Setting the Tone for America s Laborers. Thomas Wright. Junior Division. Historical Paper. Paper Length: 2,458 Words

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1 Setting the Tone for America s Laborers Thomas Wright Junior Division Historical Paper Paper Length: 2,458 Words

2 1 In a time when labor laws and unions were virtually nonexistent, going on strike served as the only way to protect and justify the rights of those working amidst America s first industrial boom. The Pawtucket strikers of 1824, led by a group of women, embodied a communal approach in restoring wages and working hours. In spite of the fact that women lacked many essential rights and powers, notably the right to vote, they took the responsibility of standing up for what was just, fighting against the exclusively male management system. The development of mill communities at the turn of the 19 th century provided the backdrop for the acts of defiance in factories, including the events that transpired during the historic Pawtucket mill strikes. Beginnings of Mill Culture In 1768 Samuel Slater was born in Derbyshire, England. At a young age, Slater worked at a textile mill near his hometown. These mills used Arkwright technology, the first method of spinning cotton fibers. 1 Slater believed the textile industry would be successful in the United States, the center of cotton farming. Yet Slater faced a dilemma; British laws prohibited the spread of knowledge of textile mills and industry to different countries. 2 Despite these harsh guidelines, Slater immigrated to America in 1789 in pursuit of establishing a textile industry. He had been able to remember the exact set up and operation of the textile mill and its functions. His actions effectively took a stand against British regulations. When news spread to England about Slater s feat, he was dubbed, Slater the Traitor. 3 1 Kulik, Gary. "Notes on the Historical Significance of the Blackstone Valley," 1. 2 "Samuel Slater." They Made America, slater_hi.html. 3 "Samuel Slater." They Made America

3 2 After landing in New York, Slater learned of a location along Rhode Island s Blackstone River, perfect to suit the needs of a mill. This area, known as Pawtucket, became one of America s key centers of industry. Slater s dream of establishing Arkwright machinery became a reality at Pawtucket Falls, adjacent to Pawtucket, in A few years later in 1793, Slater opened America s first textile mill, which spun natural cotton fibers into yarn using power generated by the Blackstone River. A Quaker merchant, Moses Brown, financed his aspirations. This unprecedented technology drove the establishment of mills on the rivers of New England, mainly in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. Combined with the demand for experts in mill technology and textile production, this helped spark the Textile Mill Revolution in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 4 The seventh president of the United States, Andrew Jackson, titled Slater as, The Father of the American Manufacturies [sic]. 5 The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 helped strengthen the future of the textile industry in America. The cotton gin separated seeds from cotton fibers, making preparation immensely quicker. With the cotton gin and cheap slave labor, the cotton industry was born. Textile mills would have still succeeded without the cotton gin but on a much smaller scale. A rise in slavery occurred in the early nineteenth century, driving the production of even more cotton. Northern mills such as Slater s now had a surfeit of cotton, causing the mill industry to boom in New England. 6 In addition, the 1809 American Embargo of British Textiles allowed domestic mills to thrive. The United States now had the textile industry to feed economic development. 7 4 Mill Times Directed by Larry Klein, screenplay by David Macaulay, PBS Home Video. 5 "Samuel Slater." New World Encyclopedia. 6 Brezina, Corona. The Industrial Revolution in America: A Primary Source History of America's Transformation into an Industrial Society, Mill Times, PBS Home Video.

4 3 Working in the Mills Shortly after Slater established his mill, knowledge of the Arkwright technology spread among Pawtucket s residents. Within a few years, numerous textile mills lined the Blackstone River. Pawtucket became one of the most sought after destinations of the early nineteenth century and an epicenter of business. In Pawtucket, Slater founded the ideology of the American Factory System. Also known as the Rhode Island System, this new method manufacturing goods using machinery and the division of labor. Gary Kulik, an expert on the history of the Blackstone River mill culture states that mills were, incubators of a new discipline of work, driven by clock time and the pace of machinery. 8 Technology also drove a change in the workforce. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell developed a method of integrating the whole process of manufacturing textiles in one location. He combined the spinning and weaving processes for producing cotton-made goods, which required newly skilled workers: weavers. This technology spread to existing mills in the Northeast. 9 A pattern of workers began to appear inside Pawtucket mills. Owners experimented with hiring entire families to work different occupations within the grounds of a mill. Families with children were highly sought after due to their adaptability to mill life; family members moved up the ranks, solidifying the family s ties to the mill. In 1790, less than 1% of Americans lived in cities, but that number rose to roughly 10% in 1835, as a result of textile mills. Mill families earned around $658 dollars per year, whereas farm families earned only $180. By 1820, more than 50% of mill employees were children, helping to provide a better life for their families Kulik. Notes on the Historical Significance of the Blackstone Valley, Mill Times, PBS Home Video. 10 Simonds, Christopher. Samuel Slater's Mill and the Industrial Revolution.

