Chapter 2: Regional classification of Floor Art - Northern and Eastern parts of India

Transcription

1 Chapter 2: Regional classification of Floor Art - Northern and Eastern parts of India Diversity in the topography and geography of our country gives room for multiple styles in floor designs. Each part of the country with its own trees and plants, birds and animals, hills and dales inspires the artist to have multiple metaphors, series of symbols and innumerable images. Though we find certain common stylistic characteristics, each region has its unique style of patterns, custom and faith having enjoined that every important festival and ritual has its appropriate floor designs. In the Northern and Eastern parts, rangoli is referred to as aipan or likhnoo in the Himalayan region, chowkpurana in U.P., sona-rakhna in eastern parts of U.P., mandana in Rajasthan and M.P., aripana in Bihar, alpana in Bengal and chita, osa or jhunti in Orissa. Besides these, a type of rangoli named sanjhi is practised mainly by the temple priests at Vrindavan in U.P. and Rajasthan. Rangoli in all these regions is drawn on festive occasions and various sacraments of life. Besides the floor art, Jyontis (Jyonti,Jyoonti or Jhunti is the local word used for the Jeev Matrikas - Maha Laxmi, Maha Saraswati and Maha Kali) or murals are traditionally painted on the walls of rooms where religious ceremonies take place. These drawings are now made on paper, hardboard or plywood. Even printed Jyonti pattas are available. Similarly, the wall paintings called as thapas are also popular all over the region. It is observed that two types of Lakshmis are worshipped in this region. The one auspicious, benevolent and giver of prosperity is worshipped to seek her protection and blessings, while the other one inauspicious and malignant goddess of misfortune and poverty, called Alakshmi is worshipped out of fear. Numerous rites are enjoined for the clearing of the house of the goddess Alakshmi before the auspicious Lakshmi enters. Drawing of related rangoli diagrams is one of the rites.

2 Besides rice flour and paste, wheat flour is also used in this region for executing rangoli. Wheat when soaked in water for sometime and grounded, it becomes a white liquid like thick milk, which is then used to draw the lines of rangoli. The sheaves of wheat are burnt and its ash is mixed with milk, forming a brown paste which is used for background. Himalayan region and Punjab: In the Himalayan region, particularly the Dogra or Duggar region 142, the making of folk paintings on the floors, thresholds, walls, grain stores, ritual places etc. is still very much prevalent among the common folk. About the floor art of the region, Ashok Jerath, an expert in the field of Himalayan art and culture writes that before making a floor pattern, the floor is swept and brushed with cow-dung; when it is half dried a round stone is rubbed against the surface of the floor to make it smooth. This rubbing forms a half circle in two ways. In normal routine, the hollow of the half circle remains towards the door, but in conditions of mourning or any sad happenings, it is in reverse direction. Thus looking at the floor, the situation of the house is indicated to an outsider, before entering the house. 143 Some rhythmic fluent patterns bounded by foliated borders are also developed by the women with the effortless movement of the figure-tips on the wet coating. These patterns composed impromptu, when dry, appear like a beautiful mosaic on the floor. These patterns are referred to as hangaiyan. The cow-dunging process is known as lipna in the region, whereas the floor art is referred to as likhnoo (writing), dehar (with respect to dehali, the threshold) or chowk. Brown coloured earth, known as loshti (just like the geru used in Maharashtra) serves as a background and sometimes also used to highlight important motifs on the cow-dung background of the floor patterns. Besides rice or wheat flour and paste, white earth known as golu or makol is also used for making the patterns. As elsewhere in India, the patterns are normally executed with their fingers by the ladies but the patterns using makol involves 142 The term Dogra or Duggar is akin to the subjects of Himachal Pradesh, some areas of Punjab and whole region of Jammu. 143 Ashok Jerath, Folk art of Duggar, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, n.d., p.49.

3 a different technique. The makol paste is prepared by adding water to the white earthen cakes. It is then filled in an earthen pot with a small hole at its bottom which is then moved by the women so as to create various circular patterns. 144 Sometimes an earthen jar with a spout is used for this purpose. The woman keeps on moving unselfconsciously in a rhythmic formation, spontaneously creating a large bold, fluent and rhythmic pattern. Here, the fingers or hands are insufficient to perform the job, thus the whole body moves blissfully to accomplish the feat. The patterns so formed are necessarily circular with inset lotus symbols. In this region too no attempt is made to protect the patterns from obliteration. In fact, it is considered to be a good omen if the patterns get spoilt by playful children for that indicate a complete and prosperous household. Intact and undamaged floor decoration would indicate that the house is childless and hence cursed. 145 The courtyard in a Pahari house is cleaned and painted on all important occasions or Bada Tyohar like the New year day as per the Vikram Samvat, the Sayar, i.e. the first day of the month of Ashwin celebrated as first harvest day of the season, Diwali, Shivaratri and the days of the life-cycle rituals. The theme of these drawings are many times derived from a popular folk legend, which the elder woman tells on the occasion while the other ladies draw silently, for speaking while drawing is held ominous. 146 The floral motifs and pointed geometrical figures drawn with rich colour are very popular in this region. The drawing of open petalloid form of lotus, rose and some other flowers on the floor is called as Phullchittarana. In addition to these floral motifs, borders having squares, triangles, wavy lines, leaves and creepers are also drawn (these types of borders are also seen in the Pahari miniature paintings). Besides these, fruits and vegetable motifs are popular. A figure of mango is particularly considered to be very 144 K.L.Vaidya, The Cultural Heritage of the Himalayas, National Publishing House, New Delhi, 1977, p O.C. Handa, Western Himalayan Folk Arts, Pentagon Press, New Delhi, 2006, p Ibid., p.66.

4 auspicious and a symbol of good omen. Burning lamps and Swastika are drawn as auspicious symbols. Like the other parts of India, the figure of eight-petalled lotus, the foot-prints of goddess Lakshmi and the fish are considered very auspicious. These are employed for various sacraments of life and particularly for welcoming the newly-wedded bride in her new home. One popular traditional custom followed by the Dogra girls is during the festival of Rade, which falls on the first day of the month of Shravan. The term Rade refers to the rims of broken earthen pots which, on this day, are arranged in a circle representing the number of males in the house. The central Rada, called Dhama Rada is the biggest and supposed to represent the head of the family. The girls draw colourful floral and geometric designs around these rades. Triangles, squares, and five, six and eight pointed stars are drawn with bright colours. The girls eat their food collectively placing their thali over the rade and later recite songs related to the ceremony. 147 Few popular likhnoos are mentioned below: Likhnoo on Aas Navami day: The ninth day of the bright half of the month of Jyeshtha is called as Aas Navami. Goddess Navami Parmeshwari (the goddess of hope) is propitiated on that day for the wellbeing of the children in the family. She is believed to possess malevolent ascendency over those who defy her rule. According to a tale told on the occasion, once a landlord and his wife had nine married sons. The landlady deliberately defied the goddess one day. On this the goddess became furious and cast a shadow of doom on the whole family. Her temper was ultimately cooled by propitiating her on the ninth day of the bright half of the Jyeshtha by the landlady and her daughters-in-law. From that day onward, married ladies worship Navami Parmeshwari. 147 Jerath, op.cit., p.21.

5 The characters of the tale find a symbolic representation in the drawing made on the floor on this day. Eleven figures representing nine sons, the landlord and his wife are drawn in a quadrangular frame, symbolizing the earth. A figure of an attendant is also drawn in the notch left out at the bottom of the frame. The sun and the moon also find a place in the frame of the earth, probably symbolizing cosmic unity. In two small pockets drawn within the frame, eighteen spots are marked to suggest offerings to the goddess. Though the courtyard decoration is something indispensible festivals and happy occasions, the festival of Diwali see exclusive patterns drawn for the worship of goddess Lakshmi. From the outpost of the house to the seat of the goddess, the path is profusely painted in white and coloured with floral designs and creepers intricately interlaced to an elaborate pattern, with foot-prints of the goddess in an direction. Every bend in the pathway is treated with a rich curvilinear floral design in which a foot-print is prominently Whole pattern is further enriched with the Ashtadala, fish Swastika motifs. on all earths form inside drawn. and In the Punjab regions the wall paintings seem to be more common than the floor painting. Bits of information about the floor art are found in writings of few scholars who have documented the rituals and ceremonies of the the region.

6 For e.g. H.A. Rose mentions about the ritual of writing chowk in Gurgaon, on the deo-uthan day in the month of Kartik, when Lord Vishnu is believed to awaken from his sleep. A figure of Vishnu is drawn near the chowk and worshipped. The chowk is then covered with a mat. The women of the household call in a Brahman lady and sing songs, they then beat the mat with which the figures are covered and then it is believed, the god is awakened from his sleep. 148 It is observed that nowadays the practice of making rangoli is limited mainly to the occasion of Diwali, when decorative patterns are made. Uttarakhand: Aipan is a popular folk art form of Kumaun 149 region in Uttarakhand. These are geometric designs made on reddish background of geru with rice paste. There are specific aipans for almost all religious occasions. The ritual of making aipan has a special place in all Kumauni homes. Just like the Himalayan region, another word commonly used for it is likhai or likhnoo. About likhnoo, C.F. Oldham writes, In the Kumaun region, pilgrimages are made to the temples of Devas and Nagas as well as to those of the Devis and Naginis. These are usually in fulfillment of vows or to ask some favour of the deity, and are often undertaken by married women without children. These pilgrimages are frequently made by night, and in some localities it is customary to make a mark at every few yards upon a stone or other object by the road side. These marks are called likhnoo and are made with a mixture of rice-flour and water. They are a sort of record that the pilgrimage has been duly performed. 150 In earlier times no girl of Kumaun was considered fit to be a bride until she had perfected herself in the art of aipan draughtsmanship. After the marriage ceremony, when she first entered her new home she had to give proof of her being 148 H.A. Rose, Superstitions and ceremonies relating to dwellings in the Punjab, The Indian Antiquary, XXXVIII May 1909, p Kumaun is one of the two regions and administrative divisions of Uttarakhand, a state of northern India, the other being Gadhwal. 150 C. F. Oldham, The Nāgas: A Contribution to the History of Serpent-Worship Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, July1901, p. 473.

