cannot be released until they are reborn into the Brahmin or priestly caste. So this is how karma and reincarnation are intertwined. So in reality individuals are in control of their salvation, which is their release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. ANAND BHATT We have seen that the reasons of our comfortable or uncomfortable situations lie in the activities undertaken by us during this or earlier lives. It is the law of nature that we reap as we sow. This law is not confined to physical activities. It applies to our persisting tendencies and instincts as well, even though they may not be translated into action. The law of cause and effect forms an integral part of Hindu philosophy. This law is termed as 'karma', which means to 'act'.the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English defines it as the "sum of person's actions in one of his successive states of existence, viewed as deciding his fate for the next". In Sanskrit karma means "volitional action that is undertaken deliberately or knowingly". This also dovetails self-determination and a strong will power to abstain from inactivity. Karma is the differentia that characterizes human beings and distinguishes him from other creatures of the world. The Law of Nature : The theory of karma harps on the Newtonian principle that every action produces an equal and opposite reaction. Every time we think or do something, we create a cause, which in time will bear its corresponding effects. What ever thoughts we may relish, even in midst of mountains or within a remote cave would have their consequences, no one can escape them. Appropriate consequences of our physical activities and of mental attitude are invariably extended to us. It is not possible to deceive the nature. This law of karma in spiritual science is not different from the law of cause and effect or that of action and reaction in physical science. In spiritual field its scope is extended to the realm of emotions and feelings as well. This law of karma and theory of rebirth need not be brushed aside as a fancy of spiritual thinkers. Recent psychological research bears testimony to their validity. The modern psychologists have been increasingly veering to accept it. Dr Alexander cannon during his experiment of age regression observed that the causes of his patient's phobias lay in earlier lives. After surveying the results of 1382 reincarnation sittings, as he calls them, he writes as under in his entitled 'The power within'. "For years the theory of karma and reincarnation was a nightmare to me and I did my best to disprove it and I have to admit that is such a thing as reincarnation. As my text bears witness to the benefit many have received psychologically from discovering hidden complexes and fears which undoubtedly have been brought over from past lives. This study explains the scales of justice in a broad way showing how a person appears to suffer in this life as a result of something he has done in a past life through this law of action and reaction known in the east as karma. A person cannot see why he suffers one disaster after another in this life, yet reincarnation may reveal atrocities committed by him in lives gone by. Many Hindus see God's direct involvement in this process; others consider the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma. Followers of Vedanta consider Ishvara, a personal supreme God, as playing a role in the delivery of karma. Theistic schools of Hinduism such as Vedanta thus disagree with the Buddhist and Jain views Research Scholar, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September

2 and other Hindu views that karma is merely a law of cause and effect but rather is also dependent on the will of a personal supreme God. A summary of this theistic view of karma is expressed by the following: "God does not make one suffer for no reason nor does he makes one happy for no reason. God is very fair and gives you exactly what you deserevery person is responsible for his or her acts and thoughts, so each person's karma is entirely his or her own. Occidentals see the operation of karma as fatalistic. But that is far from true since it is in the hands of an individual to shape his own future by schooling his present. Hindu philosophy, which believes in life after death, holds the doctrine that if the karma of an individual is good enough, the next birth will be rewarding, and if not, the person may actually devolve and degenerate into a lower life form. In order to achieve good karma it is important to live life according to dharma or what is right. Three Kinds of Karma : According to the