5 4 To accommodate entire families working at a mill, some owners provided whole communities that revolved around the mill. Amenities included housing, churches, and stores; Slater even provided Sunday schooling for children who worked at his mills. However, access to these conveniences resulted in reduced wages and indebtedness to the company store. Although it seemed on the surface that mill communities were wonderful places to live and work, the prevalence of miserable conditions persisted. Large amounts of heavy machinery existed in mills, making them intolerably loud places. In wintertime, conditions became extremely cold, yet in summertime it turned unbearably hot. The mills did not have insulation and windows remained shut. As a result, cotton dust became trapped inside mills, producing respiratory illness. 11 Instances of abuse and negligence were also common. For example, in 1823, a Pawtucket mill overseer was found guilty of assault and battery of a young girl working in a textile mill. 12 Rebellious Actions When life in mills became exceedingly bad, workers of the factory system turned to firm resistance against authority, both through direct strikes and in symbolic form. Resistance came in many variations such as verbal, written, work stoppages, and defiance of company regulations, but rarely did labor organizations come together. Opposition infrequently included violence or destruction. Often times, workers stole small goods from mills in the attempt to betray mill owners. Workers knew they could be fined, yet they still took the risk to seek revenge on mill owners. Absenteeism also functioned as another example of resistance. Individuals didn t come to work for periods of time until mill owners restored their wages. In some instances, workers 11 Simonds, Samuel Slater's Mill and the Industrial Revolution. 12 Zonderman, David A. Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, , 127.

6 5 never did return to that specific mill. The people who regularly left jobs attempted to form worker guilds, but had virtually no success. 13 Protest sent mill owners a bold and serious message about the need for change. These actions questioned the power of management within mills, mill communities and even the future of the industrialization movement and the factory system. Protest proved most effective because it empowered a collective group of people wanting change. This led to the earliest recorded strike at a textile mill in Waltham, Massachusetts in An excerpt from Waltham machinist Isaac Markham in a letter to his brother summarized the strike details, "A few weeks since they cut down every unmarried mans [sic] wages (except mine) that they employ & without giving them the least notice until the day came for payment the same trick was played off on all the girls but they as one revolted & the works stopped 2 days in consequence." 14 Protest in Pawtucket The cotton manufacturing industry fell into a depressed state in the spring of 1824, with profits down seven percent from the previous year. 15 Despite being the cradle of the American textile industry, most of Pawtucket s mills remained relatively small, in comparison to larger and newer mills opened in Massachusetts. A feeling of anxiety overwhelmed Pawtucket textile manufactures and mill owners, and the possibility that their ownership in the mill industry could vanish became plausible. To combat competition, mill owners realized they needed changes and made a bold move. As reported in the Rhode Island American on June 1st, On Monday the last 13 Zonderman, Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, , Zonderman, Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, , Kulik, Gary. Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island, 17.

7 6 there was a meeting of the manufacturers, which was generally attended, and an agreement made to run the mills about an hour longer, and to reduce the wages of those who worked by the piece, after the 1st of June, about 20 percent. 16 Although not designed as a direct assault on Pawtucket s mill workers, the new regulations had immediate results. As piece rate weavers, the new rules impacted the women of Pawtucket the most, as their paycheck depended on the quantity of products they produced. These weavers already worked ten to twelve hour days and received minimal payment, which would now be even lower. The changes made caused a more organized strike known as the turnout that occurred in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The citizens of Pawtucket were, in a state of excitement and disorder, 17 as reported by the Rhode Island American. The sheer number of entire families working at mills, created a communal outcry in Pawtucket. When hearing of the recent changes set by the mill owners, weavers felt determined to revert the rules to their original form. 18 Weavers and non-weavers alike assembled in parliament, 19 or great numbers, around the entrance of mills, preventing individuals from entering. The objective had been to block those in support of the mills from working, but without force. Those not directly harmed by the changes rebelled because of the effect on the whole of the community. A combined total of more than 500 strikers participated, 102 of them weavers. These turnouts symbolized the first strikes to ever be led and organized by women in American history. Union or textile manufacturing rights groups did not exist, creating a completely independent worker movement within the city of Pawtucket. The strikers actions were unprecedented, so a successful strike seemed to be an impossible feat Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American. 17 Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American. 18 Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American. 19 Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American. 20 Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American.