7 an accomplished house wife by executing an aipan on the threshold of the house. 151 These traditions are still preserved in few families in the rural areas. The ritual diagrams of aipans are made for poojas, festivals and the various life-cycle ceremonies. The raw material used is simple geru (sienna red clay) for base and rice paste (called as biswar). The execution is swift, direct and simple and made when the geru base is moist so as to enable smooth and swift painting. The rice paste is easily absorbed by the ground and dries within a short time, leaving a bright white design against the reddish brown background. Generally aipans are drawn with liquid colours but sometimes they are also made with wheat and rice floor and dry-powdered earth colours. Aipans are executed in the courtyard (called as kholi ke aipan), on the steps leading to the main door of the house (dwar aipan), on the threshold (dehali aipan) in the pooja area, on low wooden stools, on the vedi during sacrificial rituals, on the inner and outer surface of the winnowing scoop, on the outer surface of the pot in which the tulsi plant is sown or on the floor round the mortar (ukhal) which consists of a hollow stone sunk in the courtyard. As a general rule, each part of an aipan consists of two types of designs the ritualistic and the decorative. The ritualistic designs usually comprise of a yantra or a symbol assigned to a particular deity, which the artist is required to portray in its assigned shape and place, without any change. These aipans are made on the floor of the prayer room and serve as a seat or pitha to the deity, desired to be invoked for the associated ritual. The diagram of pitha is considered as the plan of the terrestrial place where the deity resides. The main symbols employed in this are the dot, triangle, circle, square, Swastika and lotus and their various combinations. In the decorative design drawn around the ritualistic diagrams, the motifs used are often fixed by tradition with emphasis on auspicious symbols such as shankha, betel and lotus leaves, fish, various creepers and so on. However, the artist is at liberty to give free rein to her imagination as to which symbols to use and how to place them. On auspicious occasions, three or four women work simultaneously on a particular diagram. The execution of the sacred chowki or pitha of the deity is often synchronized with songs by the women, chanting of mantras by the priests, the playing of musical instruments by the musicians and the ringing of bells and blowing of conch-shell, thus creating a sacred atmosphere. 151 N.R. Upreti, Folk Art of Kumaon, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, 1961, p.3.

8 Few examples of popular aipans: Pitha or seat of Shiva or Mahadeva - Shiva is the reigning god of the people of the Himalayas. This aipana is drawn for Parthiva pooja, i.e. worship of Shiva who is also known as Parthiva. This pooja is done on any auspicious day during the four months of Baisakh (April-May), Shravana (July-August), Kartika (October-November) and Magha (January- February), the months sacred to Shiva. The ceremony is usually performed with the desire to be blessed with a son. The central part of the design consists of a number of concentric squares with a cross in the middle, representing four pathways, each having a gate at its end. These pathways lead from four different directions to the centre where the main lingam which is worshipped as a symbol of god Shiva is placed. Around it, along the lines of the squares, twenty-eight, a hundred and eight or a thousand and eight lingams are placed for worship. The lingams are made either of cow-dung, clay or rice flour mixed with scented herbs. The larger square indicates an altar or raised platform while the number of lines around it are drawn to represent a low flight of steps leading from the ground to the raised floor of the sanctuary, this being the seat of the divinity. Around the ritualistic design is added border of creeper or betel leaves and the wavy patterns known as lahari bel or border of snail shell called as ganelia bel (ganel meaning snail). Sometimes Swastika symbols are also added in the diagram. Chowki of goddess Saraswati Chowki or seat of goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati These aipans are executed at the time of Lakshmi pooja during Diwali or for worshipping goddess Saraswati at the time of initiating the child in learning alphabets or at the time of thread ceremony. It invariably involves drawing of the two interlocked triangles in the centre sometimes enclosed by ashta-dal kamal, Swastika symbol, foot-prints of goddess Lakshmi all placed in a square or a rectangle, surrounded by creeper borders or borders patterns called tapaki bel (tapaki meaning dots) and linear borders. Sometimes goddess Saraswati is also represented by a five-pointed star. For Lakshmi pooja, an

9 image of goddess Lakshmi 152 and the articles required for her worship are placed interspersed with lighted earthen lamps, on this chowki. Chowki for goddess Durga - Durga, the goddess of power and strength, is worshipped for nine days during Dassehra. The central design of the chowki which is drawn at the time of worship is composed of nine Swastikas woven in an intricate pattern which is called khoria or bhadra. The pattern is made by putting nine dots vertically and horizontally thus forming a square of eighty-one dots which are joined by dashes in a particular order forming nine Swastikas. These nine Swastikas seem to represent the nine names or forms by which goddess Durga is known. 153 The pooja also continues for nine days during Navaratri. Round this diagram is drawn the ashta-dal kamal within a square, surrounded by floral or geometrical borders. Sometimes, the khoria is enclosed by two interlaced squares, a pattern called athajala, i.e. having eight corners. Fish motifs are also used in the border. Janeu or yajnopavita (sacred thread ceremony) aipan Janeu aipan is drawn on the floor or on the low wooden seat on which the boy sits for receiving the sacred thread. The central part of the design consists of the ritualistic pattern composed of seven stars within hexagons which signify the Sapta Rishi or the seven great sages 154, visible in the heaven during night in the form of seven stars, also known as the Great Bear. This pattern is further surrounded by border of floral and cowrie-shell motifs. Dhuliargha chowki Twilight in India is called Godhuli bela time when cows return home from the pastures. The dust rises from their hooves gives the time its name. For weddings the bridegroom's party also arrives at the bride's at this time of evening. It is at this time that an elaborate aipan, Dhuliargha chowki, is drawn on the ground of the or the which house 152 Instead of a clay or metal statue of Lakshmi, sugarcane is cut and placed crosswise. It is adorned with a lehanga and odhni (shawl) to make it look like a female form. 153 The nine forms of Durga are Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kooshmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalratri, Maha Gauri and Siddhiratri. 154 The names of the sages are Kashyap, Atri, Bharadwaj, Jamadagni, Gautam, Vishwamitra and Vashishtha.

10 courtyard for welcoming the bridegroom. This aipana consists of four main parts. The central part with the main ritualistic diagram, consists of four cross lines representing arani (fire-sticks) used in Vedic times for kindling fire. On this the articles of pooja and objects of gifts to the bridegroom and the priest are placed. The top portion of the diagram is called gagari (pitcher), signifying a pitcher full of water. On the two sides of the circle are two branches springing from its periphery which are called phanga. The bottom part of this aipana is called asana, the seat on which the bridegroom stands when he is first received by the father of the bride. On the right side of the bridegroom stands the priest. A separate aipan, similar to Dhuliargha, known as Acharya chowki is made for the priest to stand upon. Sometimes fish, pair of parrots, shankha and Swastika, as a sign of good fortune are incorporated in the aipan. Surya darshan chowki This aipan is executed on the floor or on the low seat on the occasion of worship of the sun. It is connected with the naming ceremony of a newborn child. It is meant for worship at the end of the namkarma of the child, when it is taken out in the open for the first time for having the first view of the sun. It is also drawn on the occasion of surya vrata, observed on any Sunday, particularly in the month of Paush in winter, for obtaining the blessing of the sun god. On the top of the aipan on the right and left are depicted the sun and the moon respectively. The figures in the centre are called suk sarang and represent Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi reclining on the thousand-hooded serpent shesha naga. In the middle is the lotus flower rising from the navel of Vishnu. The lower part of the aipan contains the implements used for pooja. From left to right at the top are athajal (seat for the deity), a shankha, a bell and a kundi (copper vessel). At the bottom are two asanas at the sides, an incense pot, water jug (jal patra) and a lamp (aarti).

11 Aipan depicting Alakshmi The figure of Ghuiya or Alakshmi, the goddess of poverty and bad luck is drawn on the floor as well as on the back side of a winnowing scoop on Ekadashi, i.e. on the eleventh day after the pooja of Mahalakshmi in Diwali. On the day, early in the morning, after the Ghuiya is drawn with rice paste on the back of the winnowing scoop, on the front side of it are drawn figures of Lakshmi and Narayan. Two lighted earthen lamps, one small and the other large, one pomegranate and one walnut are placed on it. The Ghuiya is then beaten by striking against the back of the winnowing scoop with a stalk of sugarcane by the mistress of the house who in this manner goes round every nook and corner of the house uttering the words Welcome Lakshmi, be seated O Narayana, and out you go O Ghuiya. 155 After thus going round the whole house, the pomegranate and the walnut are put into the stone mortar in the courtyard and then threshed with the wrong end of a wooden pestle as an indication of smashing the ill luck of the whole family. The small earthen lamp which is meant for Alakshmi is left to extinguish by itself outside the courtyard by the side of the stone mortar. The big earthen lamp meant for Lakshmi and Narayan is kept inside the house in the pooja area. On this occasion the stone mortar (ukhal) the grinding stones (chakki), the winnowing scoop (soop) and even the broom (koochi) are decorated with aipan since these are important articles for every household. Four pairs of footprints of Lakshmi, who is supposed to be entering the house after the departure of Alakshmi, are marked on the four corners of the diagram. Sometimes lotus leaves and footprints of Lakshmi are incorporated in the surrounding borders. On this occasion, footprints indicating the incoming of Lakshmi and Narayan are also made starting from the threshold of the main entrance up to the house altar where gods are kept. Miscellaneous aipans: Aipans are also drawn on vedis and crossing of four pathways, before and after the important life cycle rituals or Samskaras. The Vedi Navagraha is one such aipan. It is drawn a day before the actual ceremony in order to propitiate the navagrahas for the successful completion of the ceremony (discussed under planets in Chp.4). 155 This ritual of driving away Alakshmi finds mention in the RV where Alakshmi is said to be the non-giver, evileyed and deformed, S.A. Dange, Cultural sources from the Veda, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1977, p.88.

12 After the completion of an important Samskara ceremony, the ladies go to a water pool or spring for the immersion of the pooja remains and other articles. On their way back home, a diagram called syo is executed on the ground at the crossing of four pathways and worshipped. After its pooja, a small coin is put in the middle of the syo and the worshipper and other accompanying ladies pass one by one by crossing over it. The purpose of this ritual is to ward off the evil spirit, which is believed to be thus left at the crossing to choose its own path. Dehali aipans are made on the festival for threshold worship called Phool-dei, celebrated in Kumaun and Gadhwal region. Variety of beautiful aipans adorn the threshold on this day. The woman who draws the best design is supposed to be talented and caring wife who looks after her home well. Entrances to homes are decorated with good luck patterns, which are many times just vertical white lines. An aipan without dots is drawn on the twelfth day after a death in the family. Three days later it is rubbed out with mud and a new one made with the dots thus indicating the end of mourning period. The floor art in the mountainous regions of Gadhwal consists of fresh flower decorations made on special occasions. U.P. Designs in square forms are generally known as chowk. The process of making chowk is referred to as chowkpurana in U.P. The square chowkis are made for glorifying deities like Lakshmi, Durga and Saraswati. These designs have symbolic motifs like the dot signifying the absolute, with a number of concentric circles depicting growth and expansion. These are nearly always associated with a ritual.

13 Besides the chowks, general floor patterns drawn on various occasions are also referred to as sona rakhna. The art form of sanjhi which is different from all the other floor arts makes an interesting study. It is made by priests in the temples of Braja in U.P. and Rajasthan. The theme for the sanjhi is derived from Krishna- lila and the Bhakti movement. The development of this art form, its migration from U. P. to Rajasthan and the Mughal influence visible in it is fascinating. Sanjhi, a type of rangoli made using stencils is intrinsic to the rituals followed during the Pitra-paksha, the period of the ancestors and the departed or the Shraddha month. It is mainly practised in few temples in Vrindavan and the Ladililala temple in Barsana 156 in the Braja region 157 in northwestern U. P. and few temples in Rajasthan. 156 A village said to be the home of Radha.

