NATIVE AMERICAN Movements

Transcription

1 HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF NATIVE AMERICAN Movements TODD LEAHY and RAYMOND WILSON

2 HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF RELIGIONS, PHILOSOPHIES, AND MOVEMENTS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. Buddhism, by Charles S. Prebish, Mormonism, by Davis Bitton, Out of print. See no Ecumenical Christianity, by Ans Joachim van der Bent, Terrorism, by Sean Anderson and Stephen Sloan, Out of print. See no Sikhism, by W. H. McLeod, Out of print. See no Feminism, by Janet K. Boles and Diane Long Hoeveler, Out of print. See no Olympic Movement, by Ian Buchanan and Bill Mallon, Out of print. See no Methodism, by Charles Yrigoyen Jr. and Susan E. Warrick, Out of print. See no Orthodox Church, by Michael Prokurat, Alexander Golitzin, and Michael D. Peterson, Organized Labor, by James C. Docherty, Out of print. See no Civil Rights Movement, by Ralph E. Luker, Catholicism, by William J. Collinge, Hinduism, by Bruce M. Sullivan, North American Environmentalism, by Edward R. Wells and Alan M. Schwartz, Welfare State, by Bent Greve, Out of print. See no Socialism, by James C. Docherty, Out of print. See no Bahá í Faith, by Hugh C. Adamson and Philip Hainsworth, Out of print. See no Taoism, by Julian F. Pas in cooperation with Man Kam Leung, Judaism, by Norman Solomon, Out of print. See no Green Movement, by Elim Papadakis, Out of print. See no Nietzscheanism, by Carol Diethe, Out of print. See no Gay Liberation Movement, by Ronald J. Hunt, Islamic Fundamentalist Movements in the Arab World, Iran, and Turkey, by Ahmad S. Moussalli, Reformed Churches, by Robert Benedetto, Darrell L. Guder, and Donald K. McKim, 1999

3 25. Baptists, by William H. Brackney, Cooperative Movement, by Jack Shaffer, Reformation and Counter-Reformation, by Hans J. Hillerbrand, Shakers, by Holley Gene Duffield, United States Political Parties, by Harold F. Bass Jr., Heidegger s Philosophy, by Alfred Denker, Zionism, by Rafael Medoff and Chaim I. Waxman, Out of print. See no Mormonism, 2nd ed., by Davis Bitton, Out of print. See no Kierkegaard s Philosophy, by Julia Watkin, Hegelian Philosophy, by John W. Burbidge, Out of print. See no Lutheranism, by Günther Gassmann in cooperation with Duane H. Larson and Mark W. Oldenburg, Holiness Movement, by William Kostlevy, Islam, by Ludwig W. Adamec, Shinto, by Stuart D. B. Picken, Olympic Movement, 2nd ed., by Ian Buchanan and Bill Mallon, Out of print. See no Slavery and Abolition, by Martin A. Klein, Terrorism, 2nd ed., by Sean Anderson and Stephen Sloan, New Religious Movements, by George D. Chryssides, Prophets in Islam and Judaism, by Scott B. Noegel and Brannon M. Wheeler, The Friends (Quakers), by Margery Post Abbott, Mary Ellen Chijioke, Pink Dandelion, and John William Oliver Jr., Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage, JoAnne Myers, Descartes and Cartesian Philosophy, by Roger Ariew, Dennis Des Chene, Douglas M. Jesseph, Tad M. Schmaltz, and Theo Verbeek, Witchcraft, by Michael D. Bailey, Unitarian Universalism, by Mark W. Harris, New Age Movements, by Michael York, Organized Labor, 2nd ed., by James C. Docherty, Utopianism, by James M. Morris and Andrea L. Kross, Feminism, 2nd ed., by Janet K. Boles and Diane Long Hoeveler, 2004

