New Light on Colour: a study of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs

Transcription

1 New Light on Colour: a study of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs Abstract This article, based on the results of my undergraduate dissertation, provides the first empirical study into the original coloured appearance of Neo-Assyrian reliefs. It examines the effects of polychromy on the appearance of these palatial carvings. Statistical data from visual examination, original excavation records and published sources are analysed to form a representative study of original colour placement. Using these findings, digital re-colourations of the reliefs are presented which reflect their original palatial appearance more closely than their current displays and portrayals in museums and publications. The paper suggests that set schemes of colouration were used and reveals changes in colour trends over time, between the rules of kings Ashurnasirpal II ( BC) and Sargon II ( BC). The application of polychromy on relief carvings reinforced Assyrian imperial ideologies, utilising an understanding of colour that is very different to that of modern Western values. Please see overleaf for complete article (from page 2). 1

2 Introduction New Light on Colour: a study of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs Gypsum relief carvings originally decorated the palaces of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the ninth to seventh centuries BC, often depicting scenes of royal prowess and military victory to serve as imperial propaganda (Ataç 2010). Antiquarian interest in the nineteenth century led to the extensive excavation and exportation of relief scenes, particularly those associated with the kings Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II (Botta 1849; Layard 1849, 1853). Although reliefs were originally polychrome in appearance through the application of pigment, this aspect has been lost over centuries of weathering, poor preservation and exposure (Layard 1849: 130), resulting in their present, largely bare state (figure 1). Whilst the original application of colour has been recognised in works published on the subject of Neo-Assyrian reliefs (e.g. Cohen & Kangas 2010; Guralnick 2011), and Akkadian colour terms have been examined philologically (e.g. Gelb et al 1964), few pigments have been analysed (but see Verri et al 2010). Detailed examination of the application of colour to areas of reliefs has never been published. The evidence of past colour application, however, suggests that the original polychrome designs of the carvings would have appeared starkly different to their present plain state. In this paper, I investigate how polychromy affected the original intended presentation of Neo-Assyrian carvings. Conducting an initial statistical assessment of surviving traces of pigment and written accounts from early excavators, their potential original appearance can now be reconstructed and assessed, using the results of these findings and existing research and interpretations of Neo-Assyrian art. The meanings behind the complex imagery of such reliefs have been discussed in detail elsewhere (e.g. Reade 1979a; Collon 1995; Collins 2008). This article will focus particularly on elements that feature surviving elements of colour which will be shown to greatly influence their interpretation. Figure 1: A relief from Ashurnasirpal II s Northwest Palace at Nimrud, depicting the king (far right figure) and Assyrians besieging a city. Torches are thrown against the invaders, but water is piped from the siege engine to quench the fire, whilst soldiers attack the walls. Image source: Trustees of the British Museum 2

3 The use of art in Neo-Assyrian palaces The earliest archaeological evidence of monumental Neo-Assyrian relief decoration dates to the reign of Ashurnasirpal II ( BC) and the construction of his new residence, commonly known as the North-west Palace, at Nimrud. Prior to this, Assyrian artwork was relatively limited in scope, although the Old Palace of Tukulti-Ninurta II ( BC) at Ashur featured glazed and coloured brick orthostats (Pedde 2012: 854). The seemingly sudden appearance of highly accomplished and developed relief sculptures in Ashurnasirpal II s reign implies an influence or utilisation of artisans from elsewhere (Kuhrt 1995: 85). A willingness to utilise new ideas to inspire awe and intimidation was often reflected in art forms associated with Neo-Assyrian kings, possibly through their awareness of monumental stonework from Egypt (Reade 1995a: 40), and similarities have been made between deeply cut Assyrian carvings and those produced in Syrian states such as Carchemish, another region from which the rulers of Assyria received tribute since the early ninth century (Winter 1983: 195; Collins 2008: 72). Inarguably, the establishment of a monumental building regime was a major exhibition of the king s power, setting in place a tradition of new palatial and monumental construction that flaunted the political agendas of the kings who commissioned them. In Ashurnasirpal II s North-west Palace, this is demonstrated clearly by the intentional location of relief sculptures within only the most accessible rooms, maximising the possibility of occupants and visitors of the palace viewing them (Russell 1998: 715). Similarly, the manipulation of relief placement for political purposes is evident at Sargon II s palace at Khorsabad, as visitors were forced to walk past intimidating depictions of dignitaries offering the king tribute and important rebels being tortured, in order to reach the throne room (Reade 1979b: 338). Considering the evidently propagandistic nature of the reliefs, studying the original colours applied to the carvings provides a valuable insight into the purpose of polychromy in the Neo-Assyrian palace. Data collection of polychromy evidence Colour has been recognised on Assyrian reliefs from their earliest excavation, however it has rarely been the primary subject of discussion in studies of Neo-Assyrian reliefs, which largely focus on their depicted subject matter (e.g. Albenda 1986; Winter 2010). No detailed study of Neo-Assyrian relief polychromy has been published previously, therefore this research acts as the first step towards appreciating how colours were used and placed. As the first empirical study of the current state of surviving polychromy, it was therefore essential to establish initial statistics of how much colour is still visible, which colours were most frequently used, which carved features were most often painted and whether colours were particularly associated with certain types of features and whether variations occurred over time. As a consequence of the global redistribution of Assyrian reliefs from the nineteenth and early twentieth century excavations, numerous reliefs now belong to many international collections, whilst a substantial amount remain unpublished and unprovenanced (Guralnick 2013: 5). In recognition of this, a representative sample was researched, focussing particularly on reliefs originally located in the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud and Sargon II s Palace 3