14 The roots of this temple tradition of sanjhi rest in an ancient folk ritual. Sanjhi, (also known as Sanja, Saijha, Sanjhuli, Sanjhulde, Sinjha, Sanjhya) a vernacular derivation from Sandhya, evening or twilight in Sanskrit (Sanjha in Brajabhasa and Hindi) was originally worshipped as a goddess by the unmarried young girls seeking the boon of obtaining a suitable husband. The practice of creating images of the folk deity Sanjhi made of cowdung and flowers on walls and venerating it at evening time is continued in the villages of Braja, Haryana, Malwa and Rajasthan to the present day. 158 This ritual too is practised during the Pitra-paksha fortnight, beginning with the full moon day in the month of Bhadrapada (August- September) till the new moon day in the month of Ashwin (September- October). It is at this period that male members of the family observe shraddha rites for deceased relatives and the young girls worship goddess Sanjhi, after whom the ritual is named. Only unmarried girls make sanjhi who, after marriage give up the practice and take up the task of transmitting this art form and the associated ritual to their daughters. What makes the study of this ritual interesting is that it is practised in two forms simultaneously- one by the young unmarried girls in their homes and in the temples by the priests and local artisans. There is inadequate authentic material available with which to trace the development of the sanjhi tradition, either as played by young girls in their homes or in the temples by the priests, with certainty. But one thing is certain that the roots of temple sanjhi rest in the ancient folk custom practised by young girls in 157 The two towns of Mathura and Vrindavan and some region around is traditionally known as Braja or Brajabhoomi. 158 It is known as Hanjhya-Hanji in Malwa and Mamuliya in Bundelkhand. Similar practice is also followed by young girls at few places in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Nepal where it is referred to with different names like Bhondla, Bhulabai in Maharashtra. It is followed either during Pitri-paksha or Navratri in these places - Kahani Bhanawat, Sanjhi Balikaon Ki in Sanjhi, Kripalsingh Shekhawat (ed.) Jawahar Kala Kendra and Anu Prakashan, Jaipur, 2005, p.52.

15 their homes. Nevertheless, the common name shared for the ritual and the period of its practice at home as well as the temple provides a clue to the connection between both the rituals. In order to understand the evolution of the temple tradition of sanjhi it is necessary to study the folk traditions first. In the folk tradition, young girls smear the outer wall of their homes and make designs on it by sticking various objects such as flowers, coloured stones, shells, metal foil, pieces of mirror and various shapes made of cow-dung etc. These symbolic depictions consist of motifs ranging from human figures to utility items like ladder, fan, cot, game of dice, eatables etc. The image thus created is venerated at evening time, when the girls perform aarti, sing songs and offer bhoga (food offering) to the deity. This ritual is always referred to as playing, i.e. playing sanjhi. The design is effaced the following day in order to create a new one in the same place on a fresh cow-dung background. The material used in making each day s design is saved and on the last day it is ritually immersed in water bodies like well or river. On the last day, the Sarvapitri Amavasya, a kota or killa kota -the final design is created. This design is very elaborate and includes all the motifs created on the previous fourteen days and the figure of goddess Sanjhi herself, 159 placed in an enclosure having four or eight sides. Interestingly a figure of crow is invariably drawn inside or outside the killa kota. There are various opinions as to the purpose behind this folk ritual. The period of the ritual, i.e. Pitrapaksha leads to the assumption that it is a form of ancestor worship performed by young girls to propitiate the paternal ancestors. Besides, the presence of crow and ladder in the sanjhi design supports this assumption. 159 This ritual appears to have some remote connection with the cult of the Mother Goddess of Indus Valley Civilization which ingrained itself in the Indian folk mind and then lingered on to modern times.

16 Secondly, it is linked with the worship of the goddess Sanjhi, who is none other than Sandhyadevi, a mind-born daughter created by Brahma from his austerities. According to the tale of Sandhyadevi, Vishnu confers a boon upon her that all those who worshipped her would have their wishes fulfilled. 160 Thus it is believed that a girl religiously carrying out the ritual of sanjhi should in return obtain a good husband. Here one can refer to the famous verse from the Braja poetry 161 O Sakhi Vrindavan seems to be covered in flowers It is the day for playing sanjhi So let us go and pick flowers And make a sanjhi of five colours That will submerge the heart in love This verse refers to the playing of sanjhi by Radha, the ultimate lover, seeking the ideal partner, who is of course none other than Krishna. It is believed that Radha created sanjhis in the grove so that her lover would arrive. In the poetic traditions we also find descriptions of Radha, Krishna and the sakhis going to 160 Malti Sharma, Sanjhi: Brahma ki Manas Kanya in Dr. Kailash Chandra Bhatia, Dr. Rajendra Ranjan Chaturvedi, Dr. Radheshyam Agrawal & Shree Mohan Swaroop Bhatia (ed.) Brajlok, Shree Ram Narayan Agrawal Abhinandan Granth, n.d., p Asimakrishna Dasa, Evening Blossoms, The temple tradition of Sanjhi in Vrindavan, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Sterling, New Delhi, 1996, p.28.

17 the forest, gathering flowers and playing sanjhi in Radha s house where Krishna goes in the disguise as one of Radha s sakhi. 162 These poetic descriptions emulate the folk rituals very closely. The Bhagavata P. also describes how, in Krishna s absence, the gopis re-enacted his pastimes among themselves, emulating him and remembering him only. Making sanjhi designs is believed to be one of the aspects of the gopi s behavior. 163 Thirdly, it is also believed that the worship of Sanjhi or Sandhyadevi is Gauri puja (that is, worship of Goddess Parvati) and is to be performed just as Radha worshipped Katyayanidevi in order to attain Krishna. 164 Inspired by the folk tradition, the Vaishnava temples took up the rural concept of sanjhi and transformed the plain, naturalistic images into a highly sophisticated art form while at the same time embedding the sanjhi theme in the Puranic Vaishnava mythology, speaking of Radha and her companions preparing for worship of the goddess Sanjhi. According to Asimakrishna Das, the medieval Bhakti poets writing in Brajabhasha integrated the indigenous folk tradition of the worship of Goddess Sanjhi that they witnessed in Braja into the story of the pastoral pastimes of Radha and Krishna in Braja found in the Bhagavata P. 165 Thus the sanjhi ritual practised by unmarried girls furnished the material for the depiction of sanjhi in Brajabhasa poetry. The creation of sanjhi described in poetry in turn preceded the institution of a temple festival consisting of producing sanjhi designs either with flowers or coloured powders using stencils. 162 Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p.20.

18 The temple tradition of sanjhi has evolved from the folk tradition and received its present shape during the medieval period along with the establishment of Braja as a Vaishnava spiritual center. The rise of the Bhakti movement with its emphasis on individual devotion to a personal god and its celebration of rasa or the aesthetic sensibility seem to have transformed the folk ritual into a temple art, where it acquires a new meaning that of upasana or service to Thakurji. 166 The period of the ritual of temple sanjhi also remains the same, i.e. Pitra-paksha. One of the reasons stated for this is that in the fortnight of Pitra-paksha no other life-cycle rituals or samskaras are performed and thus the priests are relatively free and can afford to spare some time for the sanjhi upasana. The poetries in Brajabhasa focus on the creation of sanjhi with flowers. Flower sanjhis remain an integral part of the temple tradition at Vrindavan where the ten days of the Pitra-paksha prior to Ekadasi are consecrated to making flower sanjhis. These particular Sanjhi designs are the only ones in the temple tradition made by girls. Generally a picture of a particular lila related to Radha-Krishna is placed in the centre which is surrounded by floral decoration. 167 On the last five days (from the eleventh day to fifteenth day of dark fortnight) the sanjhi is made in coloured powders using stencils called as sancha or khaka. The creation of this type of sanjhi requires considerable time and effort and is entrusted to specifically trained professional artists 166 Thakurji is one of the many names by which Krishna is addressed respectfully. 167 The flower Sanjhi may also be made in the temple on any occasion as a manoratha or the desire of a devotee to please Krishna.

19 associated with the temple tradition as hereditary Brahman priests. Probably the practice which began with creation of flower sanjhis gradually evolved and transformed into a highly sophisticated art form of creating powdered sanjhis. Here one cannot fail to notice how a Shastriya 168 art form evolves from an Ashastriya or Laukik folk ritual. The creator of the art also changes from young women to the priest as soon as it acquires the status of being Shastriya. Also, the designs made by the girls on the outer walls of the houses, are created publicly but in temples the sanjhi is usually created behind closed doors and only after the design is complete and the bhoga offering is made, it is revealed to the devotees. The sanjhi art distinguishes itself from the other types of rangoli, by its high degree of artistic perfection coupled with profound mystic symbolism. Given the stronghold of Vaishnavism in the Braja region and its predominant association with Lord Krishna, it is only natural that the art of sanjhi depicts Krishna mythology as its principal theme. Sanjhi is created on an earthen platform or vedi, specially constructed by plastering with mud and cow dung. The vedi is octagonal or in the shape of eight-pointed star (this reminds of the eight-petalled lotus, a mandala linked to early Hinduism, Buddhism and tantric practices). Coloured powder is pushed through a cloth with the fingers onto a stencil placed on the vedi. Whole series of stencils is used; creating a sequence of patterns layered one over the other, like a printing process, resulting in the final image having intricate design and depth. The hauda (also known as hrida or heart ) or the central portion of the sanjhi, constitutes the sanctum sanctorum, encircled by interlocking 168 The priests at the temples in Vrindavan consider powdered Sanjhi to be a Shastriya Kala which requires years of training to attain perfection - personal communication with Shri Neelmani Bhatt Goswami of Radhamadanamohana temple and Shrivatsa Goswami of Radharamana temple.

20 decorative patterns. The episodes in Lord Krishna s life depicted in the hauda are changed everyday. 169 Unlike the rangoli made by women which usually starts from the centre, sanjhi is created from outer side to inside that is, the border is created first and then the central portion. To create the central hauda, a bench is kept in such a way that the vedi remains in the centre. The artist squats over the bench and creates the hauda design. The larger sanjhi, like the one created on the Sarvapitri Amavasya, can sometimes take 12 to 15 hours and 7 to 8 artists to produce. The sanjhi is revealed to the devotees in for the evening prayers. The aesthetic experience of the revelation is heightened by the accompaniment of narrating stories about Lord Krishna's life front of the sanjhi. After worship, the sanjhi is effaced to make the new image the following day. The material used is disposed off in the Yamuna. 170 time songs in for 169 Sometimes the saints like Shri Hita Harivamsa and Krishna-Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the founders of the Radhavallabha and the Gaudiya school respectively are also depicted, especially in the Sanjhi of Radhavallabha and Radharamana temples. However, the Radhamadanamohan or Bhattaji s temple depicts scenes purely based on the Bhagvata P. 170 The priest artists are of the view that though a great deal of effort goes in making the Sanjhi, they feel no pain in its destruction, as the respective design has performed its function, and their duty is simply to create a new one in order to please Krishna again. Thus the ritual is truly an upasana, a service done with the purpose of pleasing Him and to fix the practitioners mind on Him.