8 7 On Wednesday, May 26 th, Pawtucket merchant George Foster Jenks began to document the daily progress of the weavers in his personal journal. He noted, The people are yet unsettled and I think we have not seen the worst of it yet. 102 weavers met at the meeting house over the river (Female Weavers) and formed a resolution not to work for less wages [and] not more than 12 hours a day. 21 That same day, the Rhode Island American described a game-changing scene in the streets of Pawtucket, A tumultuous crowd filled the streets, led by the most unprincipled and disorderly part of the village, and made an excessive noise -they visited the houses of manufacturers, shouting, exclaiming and using every imaginable term of abuse and insult. 22 In addition, strikers smashed a window at the Yellow Mill, but none of the rioters broke into the actual mill. They weren t focused on destruction and the endangerment of personal safety. Strikers also ignited seven bales of cotton near a window in Edward Walcott s mill. Local residents and mill workers easily controlled the fire. Strikers set the fire to send the message that they didn t want to harm their city, but sought a settlement with owners. 23 Prior to the Pawtucket strikes, America had never seen protests to this degree. As stated earlier, previous protests rarely exhibited violence and extreme disrespect towards mill owners. By Friday, all but one of the factories that participated in the cuts and extensions stopped operations for an indefinite period of time. Ironically, A.B. Slater, descendant of Samuel Slater, kept his mill open, the only one to continue operations through the strikes. Those in mill societies described him as "straight as a line." 24 No signs of stopping the protesters appeared in sight. Mill owners became increasingly uneasy with the situation facing them. The longer the lockout lasted, the more profound the 21 Jenks, George Foster. Memo George Foster Jenks' Diary. 22 Riots at Pawtucket. Rhode Island American. 23 Zonderman, David A. Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, , Jenks, Memo George Foster Jenks' Diary.

9 8 economic impact on each mill. Pawtucket s mills didn t have the capital to finance an extensive period of stoppage. Mill owners also wanted a settlement, but they knew that in order to prosper through the depressed state of cotton manufacturing, the new regulations needed to remain. The protests continued into the next week, sending a message that operatives, those who worked in mills, needed an agreement to resume working. The Outcome During the second week of the walkout, mill owners finally gave in to the persistent demands of strikers. Owners realized they couldn t take advantage of the operatives, who were supported by the town. At the conclusion of the strikes, owners released statements, which surprisingly contained no attacks or accusations, in an effort to quell the strikers emotions. Mill owners also wanted to preserve the reputations of their businesses. Owners restored wages and working hours to their state before the strikes occurred. This compromise allowed mills to resume operations and signified America s first successful textile strike and victory for Pawtucket s workers. Following the strikes, the North Providence Town Council held emergency meetings on June 7 and 9 of 1824 in response to the latest events. At these meetings, they established a night watch in the Fire District of Pawtucket, the location of Pawtucket s mills. The fear of continued arson remained prominent, and Pawtucket needed to secure its mills. 25 The Effect of the Strikes The impacts of the turnouts never became fully known at a national level and awareness was low outside of Pawtucket and the surrounding mill communities. The communication 25 Kulik. Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island, 26.