ways of life chosen by a person, his karma can be classified into three kinds. Thesatvik karma, which is without attachment, selfless and for the benefit of others; the rajasik karma, which is selfish where the focus is on gains for oneself; and the tamasik karma, which is undertaken without heed to consequences, and is supremely selfish and savage. In this context Dr. D N Singh in his A Study of Hinduism, quotes Mahatma Gandhi's lucid differentiation between the three. According to Gandhi, the tamasik works in a mechanic fashion, the rajasik drives too many horses, is restless and always doing something or other, and the satvikworks with peace in mind. Swami Sivananda, of the Divine Life Society, Rishikesh classifies karma into three kinds on the basis of action and reaction: Prarabdha (so much of past actions as has given rise to the present birth), Sanchita (the balance of past actions that will give rise to future births - the storehouse of accumulated actions), Agami or Kriyamana (acts being done in the present life). According to the scriptures, the discipline of unattached action (Nishkâma Karma) can lead to salvation of the soul. So they recommend that one should remain detached while carrying out his duties in life. As Lord Krishna said in the Bhagavad Gita: "To the man thinking about the objects (of the senses) arises attachment towards them; from attachment, arises longing; and from longing arises anger. From anger comes delusion; and from delusion loss of memory; from loss of memory, the ruin of discrimination; and on the ruin of discrimination, he perishes". Another meaning of karma as per Bhagwad Geeta is the action prescribed by Bhagwan Shri Krishna. All human beings have Aatma (soul) inside their heart. This Aatma is part of the Paramaatam (The Complete Supreme Reality or Divinity). The goal of the Human being is to unite the Aatma (soul) with the Paramaatma (The Complete Supreme Reality or Divinity). The unification of Aatma with Paramaatma happens inside one's heart that is one experience, understands the true nature of Paramaatma and become one with it inside ones heart and not in the outside world. Bhagwan Shri Krishna prescribes a certain process of worship and meditation (to be done inside the mind) for unification of Aatma (soul) and Paramaatma (The Complete Supreme Reality or Divinity). The unification of Aatma with Parmaatma happens inside one's heart that is one experiences, understands the true nature of Paramaatma and become one with it inside ones heart and not in the outside world. Bhagwan Shri Krishna prescribes a certain process of worship and meditation (to be done inside the mind) for unification of Aatma (soul) and Paramaatma (The Complete Supreme Reality or Divinity).This process is called as Yagya. Performing the Yagya as prescribed by Bhagwan Shri Krishna in Bhagwad Geeta is the real Karma. Any action other than Yagya are the worldly compulsions and not the Ordained Action indicated by Bhagwan Shri Krishna in the Bhagwad Geeta. The Karma is done to attain liberation (Mohsha) from the cycle of the death and birth and free oneself from the great fear of being old and death. The Sanskrit word "karma" basically means "to do or act". In most basic terms, the law of karma states that one reaps what one sows. The law of karma implies that every thought or deed, whether they are good or bad, will count in determining how an individual will be born in their next life on earth. So an individual with bad karma could be born many different times into lower castes of humans or even into lower forms of animals. In Hinduism, the person cannot be released until they are reborn into the Brahmin or priestly caste. So this is how karma and reincarnation are intertwined. So in reality individuals are in control of their salvation, which is their release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. References : (1) Gayanke, Jayendra (2008) : Srimad Bhagwad Gita, Tatta vavivechari, Gorakhpur, Gita Press. (2) Hardo Trutz (2006) : The karma Handbook Reincarnation and Healing. Mumbai jai co. publishing house. (3) Radha Krishnan, S. (1923) : Indian philosophy, Vol. II, London Longmen's Green & Company. Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September