21 Besides the devotional literature, the art of sanjhi, has found an eloquent response in the traditions of music and theatre in Braja. The display of a sanjhi design is generally accompanied by musical performances in the Vaishnava temple music styles known as samajagayana and haveli sangeet featuring verses of devotional poetry pertaining to the sanjhi. Rasalila theatre enacts the sanjhi theme in a play called sanjhi lila. Both literature and devotional theatre have interwoven the folk ritual with Vaishnava mythology, speaking of Radha and her companions preparing for worship of the goddess Sanjhi. Sanjhi in Rajasthan: Sanjhi is mainly practiced in two temples in Rajasthan, the Ladliji Ka Mandir in Jaipur and the Srinathji temple at Nathdwara. The main shrine of Lord Krishna in both the temples, have the history of being shifted to their current position during Aurangazeb s period. When Aurangazeb, an intolerant king proscribed Kanhaiya and rendered his shrines impure throughout Vraj, the God was brought in to Nathdwara. 171 The Ladliji ka Mandir in Jaipur too has similar history of having the Gods from the Govinda Dev Temple of Vrindavan shifted there during Aurangazeb s period. The tradition of making stenciled sanjhi is followed in these two temples during the period of Pitra-paksha even today. The Srinathji temple is the main shrine for the followers of the Pushtimarga sect. The various jhankis or episodes of the Krishna-lila are created here in the form of sanjhi designs. The doorway of the Srinathji haveli is decorated with the auspicious plantain leaves and the sanjhis depicting each of the places that are being visited by pilgrims in the course of the annual pilgrimage through Braja, which happens to be at the same time, are made 171 William Crooke (ed.), Tods Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol.II, Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press, 1920, p.609.

22 daily. Thus the devotee at Nathadwara, not so fortunate as to make the actual pilgrimage through Brajabhoomi, can have the feeling of doing so by circumambulating the sanjhi instead and thereby attaining the merit of the pilgrimage. In terms of the theme of the sanjhi designs, the temple tradition of Rajasthan is more similar to that of the Ladililala temple of Barsana than the temples in Vrindavan. Sanjhi designs at Barsana are made according to a planned theme of places and pastimes (lilas) to be depicted during the fortnight of the Pitra-paksha and become progressively larger until the final design or kota is made on the no-moon day. (The final elaborate design prepared traditionally by the young unmarried girls on the walls of their homes is also called as kota) The sanjhis made at the Ladliji Ka Mandir at Jaipur follows a systematic pattern as far as the designs are concerned. The designs made on each day of the fortnight are pre-decided and the same pattern is followed every year. On the first day of Pournima, a Swastika is drawn free-hand with gulal without the use of stencil. This is followed by lotus, Madhuvan Talavan, Kudarvan Bahulavan, Shantanukunda, Kusum Sarovar, Sheshshayi for the next six days respectively. On the Saptami begins the use of stencil and coloured powders. The designs are Giriraj for Saptami, Radhakunda for Ashtami, Gokul Rawal on Navami, Mathura on Dashmi, Vrindavan on Ekadashi, Nandagram on Dwadashi, Barsana-dham on Trayodashi and Radha Baug on Chaturdashi. On the final day of the fortnight, Gaulok-dham or Navkunj is made. If an additional day falls in the Shraddha period, a sanjhi of Shri-yantra is drawn Devdatta Sharma Sanjhi Ladliji ke mandir ki in Kripalsinh Shekhawat (ed.), Sanjhi, Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, 2005, p.36.

23 Stencils of Sanjhi: The temple priests at Vrindavan claim that the tradition of making sanjhi using paper stencils is at least 400 years old. Contemporary evidences show the use of stencils cut out in banana leaves in some temples in Rajasthan in order to decorate the hindola or swing and also the courtyard of the temple. Probably the art of stenciling using leaves was earlier common in India and was later transferred to paper. 173 It appears that though the craft existed in India before the advent of the Mughals, it was during the Mughal period that it got a major boost. The commonalities in terms used for the design embellishments of sanjhi and the Mughal miniature paintings help to justify this claim. The borders of the stencils are known as hashiyas even today. The term hashiya is traditionally used for the decorative borders of arabesque designs in Mughal miniatures, especially made at the time of Jahangir. Sanjhis appear like miniature paintings in a rectangle with decorative hashiyas surrounding it. Similarly the word hauda or howdah is an Urdu word for a decorated seat or canopy on the back of an elephant. In the sanjhi, the central portion of the design is called the hauda or hrida meaning heart or centre. Considering these similarities, one can conclude that the fine intricate work on paper stencils has a major Mughal influence. The artist (who in many cases is the temple priest) starts work only after offering prayers to his guru who taught him the craft, his tools, and the gods. The first stage in the process of creating a stencil is the sketching of the theme and pattern. If more than one copy is required the papers are pinned together on all sides. The cutting of the stencil is the next step. The scissors used are very fine and slightly curved at one end to enable detailed cutting. 174 While cutting, the paper is rotated so that the intricate design can be cut. Each colour requires a separate paper cut of its own which means if a design consists of 20 colours the same number of stencils is cut. Thus in each sanjhi design there is a sequencing of patterns that overlap one 173 Paper came to India in the 15 th century C.E. 174 When not in use the scissors are carefully wrapped in cloth to protect the tip and as a mark of respect to the tool that creates the Sanjhi.

24 another which results in an intricate design with depth. Each stencil is folded at the corner tip, and the artist uses this fold to gently lift up the stencil once the colour has been filled through the cutout. This requires enormous skill. The artist holds his breath as even a faint breathe of air can disturb the colours and gently, in a single movement, lifts the stencil. Thus a beautiful pattern is revealed to the gathered people. (The current status of the sanjhi art is discussed in Chp.5) Rajasthan & M.P. Rajasthan, meaning the 'Land of the Kings', still retains the glory and richness of the olden imperial times with its marvelous monuments, colourful traditions and customs. It covers most of the area of the inhospitable Thar Desert, with one edge paralleling the Sutlej - Indus river valley along with its border with Pakistan. It is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. Rajasthan has an unending cycle of fairs and festivals throughout the year. They are perhaps the most colourful and spectacular in the whole of India. The state is culturally rich and has artistic and cultural traditions which reflect the ancient Indian way of life. There is rich and varied folk culture from villages which is often symbolic of the state. Songs, dance, dramas, puppets, handicrafts, paintings etc., popularly known as the performing art are the major components of the folk culture. Besides these popular arts, mehendi and mandana are the two arts of the women having common ritualistic import. Mehendi, a leaf powder mixed in water, is used by the women-folk for embellishing their palms and feet with beautiful designs, whereas mandanas, the subject matter of the present study, are drawn on the ground of a kaccha house to make it look pleasant and give an elegant appearance.

25 The paintings made by the women on the mud walls of their houses are called thapa. Though the technique of thapas is similar to mandana and the thapas or wall decorations are often referred to as mandana, the major difference lies in the motifs used. Whereas the motifs on the walls consist mainly of the flora and fauna of the region, like the peacock and the floral designs, the motifs of the mandanas are highly symbolic. Though new objects like bicycle, motor-bike, bus, train, aeroplane etc. that have become a part of the villager s experience are incorporated in the wall decorations today, the floor designs even today have remained symbolic with very less outer influence. Mandanas are drawn both in M.P. and Rajasthan. In M.P. the paintings of the Gond and Bhil tribes and the art of Gudna, i.e. body tattooing is very popular. Mandanas, mainly drawn on the floor, too find an important place in the folk art of the region. The word mandana derives from the word mandan which means to decorate. In this sense mandanas are seen as ornaments of the earth. Mandana refers to both a specific form of drawing and also to the act of drawing. In Rajasthani local dialect mandana literally means likhana, i.e. to write. 175 Besides the mandanas, Sanjhi ritual, as discussed above, is also followed by the young girls and temple priests of Rajasthan in the Pitra- Paksha period. Mandanas are drawn on ground finished with cow-dung and clay which is usually crimson red, obtained by mixing rati (red earth found locally in Rajasthan). Mandanas are drawn by women using kharia, a solution of chalk or kaolin powder obtained by dissolving it in water and geru or hirmich (haematite or red oxide) for highlighting the central motif. In the tribal regions, solution of white lime is used on the greenish background of cow-dung smeared floors and walls, while in non-tribal regions of Hadoti, Jaipur and Bharatpur, the red from geru and the yellow from ramraj are also used besides the white of chalk powder. Sometimes kumkum and wheat flour is also used especially in M.P. 175 Jogendra Saksena, Art of Rajasthan, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1979, p.5.

26 It is seen that the cultural confluence in modern age Rajasthan and M.P. has confined this tradition to rural areas where women make mandana on the entrance of their houses after sweeping and washing the courtyard. After the expiry of rainy season the rural women folk repair and smear their house with cow-dung or white-wash them with lime and draw the mandana on their floors and walls. Even today, every time the floor is repaired or replastered, a mandana in the form of a small Swastika or few dots is drawn as a bare floor is believed to be inauspicious. It does not matter if a son remains kunwara or unmarried, but an aangan or the courtyard floor should never be left kora or without a mandana is a common prevailing sentiment which indicates the importance given to this tradition. A kora aangan is a sign of inauspiciousness. One of the myths associated with the origin of floor painting popular in these regions, links it with Shiva s consort Parvati Once Shiva and Parvati had an argument when Shiva challenged her to make the courtyard of their house glitter and dazzle with splendour or else he would retreat to the Himalayas for four months. He added further: if you succeed, your art would spread in the world and be known by your name. Saying this he went away. Parvati racked her brain for very long till an idea struck her. She mixed together dung and mud and smoothed it over the courtyard filling up cracked and flacking surface. When Shiva returned he found the house sparkling clean because of fresh dung and mud plaster but it still did not dazzle with splendour. He called out to Parvati and said: You could not keep the promise. I am leaving for the Himalayas. Parvati, who was inside the house, ran after him to stop him and as she did that, she left numerous foot-prints on the still wet ground and the courtyard began to dazzle as if filled with beautiful flowers. Shiva was astonished and he said: From now onwards these mandanas would enhance the beauty of the houses in the world and in whichever house they would be made, I would come to reside there. That house would prosper forever. Since then, after the house has been given new coat of mud and dung, mandana designs are drawn on it. One may step on to this freshly plastered ground only after the mandanas have been drawn Kaushal, Molly, (ed.), Folk Paintings of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, unpublished project undertaken by the IGNCA, New Delhi, 1999, p.18.

27 It is a ritual art and can be traced to every house in villages and towns, bearing some characteristic differences of the region from where it has originated. Apart from courtyards, floors of the verandah and other rooms, steps, parapets, water- stands and stoves are also replastered during festive occasions and decorated with mandanas. Many folk songs of Rajasthan refer to the custom of smearing the courtyard with fresh, green cow-dung, making chowk designs (square mandanas are referrred to as chowk) with white powder which appears like beads of pearls (gajamukta), putting bandanvar (torana) of mango leaves, and water-pots. For instance- Mharai angana mein chandan lipavo ji Gaja motiyan ke chowk puravo Mharai kumbha kalasa le avo ji Mharai bandarval bandhavoji Bandarvar bandhavo hariye gobara gili dya vo Motiyan chowk puravo. 177 This song clearly indicates the observance of the custom of mandana with white colour on the green background on every auspicious occasion. The lines of the mandana are marked on the floor with the tip of a finger, usually the ring finger. A swab made with a piece of cloth or a tuft of hair is dipped in a liquid pigment made of white clay or lime dissolved in water and gently pressed between the palm and thumb. This makes the liquid pigment 177 Swarnalata Agrawal, Rajasthani Lokagita, Rajasthan Sahitya Akadami, Udaipur, 1972, p.121.