4 at Khorsabad. This provided the opportunity to analyse changes in colour schemes over time by specifically comparing the polychromy of reliefs dating to the reigns of the two kings. The examples recorded comprised of polychromy evidence recorded from identified visual analysis and enquiries to museum curators, to determine where colour was visibly present on reliefs within museum collections (x Museum 2015; x: pers. comm.; x: pers. comm.; x: pers. comm.). Additionally, examination of original sketches, drawings and published written accounts referencing the appearance of visible colour made by nineteenth century excavators (Botta 1849; Layard 1853) and detailed reviews of known existing research into colour application on Neo-Assyrian sculpture were documented (Snyder and Paley 2001; Verri et al 2009; Guralnick 2010; Nagel 2010; Learning Sites 2015). Any traces of polychromy were recorded for the colour of pigment used and location of the paint on the carving. Initially, detailed descriptions were recorded for every instance of colour and the specific feature on which it was present in an Excel spreadsheet e.g. one instance of red pigment on a rosette. Upon completing the data collection, feature types were grouped into broad categories, providing a broad description which could be statistically compared. For example, rosette and tree branch were categorised as plant, whilst dagger and spear head were metal weapons. Evidence of colour application on painted wall friezes and glazed bricks from Neo-Assyrian palatial sites were also compiled as a comparable data source to the colours used on relief sculpture, as these decorative elements were found above relief panels on the walls at Nimrud and Khorsabad (Layard 1853; Reade 1995a: 227). Though frequently associated with palatial relief carvings, in some cases glazed brick murals and wall paintings have been found exclusively, for example in the doorway to the Sin Temple (Place 1867) and at Residence K (Parrot 1961: 99) in Khorsabad. As such, these were recorded in a separate dataset to provide a comparison to relief polychromy. The wall painting and relief polychromy datasets were compared and analysed in detail, as discussed below. As a further result, digital reconstructions of some potential original colour schemes were produced, reflecting different levels of likelihood on the basis of the evidence gathered (figures 4-11). Results Data source Count of relief polychromy Count of wall painting/glazed brick polychromy Excavation reports and illustrations Published accounts of polychromy Visual inspection 59 0 Curatorial inspection 7 0 Total Table 1: Counts of instances of polychromy located in the study, and their sources. 4