3 Since March 2002 E nglish Literature An International, Registered & Referred Monthly Journal : Research Link - 150, Vol - XV (7), September , Page No ISSN RNI - MPHIN Impact Factor Feminism : Diversity and Scope Feminism tends to be thought of as a movement of women, andmany feminists absolutely reject the idea of allowing men into it. However, men can be as strongly opposed to the injustices from whichwomen suffer as women can. Feminism is not concerned with a groupof people it wants to benefit, but with a type of injustice it wants to eliminate, even though on the whole the elimination of that injustice isbeneficial to women than men, yet feminism is not just a movement infavor of women, but it is a movement in support against injustice. Toril Moi has used the term 'post-feminism' to cover the different configurations of feminism and post-modernism presenttoday. Present-day feminist theorists believe that, strictly speaking, feminism is an impossible position. NAVEEN KUMARI & RESHU KUMARI Introduction : The term 'feminism' was derived from the Latin word 'Femina'meaning 'woman' and was first used with regard to the issues of equality and Women's Rights Movement. Ever since antiquity, therehave been women fighting to free their half of the total population of the world from male oppression. Feminism is neither a fad nor alogical extension of the civil rights movement, but the protest againstthe legal, economic and social restrictions on the basic rights ofwomen which have existed throughout history and in all civilizations. Naturally, the principles of feminism have been articulated long ago. The definition of the term 'feminism' differs from person toperson. According to the French models of feminism, it implies sexualexpression. If we take into account the British models, all feminists slowly become respectable, or acclaimed into the male world order. Ifwe consider American models, they are more outspoken. Chaman Nahal in his article, Feminism in English Fiction, defines feminismas a mode of existence in which the woman is free of the dependence syndrome. There is a dependence syndrome : whether it is the husband or the father or the community or whether it is a religious group,ethnic group. When women free themselves of the dependencesyndrome and lead a normal life, my idea of feminism materialises. According to Simone de Beauvoir : One is not born, but ratherbecomes a woman. Nobiological, psychological or economic fatedetermines the figure that the human female presents in society; it is civilization as a whole that produces this creature, intermediate between male and eunuch, which is described asfeminine. According to her, women are considered secondary in relation to menfrom the ancient time. It is not necessity of feminine feature but it isthe result of education and social tradition under the control of men. Women's dignity failed but they stand on the same ground of intellectual and professional equality. This has given rise to social evils also. Feminism is a movement influenced by the ideas postulated, popularized and precipitated by thinkers and authors like Alice Walker, Naomi Littlebear, Judith Felterbey, Michele Wallace, Lillian Smith, Elaine Showalter, Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millett and others. It is a modern movement expressing protest against the male domination. It provides strategies for change. The aim of feminist is tounderstand women's oppression keeping in mind race, gender, classand sexual preference. Today many people feel that feminism has almost ended because it has nearly won the war at most of the fronts by achieving for women equality with men in all walks of life political, social, economic etc. But the fact is that the feminist movement is still goingquite strong all over the world with the prospects of getting stronger inthe near future. The origin of violence against women is seen in the subordination of women in the world. In 'Manusmriti', Manu has given secondary place to women. The same thing is reflected in Islamand Christianity. Great thinkers like Aristotle, Rousseau, Hegel, Sartre, Freud and Nietzsche consider women inferior. According to Simone de Beauvoir, The situation of woman isthat she is a free and autonomous being like all human creatures never the less finds herself living in a world where men compel her toassume the status of the other. Two of the most important works of contemporary feminist theory Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex and Mary Daly's Research Scholar (Ph.D), Singhania University, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan) Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September