28 trickle down to the floor through the tip of the ring finger. Women seldom repeat the same design as that would be interpreted as their incompetence. Mandana patterns: Mandanas are mainly geometric patterns drawn freely without a dotted grid or any such reference. The mandana designs comprise of three main parts, i.e. the main central motif in red ochre, the laddus surrounding the central motif and filled with bharat or bharana, i.e. the design used for filling the empty spaces and the smaller motifs called as the chhota-mota mandana which surrounds the main mandana. The central motif is invariably enclosed within a circle or a series of lines (called dora) drawn, parallel to the lines and angles of the original motif. Each central motif has its specific name. It is surrounded by bharan or bharavana motifs which include oblique parallel lines, dots, small alternate squares making a chess-board design and many other types varying from place to place and artist to artist. These motifs have special names as chiran, jua etc. Some of the bharat motifs are used at the extremity of the designs while others are generally used to fill the space created by lines and forms. For instance, choya, choga, jhonra (tufts) and laddu are decorative motifs used for breaking the outer regular and hard line of the central motif into soft, wavy flowing lines. Choya or choga is also known as ghughara, ghunghru because in its simplified form it resembles all these objects. It is a formation obtained from a dot and a small curved or straight line, resembling the punctuation mark of coma, but the shape of head may vary. Chhota-mota mandanas: The purpose of using them is mainly associated with the special occasion for which the mandana pattern is made and sometimes to fill up the residual space as well as to enhance the beauty of the central design. These smaller motifs significantly surround the design and are the independent forms of some objects.

29 Few important occasions and related mandanas: There are seven main festivals on which elaborate floor patterns are made. They are: Deepawali in the month of Kartik, Makar Sankranti in Magha, Holi in Phalguna, Gangaur in Chaitra, Bar Pujani Amavasya or the Jyeshtha Krishna Amavasya, Teej on the third day of Shravana Shukla Paksha and Rakshabandhan on the Poornima of the month of Shravana. Deepawali: As elsewhere in India, Deepawali is an important festival celebrated to propitiate goddess Lakshmi. On this day, the courtyard, threshold, staircases, raised platforms on either side of the main entrance are decorated with mandanas. The central motifs used are triangles, sixpointed triangles, hexagons, ashtadal kamal, chhah phoolya (six-petalled lotus), Swastika, bijani (fan), bavari (step-well), Jalis or Tapaki-kamandana (designs made on dotted grids). The chota-mota mandanas scribed on this occasion have motifs signifying the customs and rituals, the seasonal crops and so on, they are as follows: A paglya (foot-print of the goddess) occupies a significant position in these smaller motifs. Papri, a round sweet and salty preparation of wheat and gram flour which is distributed amongst relatives and friends, bharadi, the ear of millet is a pointer to the winter crop that is round the corner and deepak, the

30 lamp indicates the festival itself. Hatri (an earthern toy), baat (weights) and tarazu (pair of scales) are the motifs covering the trade paraphernalia and associated with Lakshmi-pooja. Divata (lamp-stand) and kalamdaan (pen and ink-stand) are also associated with the pooja. Hir (a long lamp of unbaked clay) and santha (sugarcane) point to the hir giving ceremony performed in the evening after Diwali pooja is over. Similarly mori (head decoration for bullocks) and khura (hoofs of cattle) indicates the Godhan pooja which is performed on the next day after Diwali. Makar Sankranti: A mandana named Sankranti-ka-kunda is drawn on this occasion. A kunda is a big round earthen bowl with a flat bottom. In this mandana the circular kunda represent the round disk of the sun. It is a geometrical composition drawn in a set of three,

31 five, seven, nine and like odd numbers of circles. Thus the size of the pattern can be extended or reduced as per the requirement. Holi: Mandana patterns pertaining to the Holi festival wide range of subjects and are indicative of the rites and customs observed by the people during the festival. Holidanda, changa, dapha, khera and khanda are some of the drawn on this occasion. have a ka- motifs Holi-ka- danda represents the trunk of a tree which is erected on the ground and which is then clustered with wood, cow-dung cakes and some discarded things, which is burnt on the Holi night also referred to as Bhogi. Holi-ka- danda comprises of two parts one above the ground called danda and the other buried under the ground and called lalya. As per the local belief, lalya represents Prahlada while danda represents Holika, the sister of the mythological demon King Hiranyakashipu, who was the father of Prahlada. In the bonfire of Holi, the danda standing for vice, gets burnt while the lalya representing virtue remain intact. Thus this mandana, just like the Holi festival signifies the victory of good over evil. The next day after Holi is Dhulendi, the festival of colour, fun and frolic. Men and women sing, dance and make merry. The celebration on this day is incomplete without the musical instruments changa and dapha. The songs sung on this day are at their best only when accompanied by a changa and dapha. Holi-ka-changa and Holi-ka-dapha form good subjects for mandana drawings during Holi. The word khera stands for a village or a small township. Mandanas known as khera, chowk-ka-khera, unli-sunli devari- ka-

32 khera are drawn at the time of Holi. These are invariably surrounded by drawings of weapons like khanda (scimitars), chokris (knives) and swords and mukuta (crown). The significance of these weapons at the time of Holi is mentioned by James Tod as, On the last day of the 40 days celebration of Holi, the Rana feasts his chiefs and distributes Khanda and Nariyal to them as an honour. 178 These patterns indicate a well-planned state having good fortification and ruled by a brave monarch. Sometimes keri (raw mango) motifs surround the mandanas for Holi, thus pointing to the forthcoming harvest of mangoes. Gangour: Gangour is a popular festival celebrated by the women of Rajasthan. Married women worship Gangour (goddess Gauri) for health, wealth and happiness whereas unmarried young girls worship her with a desire for a suitable match. A dish of wheat and gram flour known as guna is prepared on this day. Thus the mandana for this day is termed as Gangour-ka-guna. Other mandanas made on this occasion are paglyas and Singhasan-Battisi-ka-chowk. Bar Pujani Amavasya: The Jyeshtha Krishna Amavasya is known as the Bar Pujani Amavasya. Like in the other parts of India, Rajasthani women too go out of their homes and worship a bar (banyan) tree. The mandana drawn on this day depicts the banyan tree in its natural form along with the roots, trunk, branches, fruits, birds and monkeys and a human figure at its base (discussed under vegetative motifs in Chp.4). Tija and Rakshabandhan: Lahariya (ripples of water) motif, probably indicating the rainy season, is drawn on 178 Crooke (ed.), op.cit., p.663.

33 the occasion of Tija and Rakhi-ka-Nariyal, i.e. coconut design is made on the Rakshabandhan day. Mandanas for some life sacrament rituals: Janmotsava: On the first day of the eighth month of pregnancy called Athavansa, a pregnant woman is anointed and bathed in perfumed water, her hands and feet are decorated with Mehendi and she is decked with gorgeous clothes and ornaments. She is then seated on a chowki (wooden seat) and blessed by other women by placing in her god (lap) sweets, dry and fresh fruits and a coconut. This ceremony is called god bharana, i.e. filling of the lap. On this day a mandana called Athvansa-ka-chowk is drawn on the cow-dung finished ground.

34 On the tenth day after child birth, the mother comes out of her apartment for the first time with the newly born baby in her lap to glance at the sun in the sky and seek its blessings. This ceremony is known as Suraj poojan and also as the Namakaran Samskar Divas or the naming ceremony day. Suraj-ka-chowk, a circular mandana representing the sun is drawn on this day. Yajnyopavitotsava: Traditionally the sacred thread ceremony in Rajasthan goes on for three to four days and various mandanas are drawn for different rituals on the same day. The first day begins by invoking the blessings of Bandyaka, i.e. Vinayak or Ganapati, who is supposed to remove all hurdles and make the ceremony run smoothly. On this occasion, kunhiyan-ko-chowk is drawn. A kuhani means elbow which is clearly depicted in this mandana but its significance is not known. The next day is called as Mandal day and Mandal-ko-chowk is drawn. Bijani-ko-chowk is drawn on the occasion of barana and tel. On the occasion of paharavani or bhata, Sinhasan-ko-chowk is made while on the main day known as the mandap day Panchachowk-ko-jora is drawn.

35 Vivahotsava: All the functions and rituals and the related mandanas for the marriage ceremony are same as the Yajnyopavitotsava, except for the Bahu agaman or the coming of the bride in the bridegroom s house. A lavish pattern named Pasarana (meaning prostration) is made for the reception of the bride. The room in which the Bandyaka is invoked and installed at the beginning of the marriage ceremony is called the Bandyakan-ko-ovara, and it is in this room where the married couple is first directed to, and the Pasarana is made. Pasarana is a congregation of various mandanas like the kaparas (six-pointed star) and the various chowks, but the main pattern is a set of seven thalis, i.e. platters. The platters are drawn in ascending order of size beginning with the katora (bowl) which is the smallest and ending with the seventh one called thali which is the biggest and ends at the feet of Ganapati. On entering the Bandyakan-ko-ovara, the bride-groom first touches the katora with his kattar (dagger) or talwar (sword) and then goes on touching each of the platters as he proceeds towards the seat of Ganapati. The bride follows him bending down and touching each platter, thus giving an impression of collecting them in her arms.

36 Similar tradition of drawing the seven platters for welcoming In the newly married couple is followed in Punjab, U.P. and Bihar too. these regions, sometimes, seven thalis supposed

37 to be picked up by the bride, are actually kept instead of drawing diagrams of the same. Paglya motif: The paglyas or foot-prints form a very important part of a bigger mandana. A mandana without a paglya motif is considered incomplete. Interestingly, the depiction of paglya in Rajasthan is not realistic like the ones from other parts of India, rather it is highly symbolic. Geometric figures like triangles, squares and rectangles find a place in the composition of paglya motifs. Solah-bijani-ka-paglya (paglya of sixteen fans) Sankal-ka-paglya (paglya of chain motif) and Kali-ka-paglya (paglya of sixpetalled flowers) are some of the popular paglya patterns. Besides the paglyas, the bijani (a hand fan woven like a mat), the bavari (step-well), chhopar or chaupad (dice game) and the bara (banyan tree) motifs are very popular.