10 9 technologies at this time limited the exposure of the events that took place in Pawtucket. Regardless, the strikes left their mark in a notable way. Mill owners throughout New England feared that protest proved to be much more powerful than originally perceived. The cotton manufacturing industry had never seen defiance of this caliber. Owners remained on high alert for years to come, fearing the proposition that rebellious laborers may revolt with a sudden change in wages or work hours. On the other hand, weavers and mill operatives felt a sense of empowerment and motivation in standing up for their rights. They looked to the Pawtucket mill strikes as an example of a successful protest, originally deemed unattainable. A wave of strikes at textile plants sparked along the rivers of New England. Strikes occurred in sites such as Dover, New Hampshire in 1828, Taunton, Massachusetts in 1829 and most notably in Lowell, Massachusetts with the Lowell Mill Girls strikes in the 1830s. 26 The turnouts set the stage for future union activities, generating an age of dispute between employers and laborers. Striking and resistance towards proprietors became more and more organized and advanced throughout the industrial age, with Pawtucket being a starting place. The Pawtucket mill strikes of 1824 demonstrated a prime example of taking a stand for personal beliefs amidst unfavorable circumstances. Strikers took a firm position on an endemic problem - fair wages - in the textile industry and fought for change in the newly industrialized American society. 26 Colman, Penny. Strike! The Bitter Struggle of American Workers from Colonial Times to the Present

11 10 Annotated Bibliography Primary Sources Jenks, George Foster. Memo George Foster Jenks' Diary. This diary by George Foster Jenks, a Pawtucket merchant in 1824, documents a day-byday account of the strikes first-hand. It has been a very important source for me to use as reference, because the diary represents a public view of the strikes and how they were interpreted at the time. The cursive manuscript was very in-depth and hard to read, so I wasn't able to read it by myself. "Riots at Pawtucket." Rhode Island American [Providence], Volume XVI Number 70 ed., 1 June I consider this newspaper to be the most, or if not, one of the most important sources of information on my topic. This primary source newspaper from Pawtucket recorded the strikes while they were happening. The descriptions of the strikes helped clarify what exactly was going on in terms of actual striking and the public's viewpoint on the strikes. It was key obtaining this source from the Slater Mill Historic Site, because there are very few primary sources on the strikes. Secondary Sources Blewett, Mary H. The Encyclopedia of Strikes in American History. Edited by Aaron Brenner et al., Armonk, M.E. Sharpe, This large book is an encyclopedia of strikes that occurred in the United States. There is a whole section on striking in the "Nineteenth-Century Cotton Textile Industry in the

12 11 Northeast United States," which I used almost exclusively. Although there is not much information about the Pawtucket strikes in particular, there is a lot of information on striking in general at this time and strikes that followed Pawtucket. Brezina, Corona. The Industrial Revolution in America: A Primary Source History of America's Transformation into an Industrial Society. New York, Rosen Pub. Group, Primary Sources in American History. This book explained the industrial revolution as a whole in America, but I only used the sections about the beginnings of industrialization in American textile mills. There were many good images and documents within the book relating to early mills. Colman, Penny. Strike! The Bitter Struggle of American Workers from Colonial Times to the Present. Brookfield, CT, Millbrook Press, This book explains the history of strikes and striking in the labor societies throughout American history. I focused on the book's sections on the beginnings of strikes, especially in the realm of mill communities. The book also had a small excerpt about the Pawtucket strikes. Defrancesco, Joey L., and David Segal. "Labor History: The First Factory Strike." In These Times, 1 Sept. 2014, inthesetimes.com/article/17050/the_mother_of_all_strikes. This web page explains the strike in a simplistic form, because the article is exposing a recent exhibit in Pawtucket about the 1824 strikes. Even though it is not a very informational source, it gave me a starting point at the beginning of my research.

13 12 Kulik, Gary. "Notes on the Historical Significance of the Blackstone Valley." PDF file, 25 Feb These are Gary Kulik's (an expert on labor history) notes on the history of the Blackstone Valley, especially its mill history. His notes are from the National Park Service, because they have a station at the Blackstone Valley Historical Park. Kulik, Gary. "Pawtucket Village and the Strike of 1824: The Origins of Class Conflict in Rhode Island." Radical History Review, vol. 17, Spring JSTOR. Mr. Gary Kulik's writing explains in great detail the Pawtucket Strikes of 1824 and the history of labor within Rhode Island's mill village of Pawtucket in the beginnings of mill times. This source is a pure gem in terms of information content, because the strikes are relatively unheard of in America's story. Kulik, Gary. Telephone interview. 20 Dec I had a very in-depth conversation with Mr. Kulik on the Pawtucket Mill Strikes, textile mills and labor resistance in the early 19th century. Mr. Kulik is one of the prime experts on my NHD topic, so it was best I contacted him. Several professors and organizations recommended him because of his many works dealing with the history of the strikes. Although it has been a few years since Mr. Kulik has written about the strikes, he still retained much of his knowledge and expertise. After our interview, we followed up several times, talking about the strikes and discussing the events taken place.