4 Beyond God the Father derive their ideological premise from thetwentieth-century philosophical movement, existentialism. This bodyof ideas was itself rooted in the theoretical constructs of Several German philosophers : Hegel, Hussel and Heidegger, but had its mostpopular formulation in the works of French thinker Jean-Paul Sartre. The early editions of The Oxford English Dictionary definedfeminism as a state of being feminine or womanly as did the 1901edition of The Dictionary of Philosophy. By 1906, however, thedictionaire de Philosophie defined feminism as a position favourableto the rights of women. The Webster's Dictionary defines the term'feminism' as the principle that women should have political rightsequal to those of men. Toril Moi says, The words 'feminist' or 'feminism' are political labels indicating support for the aims of thenew Woman's Movement which emerged in the late 1960s. Simonede Beauvoir writes in The Second Sex, The terms masculine andfeminine are used symmetrically only as a matter of form, as on legalpapers. Feminism is a philosophy that fights against suchdefinitions of masculine and feminine, and aims at placing women in ajust perspective. The word 'feminism' however, must be understood inits broadest sense as referring to an intense awareness of identity as awoman, and interest in feminine problems. Its meaning should not berestricted to the advocacy of women's rights. Feminism tends to be thought of as a movement of women, andmany feminists absolutely reject the idea of allowing men into it. However, men can be as strongly opposed to the injustices from whichwomen suffer as women can. Feminism is not concerned with a groupof people it wants to benefit, but with a type of injustice it wants to eliminate, even though on the whole the elimination of that injustice isbeneficial to women than men, yet feminism is not just a movement infavor of women, but it is a movement in support against injustice. Toril Moi has used the term 'postfeminism' to cover the different configurations of feminism and post-modernism presenttoday. Present-day feminist theorists believe that, strictly speaking, feminism is an impossible position. The agonistic definition offeminism sees it as the struggle against all forms of patriarchal andsexist oppression. Such an oppositional definition posits feminism asthe necessary resistance to patriarchal power. Logically then the aimof feminism as an emancipatory theory becomes to abolish itself alongwith its opponent. In a non-sexist, non-patriarchal society, feminismwill no longer exist. Feminism is committed to the struggle forequality for women, an effort to make women become like men. But the struggle for equal rights historically and politically emphasizes thevalue of women as they are. The very argument rests precisely on thefact that women are already as valuable as men are. But in thesituation of women's lack of equal rights, this value must be located asdifference, not as equality. Women are of equal human value, whenfeminism represents the value of women as women, it efficiently counters the systematic devaluation of women under patriarchy. Julia Kristeva suggests,a third space for feminism to operate the space which deconstructs all identity, all binary oppositions. But again, in deconstructing patriarchal metaphysics, the risk of deconstructing the very logic that sustains the two forms of feminism of sameness and difference cannot be avoided. And so the three 'spaces' of feminism are logically and often strategically incompatible.the post-modern feminists are wary of definitions of any kind. Alice Jardine states : Who and what, then do we mean by feminist? That word...poses some serious problems. Notthat we would want to end up demanding adefinition of what feminism is, and therefore, ofwhat one must do, say, and be, if one is to acquirethe epithet; dictionary meanings are suffocating, to say the least. Jardine states: Feminism is generally understood as a movement fromthe point of view of, by and for women. She suggests feminism as amovement by women which takes on different and very specific formsin different contexts. References : (1) Ali, Syed Mashkoor., ed. Indian Writing in English : A Critical Response. New Delhi: Creative Books, (2) Arora, Neena. NayantaraSahgal and Doris Lessing : A Feminist Study in Comparison. New Delhi: Prestige Books, (3) Chatterjee, S.A. The Indian Women's Search for an Identity. Delhi : Vikas Publication, (4) De Souza, Alfred., ed. Women in Contemporary India : Traditional Images and Changing Roles. Delhi: Manohar Book Service, (5) Dhawan, R.K., ed. Indian Women Novelists, Set I, Vol. I. New Delhi : Prestige Books, Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September