4 53. Jainism, by Kristi L. Wiley, Wittgenstein s Philosophy, by Duncan Richter, Schopenhauer s Philosophy, by David E. Cartwright, Seventh-day Adventists, by Gary Land, Methodism, 2nd ed., by Charles Yrigoyen, Jr. and Susan Warrick, Sufism, by John Renard, Sikhism, 2nd ed., by W. H. McLeod, Kant and Kantianism, by Helmut Holzhey and Vilem Mudroch, Olympic Movement, 3rd ed., by Bill Mallon with Ian Buchanan, Anglicanism, by Colin Buchanan, Welfare State, 2nd ed., by Bent Greve, Feminist Philosophy, by Catherine Villanueva Gardner, Logic, by Harry J. Gensler, Leibniz s Philosophy, by Stuart Brown and Nicholas J. Fox, Non-Aligned Movement and Third World, by Guy Arnold, Salvation Army, by Major John G. Merritt, Judaism, 2nd ed., by Norman Solomon, Epistemology, by Ralph Baergen, Bahá í Faith, 2nd ed., by Hugh C. Adamson, Aesthetics, by Dabney Townsend, Socialism, 2nd ed., by Peter Lamb and James C. Docherty, Marxism, by David M. Walker and Daniel Gray, Nietzscheanism, 2nd ed., by Carol Diethe, Medieval Philosophy and Theology, by Stephen F. Brown and Juan Carlos Flores, Shamanism, by Graham Harvey and Robert Wallis, Ancient Greek Philosophy, by Anthony Preus, Puritans, by Charles Pastoor and Galen K. Johnson, Green Movement, 2nd ed., by Miranda Schreurs and Elim Papadakis, Husserl s Philosophy, by John J. Drummond, Existentialism, by Stephen Michelman, Zionism, 2nd ed., by Rafael Medoff and Chaim I. Waxman, Coptic Church, by Gawdat Gabra, Jehovah s Witnesses, by George D. Chryssides, Hume s Philosophy, by Kenneth R. Merrill, 2008

5 87. Shakers, by Stephen J. Paterwic, Native American Movements, by Todd Leahy and Raymond Wilson, Mormonism, 3rd Ed., by Davis Bitton and Thomas G. Alexander, Hegelian Philosophy, 2nd Ed., by John W. Burbidge, 2009

6 Historical Dictionary of Native American Movements Todd Leahy and Raymond Wilson Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements, No. 88 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland Toronto Plymouth, UK 2008

7 SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright 2008 by Todd Leahy and Raymond Wilson All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leahy, Todd. Historical dictionary of Native American movements / Todd Leahy and Raymond Wilson. p. cm. (Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements ; no. 88) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: (hardcover : alk. paper) e-isbn-13: e-isbn-10: X 1. Indians of North America Government relations Dictionaries. 2. Indians of North America Ethnic relations Dictionaries. 3. Social movements United States Dictionaries. I. Wilson, Raymond, II. Title. E93.L dc The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z Manufactured in the United States of America.

8 To George and Zoey

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10 Contents Editor s Foreword Jon Woronoff xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Map of Native American Movements xvi Acronyms and Abbreviations xix Chronology xxi Introduction xxxi THE DICTIONARY 1 Appendix: Indian Voices from Native American Movements 175 Bibliography 189 About the Authors 205 ix

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12 Editor s Foreword It has taken a very long time to address the discrimination and oppression in the history of the United States. And, although there is little merit in turning this into a contest, it is probably the Native Americans previously known as Indians who have fared worst. They were the original owners of the land and received newcomers with amazingly good grace given the circumstances, yet they were repeatedly uprooted from that land and sent even farther away from their homes, usually to land no one else wanted at least at the time. Many of them were later relegated to reservations, which as intimated, were often not very hospitable places, while others preferred living elsewhere. Some Indians were successfully assimilated and others not, but terribly, few of them were able to preserve their own characteristics and traditions, let alone their pride. Admittedly, there were always some Americans who supported them and helped, at least as they understood it. But it was not until Native American movements emerged, fitfully and painfully, that more notable progress has been made. Yet, even in the 21st century, much remains to be done. Historical Dictionary of Native American Movements deals with the story of the Native Americans, providing information that has until now been rather dispersed and hard to come by, which makes this book a particularly welcome addition to the series. The rather extensive introduction traces the history, which was hardly linear, and was complicated by the existence of so many disparate groups labeled as Indians and the various attempts to contain them, to disperse them, and then at long last to overcome some of the problems created by the earlier phases and find them a proper place in broader society. The major actors in the more recent phases were themselves Native Americans, and their movements were sorely needed. These movements the more eminent leaders from the time of contact to the present day, the issues and causes all have xi

13 xii EDITOR S FOREWORD separate entries in the dictionary section. The chronology helps place the major events in broader U.S. history, while the list of acronyms should be kept handy when reading the literature. And there is a literature on these topics, one that is growing more rapidly now, although many blanks remain. Readers wishing to learn more about specific aspects should consult the bibliography. The authors of this historical dictionary are among the more outstanding specialists. Both of them teach at Fort Hays State University in Kansas. Todd Leahy is assistant professor of history. He specializes in Colonial America and the Early National Period, emphasizing Indian history, and has written articles and is presently producing a book on the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, which will soon appear in film as Hiawatha Diary. Raymond Wilson is chair and professor of history and teaches courses on Indian history and the American West, among other topics. He has written extensively, including many articles and several books, the most closely related to this volume being Indian Lives: Essays on Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Native American Leaders. This team has done a fine job researching a field and helping to fill a gap that should simply not exist. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