38 These motifs are very relevant and meaningful, indicating the hot weather of Rajasthan. Bijani is invariably used in every home in the rural areas even today. Bara and bavari are not only present in the region but also form the core of folk tales of the region. The hero of the story generally chalks out his further plans having reached a bavari or takes rest there after a long and strenuous journey. These motifs are drawn in several ways. Either a single motif is drawn or a number of motifs are combined together forming chains which are woven into one another. As mentioned in Chp.1, the motifs like khera and bavari also point to the use of these patterns as architectural plans. In the mandanas, as in the floor art of other parts of India, distinct symbols with definite meaning and purpose are used. The few ancient symbols and motifs that are still used in mandana are metamorphosed and most women do not remember their original meaning or significance. Fortunately, in many cases the names of the motifs survive which gives clue about its meaning and significance. Bihar:

39 Since ancient times, Mithila is reported to be marshy, densely forested and full of lakes, ponds and rivers. It has been mentioned that easy and abundant food, cool climate, ample leisure and peaceful government made it possible for the people to cultivate arts. Mithila enjoyed Hindu rule for longer time because apparently the river Gandak secured Maithilians from Mohammedan invasion. Maithil rulers were known for their cultural accomplishments. The Madhubani paintings of Mithila are world famous. Through the ages, Shiva, Shakti and Vishnu have roused the Maithil s devotion (hence the Maithils customarily use three horizontal lines- symbolizing Shiva, the vertical white sandal paste standing for Vishnu and the dot of red sandal on the forehead indicating the devotion to Shakti). However, the Shivaworship is more widespread. Equally prevalent is the Shakti-worship and Siddhis (supernatural powers acquired through devotion etc.) too are in wider circulation. This is a feature notably shared with Bengal and Assam. Maithili script and literature are also influenced by the Shakti-reverence. Tantric literature abounds and the script called Mithilakshara with triangular alphabets has developed in imitation of the tantric yantras (in tantra, triangle represents three things "desire, knowledge and action- desire is related with goddess Lakshmi,knowledge with goddess Saraswati and action with Goddess Kali). A large number of songs such as Joga are based on pseudo-tantric beliefs and superstitions. There are also many Maithili mantras used as charms etc. The floor art of Mithila known as aripans also reflect the prevalence of the Shakti cult. Some parts of Mithila fall in the territory of Nepal and some in the Indian territory. The aripan is practiced in both the territories in the same manner. The religious-minded people of Mithila celebrate one or the other folk festival in each and every month of the year. It is during such festivals that they draw the aripans on the courtyard, on the threshold of their houses, and at the entrance gate of their houses. No festival is observed without the depiction of the appropriate aripan. Besides the festivals, each and every Samskaras or the life-cycle rituals, including the Shraddha or the ceremony of the dead have a specific aripan diagram. The aripan diagrams seem to have a very strong tantric origin. The yantra of the goddess and the red vermillion dots (rakta-bindu) placed at pre-determined spots in the aripans, sets it apart from other rangoli diagrams. It is believed that one of the basic objectives of the aripan is to purify the Earth, so traditionally the floor is washed with cow dung before beginning the aripan. Rice paste known as pithar in

40 the local language is used for drawing the aripans. Rice powder mixed with turmeric and sindoor is also used for some aripans. Aripans are drawn on several auspicious occasions such as puberty, conception, Chhatiyar of newly born child (sixth day rites after birth), Mundan (head shaving of a child), Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony), initiation into learning and marriage ceremony. Its original form is semi-geometrical with floral diagrams. Each diagram has a well-defined center on which a sacred pot and a plate are kept for ritual purposes. In the book titled Expression in Mithila:Tradition and Painting Jyotindra Jain writes- Aripan are mostly in the nature of semi-geometric floral diagrams. Each diagram has a well-defined center on which an installation of a sacred pot plate, a basket or a seat is made for ritual purposes. The intricately patterned diagrams are dotted with vermilion at specific points. Most of these are in the form of a lotus flower or plant. 179 The Hriday Kamal, the centralized lotus motif, the ashta-dal kamal or the sahasradala padma, the thousand petalled lotuses is depicted in aripan. In some diagrams, the bamboo shoot accompanies the lotus form. As diagrams of the generative organs, the female is an open lotus, the male is the bamboo and the meeting of the two symbolizes union of the male and female. 180 This symbolism often reflects in the Madhubani paintings too. Few examples of popular aripans: 179 Jyotindra Jain, Tradition and Expression in Mithila: Tradition and Painting, Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad, 1977, p Ibid., p.57 & Pupul Jayakar, The Earth Mother, Penguin Books Ltd. India, 1989, p.118.

41 Tusari pooja aripan The Tusari pooja is performed by young unmarried Maithili girls with a desire to get good husband, health, wealth and happiness. This pooja is carried out for one month, i.e. from Makar Sankranti to Falgun Sankranti (December to February), everyday before sunrise. In this aripan they draw three temples, the one on the top in white with plain rice flour, one on the left with a mixture of turmeric and rice flour and on the right with a mixture of sindoor and rice floor. Three strands of darbha grass are depicted on the top of the temples below which are the lotus petals. Five triangles representing the five elements of nature - Prithvi (earth), Aap (water), Vayu (air), Tej (luster), Aakash (ether) are drawn. A yantra of goddess Gauri also known as Bhagavati is made in the centre of each temple. The sun, moon and the navagrahas are also drawn and worshipped. Mantras, expressing their desires are chanted by the girls while drawing the aripan. Prithvi aripan- This aripan is drawn for one year by the married bride, from Magha Sankranti onwards. The purpose is to venerate the mother earth and seek her protection and blessings, as she blessed her daughter Maithili, Janaki or Sita, the princess of Mithila. A triangle as symbol of earth goddess is depicted. Gauri yantra with the rakta- bindus representing the three female powers (tri-shaktis) is drawn in the centre. newly a three Sanjha aripan is depicted for worship of Sandhya Devi (goddess of evening). The whole cosmos is drawn and shown in the form of a temple. Navagrahas, Panch Dev (five gods viz: Surya, Ganapati, Durga and Raudra) and Sapta Rishis (seven sages) are depicted in form of dots. Gauri yantra is drawn in the centre of the temple. Agni, the

42 Kalyan Dei Pooja aripan is drawn to celebrate the Kalyan Karika Devi worship (goddess of welfare). An elaborated diagram depicting sun and the moon, temple (depicting Shiva-Parvati), Gaur (yantra of goddess Gauri in a lotus), Sathi (lotus yantra of goddess Sashthi) and the navagrahas is made. This aripan is drawn on the previous day of all the important sacraments of life (this day is called as kumram), in order to propitiate the gods and planetary forces for successful completion of the ceremony. Raksha yantra aripan is drawn on all auspicious occasions below the seat of the main person for whom the sacrament ritual is carried out, like the seat of the child in annaprashana ceremony or the bride and bridegroom at the time of marriage. The diagram is believed to protect the respective person from evil eye. Dashpat aripan of women and men- Though there are sixteen samskaras in the traditional Hindu code, usually only the main ten samskaras, also known as Dashkarma are followed. The aripans drawn at the time of these Dashkarmas are called Dashpat. Two types of Dashpat are made, one for the samskara ceremonies of females and another one for the samskara ceremonies of males. Besides the usual lotus, fish and peacock motif, the aripan consists of ten stems with a circular leaf, the centre of which is marked with a vermillion dot. Mauhak aripan is drawn usually on the fourth after the wedding. It is drawn on the floor of kohbar-ghar (nuptial chamber) while a mantra day the or

43 prayer is chanted. Mauhak or Mohak means to attract and thus the purpose of this aripan is to mitigate tension between the married couple who may be unknown to each other since marriages are usually arranged by family members. This aripan consists of two fully bloomed lotus flowers or leaves connected by a stem, symbolizing a joining of fates of the bride and groom. They are made to sit before this diagram on a patia or grass mat and perform a number of intimate rituals such as feeding each other. At this time, relatives sing special songs to tease and bless the newly weds. Another aripan mandala consisting of fertility symbols, such as, fish and lotus, is sometimes also drawn on the floor of the kohbar-ghar. Sashthi pooja aripan is painted on the fourth day after the awakening of desire in the young virgin. young girls attain puberty. On this day, the girl is ritually purified with a bath and made to worship goddess Sashthi. This aripan is made to honour the goddess Sashthi Devi. It symbolizes the feminine power of creation and destruction. Its main purpose is to generate motherly power in young girls. Thirty dots representing the cycle of day and night in a month and sixty dots representing minutes and seconds are made in the aripan. In the space within the aripan, float sixty lotuses with three vermillion dots, representing the yantra of Sashthi Devi. At the base of the aripan is a sharppointed flame resplendent with a dot, symbolizing the Madhu Shrawani pooja aripan is drawn on the auspicious occasion of Madhu Shrawani, which is celebrated by the newly married couple from Shravana Krishna Panchami (Naga Panchami) to Shravan Shukla Tritiya. On this occasion the snakes are propitiated by drawing this aripan. The motifs comprise of

44 hundred and one snakes and an intertwined snake couple along with the sun, moon and the navagrahas. Dwad shah aripan is drawn on the ground after the death of a family member. On the twelfth day of mourning, this aripan in the form of a simple white circle without any dot or colour is drawn in the south direction, before the shrine of the Kul-devta, with the chanting of the mantras. It is enjoined to be drawn with the left hand instead of the right hand by the lady of the house. This aripan is effaced with cowdung as the Shradha ceremony comes to an end thus marking the end of the mourning period and beginning of the daily routine of the household. The circle here symbolizes the wholeness or totality or eternity which has neither the beginning nor the end, the point of all beginnings and all dissolutions. In this aripan it probably also represents the consciousness of the continuity of the cycle of life and death. Deepawali or Diwali aripan is known in the Mithila region as Sukharatri Aripan, which is depicted to welcome Lakshmi, on the Diwali night. This aripan along with the Kojagara Aripan drawn on the full moon festival which falls on the full moon day of Ashwin (September), the Gawaha Sankranti Aripan drawn in front of the Kuldevata (clan deity goddess Bhagavati) in the month of Kartik and the Chatu Shankh Aripan drawn on the occasion of Devothan Ekadashi, have very similar patterns with only slight variations. The main feature of these aripans is that these are oblong in shape, drawn with precision from the entrance of the gosauni ghar (room for the gods) to the main pitha (altar). The aripan begins with a five-petal lotus with foot-prints of the goddess (Lakshmi or Bhagavati) in the centre. This lotus is followed by series of inverted triangles or bamboo shoots or circles, with footprints in the centre, as if walking towards the altar. Bamboo shoots along with the lotus are particularly drawn in the Gawaha Sankranti aripan with respect to the belief that Lord Shiva visits the virgin goddess on the night of Gawaha Sankranti, thus symbolizing their union. Similarly, the inverted triangle, the symbol of the power of creation of the goddess is drawn

45 in the Sukhratri aripan. As the name suggests, four shankhas are placed in the four corners of the Chatu Shankh aripan. The aripan ends at the pitha where the Ashtadal kamal is inscribed with the Ashtakona yantra. This yantra is surrounded by auspicious symbols of the sun and the moon and various attributes of the deities. The footprints of the deity, now turned and facing the devotee, are placed in the centre of the yantra. These aripans indicate the entry and settling of the deity in the homes of the devotee, thus assuring the deity s constant affection, protection and blessings for the household. Swastik Aripan or the Sarvatrobhadra (auspicious from all sides) aripan is drawn by the Maithili ladies on the occasions of Tulsi pooja in the month of Kartika and for Maha-ashtami Durga pooja during Navratri. To draw this sacred diagram, the women place one, three, five, seven and nine vermillion dots in ascending order on the prepared space. These dots are placed in a formal arrangement of two triangles, one with its apex pointing towards the sky, the other towards the earth. The dots are joined in such a manner that forty-one swastikas, linked together are formed. This diagram is surrounded by dots and the auspicious symbols of the deities. The main arms of the diagram encompass the four cardinal directions and thus the diagram is Sarvatobhadra or auspicious in its northern, southern, eastern and western regions. 181 The Sarvatobhadra diagram is made on the sthandila (sacrificial ground) at the time of yadnyas since ancient times. All the main yantras emerge from the amalgam of geometric forms that can be structured on the Sarvatobhadra. 182 At the corner of the aripan, four yantras of the goddesses, evolved from the Sarvatobhadra are placed. The panchjanyas or the five conches of Vishnu are placed below the diagram. 181 As mentioned in Chp.1, the Agni P. and the Sharadatilaka describes the drawing of the sacred Sarvatobhadra mandala in five colours. 182 Jayakar, op.cit., p.111.