5 Since March 2002 E nglish Literature An International, Registered & Referred Monthly Journal : Research Link - 150, Vol - XV (7), September , Page No ISSN RNI - MPHIN Impact Factor A Brief Study of History of Sonnet in English Literature The sonnet continued to flower and flourish in Italy during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries. By the sixteenth century, it had spread to Spain and France. It reached England through the work of Wyatt and Surrey in the first half of the sixteenth century. After their deaths, it was not practised for some years. Thus Sidney led the way to a great outburst of sonneteering. Thus sonneteering became a popular habit, a conventional code, a modish artifect of gallanty and compliment. No poet between 1590 and 1600 failed to try his poetic skill at this poetic device. During those ten years, more sonnets were composed in England than in any other decade. RESHU KUMARI & PRAKASH VEER A sonnet is a song ; its sound creates music and makes it a lyrical poem. Except for the curtail sonnet, the ordinary sonnet is a poem of fourteen pentameter lines. The exact origin of the sonnet is unknown, but it was first attempted in Italy and it was made popular by the poet. Petrarch in the fourteenth century. So it is called the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, which consists of two parts: the octave (the first eight lines) and the sestet (the last six lines). The sonnet deals with only one idea, especially the idea of love, which is developed in the octave and concluded in the sestet, Watts-Duntton has very lucidly explained this function of the sonnet in the following lines of a sonnet composed by himself : A sonnet is a wave of melody ; From hearing waters of the impassioned soul; A billion of tidal music one and whole flows in the 'Octave' Then returning free, its ebbing surgeon in the 'Sestet' Roll back to the deep of Life's tumultuous sea. (a) The Petrarchan form of which the octave rhyming abcd, abcd and the 'sestet' rhyming cde, cde or sometimes cdc dcd, or in any combination; (b) the Spenserian form which contains three quartrains and a complete rhyme abab, bc, bc, cd, cd, ee; and, (c) the Shakespearean form, again having three quatrains and a couplet, rhyming abab, cdcd, efef, gg. The commonest of all is the Italian from. In the other two forms of the sonnet, a different idea is expressed in each quartrain; each grows out of the one preceding it; and the arguments, themes, thoughts and dialectics are concluded and tied up, in the end couplet. Now let us throw some light on the Petrarchan sonnet. This form of sonnet perhaps developed from the Sycilians strambnotto. It consisted of the quartrains to which were added two tercets. The earliest Italian sonnets are attributed to one Giaconoda Lention (b ) of the Sicilian School of Poetry. But the form might have been invented by another poet at the court of the Emperor Frederick II in Sicily. This famous collection of sonnets was a kind of encyclopedia of the poetry of love and passion. After that, several Italian poets composed sonnets which have still remained popular. They include Serofino dee Aquila ( ), Cartiglione ( ), Michelanglo ( ), Cartiglione ( ) and Tasso ( ). In the sixteenth century, there was also an outburst of sonnet-sequences such as De Bellay's L'Olive (1549) and his Reqrelts and Antiquates de Rome (1558), and Ronsard's Amoirs (1552) and his sonnets Pour Helene (1578). Philippe Desportes ( ) was a minor poet and so less important, but Malherve ( ) was a major poet who was largely responsible for establishing the Alexandrines through his sonnets. In Spain, the sonnet was introduced by the Marquis de Saintliness ( ). Some nobly prominent Spanish sonneteers who followed him were Juan Boscan ( ) and Garcilaso dela Vega ( ). Two poets who established the sonnet in Portugal in the sixteenth century were Miranpa and Antonio Ferreria. The sonnet could not be established in Germany till some what later and than mostly through the work of Weekerli ( ). The sonnet continued to flower and flourish in Italy during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries. By the sixteenth century, it had spread to Spain and France. It reached England through the work of Wyatt and Surrey in the first half Research Scholar (Ph.D), Singhania University, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan) Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September