14 13 Larrabee, John. "Slater Mill Exhibit Recalls the 'Mother of All Strikes.'" The Sun Chronicle, 22 May 2014, This recent newspaper explains how the strikes are being perceived today and new involvement with the history of the Pawtucket strikes, because of a recent exhibit at Slater Mill in Pawtucket. Although there isn't much information on the strikes, it acted as a starting point to understand the basics. Leavitt, Sarah, and Slater Mill Historical Society. Images of America Slater Mill. Dover, NH, Arcadia Publishing Company, Google Books, books.google.com/books?id=e_1hdlqdf2ac&pg=pa11#v=onepage&q&f=false. This source includes a large listing of primary sources dealing with Slater Mill and Samuel Slater. The title of the book, "Images of America: Slater Mill," hints at the contents inside. This book is filled photographs and drawing from the same time period as the Pawtucket Strikes, making it a great bank for primary resources dealing with early mills themselves. Lens, Sidney. Strikemakers and Strikebreakers. Edited by Virginia Buckley, New York, E.P. Dutton, This source deals with the history of strikes and labor rebellions in the United States. There is a lot of very good, in-depth information on how strikes came to be in our country. As a bonus, there is a small section of the book pertaining to my specific project on the labor strikes at Slater Mill in I used this source both for background

15 14 information on the history of strikes before 1824 and how that affected my event. Also, I referenced this book for information on how strikes changed after That is because this book has a large timeline of strikes throughout America's history. Mill Times Directed by Larry Klein, screenplay by David Macaulay, PBS Home Video, Going into NHD, I had never used an animated film as a resource. This source is a half animated film by PBS Home Video explaining the story of establishing industry in America's newly founded mill towns. The animated portion simulates Samuel Slater's founding of mill culture in New England. It does not use real names of people who helped the establishment of mills, including Slater, as the characters within the video are fictional. The non-animated segments document a labor historian's journey throughout New England mill towns, where he learns how different types of mills operated and the culture of workers at these mills. This source was crucial in finding lots of background information and context in order for me to understand both the strikes themselves and mill culture. "Samuel Slater." New World Encyclopedia, 17 Aug. 2015, I used this website for a quote from Andrew Jackson describing Samuel Slater. There were also many good facts about Slater and his life on this encyclopedia webpage.

16 15 "Samuel Slater." They Made America, Although this PBS-run webpage was relatively brief, it was about the legacy of Samuel Slater and his creation of the textile industry in America for the first. I didn't obtain much information about Slater's direct involvement once he was in America, but this source helped me understand Samuel Slater's story in bringing textile mills and industrialization from England. Simonds, Christopher. Samuel Slater's Mill and the Industrial Revolution. Englewood Cliffs, Silver Burdett Press, This source was helpful in finding information on Samuel Slater and his involvement of the first industrial revolution in America. The book focused on the creation and legacy of Slater's mills within Pawtucket. It helped me understand the relationship between Slater and the people of Pawtucket. Society, Worcester Historical, and Edward M. Kennedy, Sen. Landscape of Industry: An Industrial History of the Blackstone Valley. Lebanon, New Hampshire, UP of New England, This book helped me understand the history of the Blackstone Valley and the center of mill culture and industrialization there. It was important for me to understand the Blackstone Valley, because within it lays Pawtucket, the location of where my NHD topic took place.

17 16 Wooten, Sara McIntosh. The Industrial Revolution. San Diego, Blackbirch Press, People at the Center of: I used this book for a deeper understanding on Samuel Slater and how he developed America's first factories and the factory system. It did a great job explaining the story of Samuel Slater and his impact on Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The book also explained the stories of other important industrial figures that were influenced by Slater. Zonderman, David A. Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, Oxford UP, ProQuest, site.ebrary.com/lib/usmk12/detail.action?docid= &p00=labor+rights+early+19t h+century. This source gave a great overview of the whole of the mechanized factory revolution within the mill communities of New England. Though the book dealt with all of the 'factory system,' I mainly focused my attention on the book's information on striking within the factory system. This book helped me immensely in understanding how mill strikes worked, especially at Pawtucket. There was also a lot of information on striking and protesting in mills during the early 19th century.