46 Shada-dal and ashta-dal (six and eight petalled lotus) aripans, with the shatkona and ashtakona yantra respectively are made on various other auspicious occasions to propitiate the mother goddess Bhagavati. The shadadal and ashtadal patterns inscribed in a circular mandala are very cosmic in nature and contains the whole universe including the sun and the moon, the planets and stars, the dots representing the twelve months, six seasons, the cycle of day and night, the hours, minutes, seconds in a day and also the various symbols and attributes of gods. These aripans are drawn to ensure protection from the malevolent forces of nature and to propitiate the goddess. Bengal, Assam and Orissa: From the earliest days of accountable history, Bengal has been inhabited by people belonging to different ethnic groups and cultures, who eventually integrated into a composite whole. Each racial group had distinct cultural traits which too through long centuries of history, slowly and steadily worked out a process of a composite integrated culture which we call as the Bengali culture. 183 An analysis of this Bengali culture, especially the socio-religious rites and practices reveals certain basic forms and ideas that are undoubtedly non-aryan 184 but gradually these rites and practices were incorporated in the Puranas, with a Brahmanical religious sanction. 183 Sudhir Ranjan Das, Folk Religion of Bengal- Part one (A study of vrata rites), S.C.Kar, Calcutta, 1953, p Ibid., p.3.

47 Survival of these non-aryan and primitive cultural traits can be best traced in the folk religious rites and rituals practised by the rural people, particularly the women. From time immemorial women have practised numerous rites for the welfare of their husbands, parents, family etc. and the increase of wealth and paddy. The alpanas, are closely associated with these folk rites and rituals. The alpana patterns remain best documented amongst all the floor arts of India. In contrast to the above mentioned types of rangolis, alpana is not geometric but is drawn free-hand. The word alpana is derived from the Sanskrit word alimpana i.e. a + limpana or a + lepana, which means to plaster or whiten the walls etc. on festive occasions. Like elsewhere in India, first the ground on which the drawing has to be executed is cleaned and smeared with cow-dung. It is then coated with red oxide or geru. Then a mixture of rice-paste mixed with water which is called pithuli is prepared. A quantity of sunned rice (atap chaul) is kept immersed for an hour or two in water and then ground into a paste. It is next mixed with water in a small cup and used to draw the alpana. The female artist holds a small piece of cloth in her right hand and dips it in the mixture which causes the mixture to be absorbed into the cloth. She then draws the different designs with one of the fingers which may slightly protrude beyond the other fingers holding the piece of cloth. The artist always starts her work from the centre of the alpana and goes on building it up step by step. This process of painting, as elsewhere in India, is equated to writing by the women and never as drawing or painting. In the Bengali alpanas, generally liquid white pigment made of rice powder is used but the alpana drawn on the occasion of Maghmandala-vrata (to be discussed later) is an exception. In this not only dry rice powder but powdered colours are also used. The process of drawing designs with coloured rice powder is called gundi chitra. 185 In alpana, there are hardly any quadrangular or instrumental drawings. Circular designs which are complete in itself are the life-blood of alpana. It grows round its own centre which happens to be its 185 Gurusadaya Dutt, Folk Arts and Crafts of Bengal The Collected Papers, Seagull Books, Calcutta, 1990, p.97.

48 natural prime axis. 186 There are a few exceptions like the Lakshmi-vrata alpana having a rectangular form with an opening resembling the mouth of a pitcher. Types of Alpanas: Alpanas may be divided into three classes General decoration at the time of a festival or a ceremony, 2. Asana alpanas and 3. Vrata alpanas General alpanas consist of abstract decorative motifs which are drawn with no specific intentions and their sole purpose remains to be good luck charms. These are non-ritualistic alpanas drawn every morning or during festival and on auspicious days. The artist may take the liberty of imagination with respect to the motifs drawn in these. These alpanas are generally executed on the courtyard or on the floor of a house. It is also found on the upper surface of winnowing fans which usually consist of basketry work or may also be depicted on the outer surface of earthern pots used in socioreligious rites. Asana alpanas are also called as pinrhichitras or alpanas of seats. They can be further categorized into the asana for the deity and the asana for the bridegroom on the occasion of honouring him by means of the baran ceremony at the time of marriage or the asana for the baby on the occasion of annaprasana (the first day when the baby is fed rice). 186 Ajitcoomar Mookerjee, Folk Art of Bengal, University of Calcutta, 1939, p Dutt, loc.cit.

49 A strict rule of chastity in traditional form is observed in the asana alpanas for deities and these again fall into two classes, viz. (a) the ordinary asana alpanas for the less exalted deities and (b) the asana alpana for Lakshmi or the goddess of plenty and prosperity. The asana alpana drawn for the less exalted deities can be identified by the following patterns - a central lotus, drawn with a variety of designs; several concentric rings surrounding the central lotus, accompanied by the creeper patterns; and a kalasha motif drawn around the circumference of the concentric rings. 188 The seat of the goddess Lakshmi never consists of concentric rings. The central motif here is a coiled linear design in the centre of which is drawn two footprints symbolizing invitation, invocation and presence of the goddess. Around these coiled designs, kalashas in variety of forms are made. The patterns of leaf or shankha are placed in the intervening spaces. From one side of this central design of the Lakshmi asana are drawn a series of approaching footprints denoting the approach of the goddess to the seat. The symbolic seat of the worshipper is drawn on the other side. Baran alpanas: The traditional form of this alpana consists of the central lotus with several concentric rings of creepers around which are drawn designs of flowers, animals like horses and elephants and also couple of love birds a favourite motif. These are generally drawn on pinrhis, or wooden seats. The conventional baran alpana may consist of two flowers joined to the same stem, indicating the married couple joined in wedlock. The artist enjoys the liberty of free imagination while drawing the alpanas for other auspicious occasions like annaprasana etc. 188 Ibid., p.98.

50 Vrata alpanas: The third category i.e. the vrata alpana is different from the other two. Characteristically these are highly symbolic and executed in abstraction with the specific intentions for fulfilling the desired objectives. The artist is required to put the ritualistic motifs in their proper shape and place and has no option regarding these factors as the drawn motifs are of great importance in the vrata rite. The term vrata (brata in Bengal) means the taking of a vow or to undergo solemnly certain physical and mental discipline with a view to achieve a desired result or object. 189 Of the numerous folk religious rites and rituals, the vratas or the vowed observances are the most important. It is believed to be a nonsacrificial rite prescribed by the Aryans to purify a vratya, a non-sacrificer and introduce him to the Aryan fold. This rite was named after the vratyas. 190 As discussed in Chp.1, the Atharva Veda has a long hymn that describes the vratyas. 191 Whether the vratyas were from the Vedic fold or came from outside, their rites were admitted or re-admitted within the Vedic tradition. The Atharva Veda treats of the vratya ritual; our knowledge of it stems from this source. It is believed that the Atharva Veda was written when the Vedic Aryans migrated towards east of India. 192 The Kaushika Sutra, written several centuries after the Atharva Veda, places the Atharvan hymns in their ritual setting. The spells of the hymns were gathered and their corresponding ritual practices recorded. There are a large number of rites and magical acts, named the Strikarmani, that pertain to women. They are prescribed to obtain a good husband, to become fecund, to destroy a rival, to protect the embryo and to capture a truant woman. The making of picture and effigy, to do evil and to protect, are integral to many of the rituals. Later, many of these magical rites were translated into thousands of vrata practices and cults. These were the keys to mysteries and energy, held and kept secret by women S.K. Ray, The Ritual Art of Bratas of Bengal, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta, 1961, p P.V. Kane, History of Dharmashastra, Vol.II, pt. I, 2 nd ed., B.O.R.I., Poona, 1974, p S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, op.cit., p Ibid., p Jayakar, op.cit., p.60.

51 The vrata-rite which emerges from this descent is primarily used for homeopathic magic which is explained by Sir James frazer as the magical principle based on the law of similarities. The vratas observed by women in Bengal are locally known as Meyeli vratas. These Meyeli vratas can be further subdivided into three categories: those observed by widows, those observed by married women called Subhasini or Suvarcani vrata and those observed by unmarried girls Kumarivrata. Besides, there are certain other vratas which are observed both by married and unmarried girls. 194 The vratas observed by the widows are concerned more with mukti rather than bhukti or satisfaction of worldly desires. However, the vratas observed by the married women and young girls are for the fulfillment of worldly desires and for material prosperity. Abanindranath Tagore in his monograph on vratas states that any ritual performed in a society with desire is called vrata and thus the nucleus of vratas is a desire. 195 In these vratas, the real primitive magico-religious elements are found. These are concerned mainly with the two fundamental instincts of human life- to live and to procreate. Hence most of the rites are observed for obtaining good husband and children, food and wealth, ample supply of paddy etc. A vrata-rite thus consists of aharana i.e. collection of articles for the observance of the rite; the art alpana in which one finds the representations and reflections of the desires of the vratees; the magical spell - chhada i.e. the expression of desires which are chanted during the observance of the rite; and lastly, the katha or the tale which establishes the justification of the rite. Vratas also include song, dance, visual imagery along with magic formulae of incantations and gestures. 194 Sudhir Ranjan Das, op.cit., p Abanindranath Thakur, Banglar Brata, Pub. Kumkum Bhatacharya, Vishwabharati, Calcutta, Ist ed. 1890, latest ed. 1954, p.4.

52 The vrata-alpanas are mainly drawn in front of the altar or in some cases they are drawn in the open, next to a pond or river bank. Each vrata has its own alpana. The alpana related to a vrata must clearly depict the object the vratee desires to have, otherwise its performance will be meaningless and impossible. 196 In this rite we can often detect a sort of magical aspect than religious. The root of vrata rituals lays in the belief that desire when visualized and made concrete through diagrams and activated through spell and ritual gesture, generates an energy that ensures its own fulfillment. The rites and the magical utterance of chhada along with the alpana paintings themselves reveal such characteristics. The principle of sympathetic magic is applied here based on the principle of like produces like or that an effect resembles its cause. 197 Few vratas with the accompanying alpanas are discussed below: Lakshmi vrata: In the case of Lakshmi vrata, which is the vow to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good luck, girls draw footprints of Lakshmi so as to evoke her on the spot of rite and lead her inside the house by drawing more and footsteps in walking position. There are lots of other auspicious and meaningful designs like lotus, swirls and tassels, creepers and rice husks drawn along with the footsteps to ensure the fertility and over all well-being of family and the vratee herself. An owl, the vehicle of Lakshmi in Bengal is an indispensible part of this alpana. end the girls draw a mandala in which various precious the the more the At the 196 S.K. Ray, op.cit., p J.G.Frazer, The Golden Bough, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, 1957, Vol.I, p.14.