6 of the sixteenth century. After their deaths, it was not practised for some years. Thus Sidney led the way to a great outburst of sonneteering. Thus sonneteering became a popular habit, a conventional code, a modish artifect of gallanty and compliment. No poet between 1590 and 1600 failed to try his poetic skill at this poetic device. During those ten years, more sonnets were composed in England than in any other decade. Thus, the Elizabethan sonnet took two forms : (i) the Italian or Petrarchan; (ii) the English or Shakespearean form. During this period, both kinds flourished to the full. But the English form of the sonnet flourished better than the foreign model. Wyatt began with a group of the Italian type. Surrey introduced the English form. The Elizabethan sonnets owed a great deal to the French sonneteers who had preceded them. It was contemporary French, rather than older Italian influences which first stirred in the Elizabethan mind a fruitful interest in the sonnet. The first inspiration came from Clement Marot the protestant French poet of the early years of the sixteenth century, who was a contemporary of Wyatt and Surrey. He studied Petrarch with ardour, translated into French some of his sonnets and odes and made two or three original experiments in the sonnet form under the title of Esigrammar. After his death, Ronard and his companions continued writing sonnets. Thomas Watson was the earliest Elizabethan to make a reputation as a sonneteer. Sidney entered the field very soon after Watson set foot there. He undoubtedly, is a pioneer among Elizabethan sonneteers. He may fairly be credited with marching at the head of the contemporary cavalcade of sonneteers. His collection of sonnets Astrophel and Stella was written between the years 1580 and They were not published till Sidney's sonnets form a connected sequence. The poet, under the name of Astrophel, narrates the course of his love and passion for a lady to whom he gives the name of Stella. Thus the theme of the sonnet was nearly always love, the real or imaginary joys and sorrows of the love and his adoration of his mistress beauty. This is the theme of Sidney's sonnets. He writes a whole series of sonnets, which together tell the story of a real incident in his life, his love for Stella who is Penelope Devereux, daughter of the Earl of Essex, and his disappointment. References : (1) Briggs, Harold Edgar (ed) : The Complete Poetry and Selected Prose of John Keats, New York : Modern Library, (2) Bender, R.M. & Squier C.L. (eds) : The Sonnet, New York : Washington, Square Press, (3) Bowra, C.M. : The Romantic Imagination, London : OUP, (4) Lake, Walter Jackson : The Stylistic Development of Keats, London : OUP, (5) Bateson, F.W. : Wordsworth - A Re-interpretation, London : Longmas, (6) Bewell, Allan : Wordsworth and the Englishtenment Nature, Man & Society in the Experimental Poetry. New Haven and London : Yale University Press, MeesOe-he$e Yespeves mebyeboeer efveùece (1) MeesOe-he$e MeyoeW mes DeefOekeâ vener nesvee ÛeeefnS~ (2) efnvoer SJeb ceje"er ceeoùece kesâ MeesOehe$eeW keâes ke=âefleosje 10 (Kruti Dev 010) cew šef&he keâjjeekeâj hespeceskeâj 6.5 cew YespeW~ (3) hebpeeyeer ceeoùece kesâ MeesOehe$eeW keâes Deveceesue efueefhe (AnmolLipi) Ùee Dece=le yeesueer (Amritboli) Ùee pee@ùe (Joy) cew šef&he keâjjeekeâj hespeceskeâj 6.5 cew YespeW~ (4) Deb«espeer ceeoùece kesâ MeesOehe$e šef&cme vùet jesceve (Times New Roman), SefjÙeue heâewš (Arial) cew šef&he keâjjeekeâj hespeceskeâj 6.5 Ùee ceef eâesmeeheäš Je[& cew Yespes pee mekeâles nq~ (4) MeesOehe$e keâer efjeefoe - (1) Meer<e&keâ (2) Syemš^skeäš (3) keâer-je[&dme (5) ØemleeJevee/ØeJesMe (5) GösMÙe (6) MeesOe heefjkeâuhevee (7) MeesOe ØeefJeefOe SJeb #es$e (8) meebefkùekeâerùe lekeâveerkeâ (9) efjejesûeve Ùee efjemues<ece (10) megpeeje (11) efve<keâ<e& SJeb (12) meboye& «eble metûeer~ (6) meboye& «eble metûeer Fme Øekeâej ow - For Books : (1) Name of Writer, "Name of Book", Publication, Place of Publication, Year of Publication, Page Number/numbers. 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Web references : (7) iegpejeleer ceeoùece kesâ MeesOehe$e njske=â<cee (Harekrishna), šsjeheâewš Je Ce (Terafont Varun), šsjeheâewš DeekeâeMe (Terafont Aaksah) cew šef&he keâjjeekeâj hespeceskeâj 6.5 cew Yespes pee mekeâles nq~ (8) MeesOehe$e keâer meeheäškeâe@heer efjmeûe& efuebkeâ kesâ F&-cesue DeeF&[er researchlink@yahoo.co.in hej Yespeves kesâ yeeo ne@[&keâe@heer, MeesOehe$e kesâ ceewefuekeâ nesves kesâ Iees<eCee he$e kesâ meele nmlee#ej keâj efjmeûe& efuebkeâ kesâ keâeùee&ueùe keâes Øesef<ele keâjw~ efjmeûe& efuebkeâ keâer meomùelee keâe Megukeâ Yegieleeve je ^erùeke=âle yeqkeâew Éeje meeroes š^ebmeheâj Ùee pecee efkeâùee pee mekeâlee nw~ yeqkeâ keâe efjejejce efvecveevegmeej nwyeqkeâ : mšsš yeqkeâ Dee@heâ FefC[Ùee yeçebûe : Deesu[ heueeefmeùee, Fvoewj, keâes[ - SBIN Keeles keâe veece : efjmeûe& efuebkeâ, Keelee vebyej Yegieleeve keâer cetue jmeero, MeesOe-he$e SJeb meer[er kesâ meele keâeùee&ueùeerve heles hej Yespevee DeefveJeeÙe& nw~ Research Link - An International Journal Vol - XV (7) September