14 Preface Native Americans in the United States, similar to other indigenous people, created political, economic, and social movements to meet and adjust to major changes that impacted their cultures. For centuries, Native Americans dealt with the onslaught of non-indian land claims, the appropriation of their homelands, and the destruction of their ways of life. Through various movements, Native Americans accepted, rejected, or accommodated themselves to the nontraditional worldviews of the colonizers and their policies. The Historical Dictionary of Native American Movements is designed to provide a useful reference for students and scholars to consult on topics dealing with key movements, organizations, leadership strategies, and the major issues these groups confronted. We have tried to include major movements, but obviously, this study is not as comprehensive as we would like it to be. The focus is primarily on Indian-led movements; however, necessity dictates that several especially important Indian organizations founded by non-indians must also be included. Long before initial contact, Native Americans had already formed various movements to deal with other indigenous groups. These relationships continued and were obviously altered after the arrival of Europeans in the New World. Although contacts varied by circumstance, Native Americans generally welcomed and aided the newcomers in their attempts to settle in America. Many tribes believed that land was so plentiful that all could peacefully coexist. However, the European concept of land ownership brought these two distinct worldviews into conflict, often resulting in major warfare. Native American movements provided various strategies for survival. Similar to other people, Indians constantly adapted to changes and made choices concerning their future. Strategies that worked for one nation did not necessarily guarantee success for others, resulting in major xiii

15 xiv PREFACE clashes in which Indian nations lost more than they gained. Indeed, regardless of popular misconceptions, Indians were active participants in their relationships with non-indians relationships that varied from Indian nation to Indian nation. The wide-ranging nature of Native American movements demonstrates that Indians did not speak with one voice, did not act as one group, and did not become silent in their attempts to preserve their way of life.

16 Acknowledgments Any work of this nature owes a debt to the scholars who produced the monographs that make reference works possible. We must send a special note of thanks to the staff at Scarecrow Press, especially our editor, Jon Woronoff, for their understanding when this project took longer than originally planned. Special thanks to Lucinda Rowlands, production manager at Indian Country Today, for graciously supplying most of the photographs. We thank Amie Webb, former History Department student secretary, for her assistance. Thanks go to our families and friends, who suffered through our incessant talking about this book; they are the foundations upon which we build. This book is dedicated to George Moses, a valued friend and recognized scholar, and Zoey Frances Wilson, who is just beginning her life journey. As always, a special thanks to our wives, Janett and Sharon, who make everything we do possible. xv

17 Native American Movements

18 MAP OF NATIVE AMERICAN MOVEMENTS 1. Ledyard, Connecticut. Pequot open Foxwoods Casino, St. Regis, New York. International Bridge Blockade, Washington, D.C. Trail of Broken Treaties, Washington, D.C. The Longest Walk, Detroit, Michigan. Pontiac s Rebellion, Prophetstown, Indiana. Pan-Indian movement of Tecumseh and The Prophet, early 1800s. 6. Chicago, Illinois. American Indian Chicago Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota. AIM founded, Fargo, North Dakota. Leonard Peltier convicted, Rapid City, South Dakota. Women of All Red Nations founded, Pine Ridge, South Dakota. Occupation of Wounded Knee, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Red Earth Powwow. 12. Denver, Colorado. National Congress of American Indians founded, Gallup, New Mexico. National Indian Youth Council founded, Walker River, Nevada. Wovoka preaches ghost dance, 1880s. 15. Alcatraz Island, California. Occupation of Alcatraz, Washington State. Fish-ins, 1960s.

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20 Acronyms and Abbreviations AAIA AFN AFN AIA AICH AICTM AID AIDA AIF AIHEC AIL AIM AIO AIPA AIPC AMERIND ANB ANCSA ANS BIA CERT DRUMS EAIA FBI FBIDA GLITC IAA IAA Association on American Indian Affairs Alaska Federation of Natives Assembly of First Nations American Indian Association American Indian Community House, Inc. American Indian Christian Tepee Mission American Indian Development, Inc. American Indian Defense Association American Indian Federation American Indian Higher Education Consortium American Indian League American Indian Movement Americans for Indian Opportunity American Indian Progressive Association All Indian Pueblo Council American Indian Movement for Equal Rights Alaska Native Brotherhood Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Alaska Native Sisterhood Bureau of Indian Affairs Council of Energy Resource Tribes Determined Residents United for Mohawk Sovereignty Eastern Association on Indian Affairs Federal Bureau of Investigation Fort Berthold Indian Defense Association Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council Indian Actors Association Indian Association of America xix