53 objects that they like to obtain are drawn one by one, each with the magical spell chhada. The objects range from a beautiful saree, gorgeous ornaments, rich paddy fields, modern house to live in, handsome husband, etc. By painting these and chanting chhada, they believe the drawn objects and the uttered words would come true as they have the magical power of fulfilling their desires. Senjuti Vrata: In this vrata too, the girls through prayers and songs express their ambition, their sweetness of temper and even bitterness of feeling and jealousy. These desires are expressed by drawing the desired object and praying for the fulfillment of the desires simultaneously. With a solution of powdered rice the girl makes a bracelet and with joined hands pray I worship thee, oh bracelet of rice-paste, may I have a pair of golden bracelets, grant me this boon. Similarly, she draws a palanquin and says- Let me be borne in a stately palanquin from my father s house to my father-in-law s which is suggestive of a desire of being married to a rich husband. Then she makes a kitchen, a cow-shed and a dwelling house with the same material and prays to them each in the aforesaid manner that she may have these made of bricks. She also draws and prays for diamonds and jewels to wear. 198 Even a sort of black magic is performed in this vrata. Besides the above prayers, towards the end of the vrata-rite, the vratee seeks the aid of the deity for another reason which was once a frequent occurrence in our society; that was polygamous marriage, current till very recently. The coming of a co-wife is not only undesirable but also painful and hence the maidens pray to god through the observance of this vrata, that co-wives may not 198 P.K. Maity, Folk Rituals of Eastern India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1988, p.94.

54 enter their future married life. But thinking of the deeply-rooted practice of polygamy, a practice which cannot be removed through prayers only, they utter various curses or maledictions for the satin or cowife. She sings Oh Hara (Shiva)! I pray to thee for a boon. Let my husband (in future) be a king and myself a queen, and let my (possible) co-wife be a maid, and once a year let me come to my father s house. By drawing a vermilion container she sings: Handling the vermilion container, kill the seven co-wives by burning. By drawing the cooking knife, she sings: knife, knife, cut the vegetables for the funeral of the co-wife. I shall put alta (red mark) on my feet by the blood of co-wife and so on. 199 This and many such spells indicate the severe social position of women in olden times. Maghmandala-vrata: As mentioned earlier, the alpana of the Maghmandala-vrata is rather peculiar and exceptional and more elaborate than the other vratas. Here, unlike the other vrata alpanas, dry rice powder and powdered colours are used. But the general characteristics of the vrata rite and the chhada remain similar to the other vratas. 200 As the name suggests, this rite is observed at the end of the month of Magha (Jan-Feb), at the end of the winter season around the time of winter solstice. It is a pre-puberty rite and is observed by girls aged 199 M.A. Konishi, Symbological Significance of Alpana Painting of the Maghmandala Vrat Rite in Bengal, Kirti Trivedi (ed.), Indian Symbology, IDC, 1987, pp This vrata is popular in Bangladesh and is known by various names in different parts of the land, such as Magha vrata, Surya vrata and Chungi vrata (Ibid., p.103, ft. nt.).

55 between 5-10 years for a period of five consecutive years. Traditionally the alpana of the Maghmandala vrata was drawn near a pond where the sun is ritually invoked by doing pooja and chanting chhadas. The chhadas or the chanting in the song form mostly contain erotic descriptions of love-making, marriage, birth of sons, performance of samskaras etc. In this alpana, the five circles with the sun at the top and the moon at the bottom are to be drawn by lines incised on earth. 201 The vratees begin with a single circle and go on adding an extra circle every year till the fifth year of their observance of the vrata. The first circle is green - filled up with the powder of dry bel leaves, the second one is yellow - filled with pounded turmeric, the third one with burnt husk powder is black, the fourth one with powdered rice is white and the fifth one with powdered brick is red. The sun is fully covered with powdered brick and the moon with powdered rice. 202 Tara-vrata: The alpana of the Tara-vrata is the most favourite of the young girls. As the name suggests this vrata is an invocation to stars and thus stars form the central motifs of these alpanas. The alpana drawn is known as the Bhu-mandal or the universe. 203 In the mind of the young girls the universe consisted of the sun, the moon, the stars and the earth. Traditionally drawn every day in the month of Magha, on the last day of that month all the motifs drawn before are to be drawn simultaneously. Tara-vrata is mainly performed to gain the rain waters and is also known as Vasundhara vrata. It is addressed 201 Mookerjee, op.cit., p Ibid., p T. M. Chatterjee, Alpona, Orient Longman Ltd. Calcutta, 1948, p.49.

56 to the thunder god Indra and sometimes to the river Ganga and Varuna as the main deities of the rite. On the right of this alpana is the Bhu-mandal including the sun, the moon and the earth. Seven stars, perhaps the Pleiades, are depicted in the middle of the circle representing the earth. On the extreme right top is found an anthromorphic figure of Indra, with wavy hair. A threshold is drawn below the crescent on which the vratee stands at the time of worship when she recites the chhada and places the flowers on different objects of the alpana. The other objects on the left are the things desired by the devotee like the ornaments, vermilion pot, comb, mirror, dhaner morai or the granary, conjugal birds, fish, bride and bridegroom in the palanquin and so on. After the alpana is drawn, a ritual is conducted where, in a small earthen jar with tiny holes, water is poured and allowed to flow out through the holes. An over-all effect of rain water is created. Flowers are arranged in eight directions and the vratee then makes an invocation appealing to the gods to grant her family, wealth, progeny and happiness. This vrata is performed in the evening when the sun and the moon are visible in the sky. 204 Ajitcoomar Mookerjee, gives an interesting description of alpana found in one of the popular ballads in Mymensingh Gitika. 205 (Songs of Mymensingh, a district in Eastern Bengal, current Bangladesh). This ballad called Kajalrekha gives a vivid account of how a country girl illustrates a vrata-story by drawing the alpana. Describing the material and the process of making rice paste, it says, she (Kajalrekha) kept handful of rice of a very fine quality-the shali, under water, until they were thoroughly softened. Then she washed them carefully and pressed them on a stone and prepared a white liquid paste. Regarding the symbols it is said that first of all Kajalrekha drew the adored feet of her parents which were always uppermost in her mind. She next drew two granaries taking care to paint the foot-steps of the harvest goddess in the paths leading to them, and she introduced at intervals fine ears of rice drooping low with their burden. Then she drew the palace of the great god Shiva and his consort Parvati in the Kailasha mountains. In the middle of a big lotus leaf she painted Vishnu and Lakshmi seated 204 Ibid., p Mookerjee, op.cit., pp.9-10.

57 together, and on a chariot drawn by the royal swan, she painted the figure of Manasa Devi to seek her blessings. Then she drew the figure of witches and the Siddhas who could perform miracles by tantric practices and next of the nymphs of heaven. She drew a Seora grove (Trophis aspera) and under it the figure of Bana Devi (the sylvan deity). Then she painted Raksha Kali-the Goddess who saves us from all dangers, the warrior-god Kartikeya and the writer-god Ganesha with their respective vahanas or animals they rode. And then Ram and Sita and Lakshamana were drawn by her admirably. The great chariot Pushpaka, the aeroplane was sketched in her drawings and the Gods Yama and Indra were also introduced in this panaroma. Besides these drawings she also painted the sea, the sun and the moon and last of all an old dilapidated temple in the middle of a woodland with the picture of a dead prince inside it. She drew all figures excepting her own. When the painting was finished, she kindled a lamp fed by sacred butter and then she bowed down with her head bent to the ground. In this vrata-tale, the whole cosmos with its flora and fauna, with gods and goddesses and three worlds: celestial, mortal and netherworld are made to come alive in consecrated space of the sacred diagram and circumscribed time of the ritual, in order to propitiate and activate the life-generating principle. As discussed in Chp.1, the motifs of vrata alpana appear like picture-writing and are hieroglyphic in nature. Abanindranath Tagore in Banglar Brata writes about the hieroglyphic character of these motifs. Traces of these forms and motifs are frequently noticeable in the sketches and pictographic marks of ancient times some resembling the ones of Egypt Abanindranath Thakur, op.cit., p.68.

58 Besides the above mentioned types, the alpanas of nagas are very popular in Bengal and Assam. The naga cult as prevalent in this region is somewhat different in character from the other parts of India. An anthropomorphic serpent goddess known as Manasa is worshipped in Bengal. An exclusive cult known as the Manasa-cult has developed in this part of the country and is highly popular among all sections of the Hindus, especially among the lower classes in some areas. The last day of the month of Shravana (July-August), instead of the Naga-Panchami day, is the day for ritual worship. The rites are conducted either at the public places of such worship or in the houses of the individual worshipers. Clay images of

59 goddess Manasa are made and worshipped. The floors of rooms, verandah and the courtyards are beautifully decorated with special alpanas resembling the winding gait of the serpent. 207 Similar ritual is also practised in East Bengal, (today s Bangladesh) where on the serpent festival the entire venue of worship is decorated with alpanas representing serpents in various forms. Around these drawings other paintings illustrating the chief incidents of the principal Bengali snakestory related to goddess Manasa are also drawn. Coloured powders are used in such drawings. The entire floor of the room appears to be a picture- gallery. From the first day of the Bengali month of Shravana until the day of the worship, which falls on the last day of the month, the principal snake story is recited in part every day after nightfall before the assembly of villagers. The immersion ceremony of the deity takes place on the day following her worship. 208 As in South India, there are records of Nagamandal nritya being performed by Vaidyas of Bengal to appease naga. Rangoli of naga is drawn in the mandap and the Vaidyas perform the ritual dance around it. 209 The Kamakhya Temple in Assam is one of the most venerated Shakti shrines in India, and is regarded as one of the Shakti pitha associated with the legend of Shiva and Daksha Yagna. Assam traditionally has been known as the Kamarupa Desa and has been associated with tantric practices and Shakti worship. Ritualistic diagrams for tantric practices are drawn in the region. 207 Asutosh Bhattacharyya, The Serpent as a Folk-Deity in Bengal, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1965, p Ibid., p Joshi & Hodarkar, (ed.), BSK, op.cit., 1967, Vol.4, p.745.

60 Rangoli also forms an important part of the Bihu festival, a popular harvest festival of Assam. Floor art in Orissa is known by various names like chita, osa and muruja. The term osa in Oriya means vrata and hence the designs related to vrata rituals are referred to as osa. These are made using rice paste. Muruja is a powder of a light variety of limestone, (usually used by tribals to make diagrams in the temple of Puri) hence very often the floor patterns are referred to as muruja. Though chita is the most common name for the floor art in general. Traditionally, besides the threshold, the entrance of the house and the pooja room, the chitas are also made in the kitchen, the dhaner marai (the place where grains are stored), cow-shed, near book-shelf and the treasury, a place where valuables like ornaments are kept. Most of these patterns are lotus shaped mandalas. The drawings of the feet of the goddess Lakshmi, shankha, chakra, gadaa, fish, the chhatra (umbrella), alata -chamara (a fan for the deity made of peacock feathers), are other commonly used designs. Besides the circular lotus mandalas, square mandalas depicting an assemblage of some objects is also drawn like the Bela patri mandala, Rabibara brata mandala, Shankha mandala, Satyanarayan mandala, Farua mandala and so on. An interlaced snake mandala in five colours is drawn on the day of Anant Brata. A statue of goddess Lakshmi and Narayan is placed on it and worshipped. Like the alpana of Bengal, some of the chitas appear to be like a picture-writing where the ladies depict the objects of their desire like the ornaments, mirror, fan etc. along with the auspicious symbols.

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