5 377 certain instances of polychromy were identified on reliefs (table 1; Appendix 1). Of these, 66 instances were recorded from direct observation by the author or present museum curators, highlighting the substantial amount of evidence that is still preserved. As the majority of polychromy evidence from reliefs was attributed to two palatial sites and kings; Ashurnasirpal II s North-west Palace and Sargon II s palace at Khorsabad (table 2), statistical analysis focused specifically on these two groups of reliefs. Associated king Ashurnasirpal II Reign BC Site of reliefs/wall paintings/glazed bricks North-west Palace, Nimrud Total count of Total count of polychromy on polychromy on wall reliefs paintings/glazed bricks Shalmaneser III BC Ashur 3 0 Tiglathpileser III BC Til Barsip Sargon II BC Khorsabad Esarhaddon Fort Shalmaneser, BC Nimrud 0 2 Ashurbanipal North Palace, BC Nineveh 2 0 (no king referred to Between eighth to Til Barsip in source) seventh centuries BC (no king referred to Nimrud N/A in source) 0 68 Table 2: The total distribution of polychromy between associated kings and sites. Most commonly used colours It was found that red was the most frequently used colour in both palaces, and black also featured prominently. A greater variety of colour features appeared on reliefs from Khorsabad, with blue features more prominently than black in this setting (Figures 2 & 3), demonstrating a clear change in choices of colour used in the 150 years between these two relief groups. Total polychromy frequencies from the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud White, 5 Total polychromy frequencies from the Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad White, 1 Black, 25 Red, 94 Black, 101 Red, 103 Blue, 57 Green, 2 Figures 2 & 3: Pie charts representing the distributions of colour at the North-west Palace at Nimrud (left), and Khorsabad (right). 5

6 Most commonly coloured features The final dataset contained 78 different descriptions to define specific areas of colouration, however these proved too specific for statistical analysis. Subsequently, 38 broader categories were created and allocated to each record (table 3). Notably, it was found that polychromy was most frequently applied to aspects of footwear (169 occurrences) and high variation was seen in the colours used. Relief polychromy Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum Footwear sole footwear straps horse trappings facial hair wood fire bow plant body sash headband headwear metal weapon eye 6 6 eye pupil 6 6 eyeliner 6 6 parasol 6 6 weapon accessory footwear base leaf 3 3 upper body garment 3 3 feather horse lion 2 2 tongue 2 2 Table 3: A list of all features types where polychromy was counted twice or more, from all relief contexts. Note: columns for brown and yellow appear for comparison with wall painting and glazed brick data, despite no reliefs possessing such colours. The column of total sums is colour coded to represent the relative proportion of colour by feature, from yellow representing the lowest proportion, to green representing the greatest. From the broad descriptions assigned to each polychromed feature, further groupings were assigned to the different feature types, to determine whether specific colour schemes were associated to particular feature types. These were; costume and fashion, martial equipment, natural human features and natural forms. Costume and fashion The features regarded as clothing were assigned on the basis of categories established by Madhloom (1970). Red was found to be the most prominent colour used on clothing and headwear, however two instances of blue also appeared on reliefs from Khorsabad (tables 4 and 5). 6

7 Ashurnasirpal II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum headband 1 1 headwear 1 1 robe upper body garment body sash 1 1 belt lower body garment Grand Total 3 3 Sargon II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum headband headwear robe 0 upper body garment 3 3 body sash 9 9 belt 0 lower body garment 0 Grand Total Tables 4 & 5: Appearance of colour on costume and fashion features (non-footwear) from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. A wider variety of colours was found on footwear from Khorsabad than from the North-west Palace, with blue being an additional colour. Despite this, more polychromy was found to survive on footwear at the North-west Palace than on reliefs at Khorsabad. It could be posited that specific taphonomic conditions existed at Nimrud which led to better preservation. For example, upon abandonment of the palace, materials could have settled over the relief bases where the sandals were carved, preventing the pigments from being exposed and faded. The depiction of sandals is notably different in design between the reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II (tables 6 & 7), and the polychromy depicted on Sargon II s are further distinguished from other human figures in having banded red and blue stripes across the heel covering. In contrast, only a single colour, of either red or blue, was found on the heels of nonroyal figures. In one instance, the sandal straps of the king were also multi-coloured bands of red and blue. Ashurnasirpal II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum footwear base Footwear sole footwear straps Grand Total Sargon II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum footwear base 0 Footwear sole footwear straps Grand Total Tables 6 & 7: Appearance of colour on footwear features from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. 7

8 Jewellery was only found with traces of red paint on one specific relief in the collection of the X Museum, X (table 8). It can be speculated that others may have once been similarly painted, however no other traces have been found in the course of this study, therefore a lack of polychromy survival may factor into this result. Ashurnasirpal II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum armband 1 1 bracelet 1 1 earring 1 1 necklace 1 1 Grand Total 4 4 Table 8: Appearance of colour on jewellery from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II. Martial equipment (tables 9 & 10) Red was the most abundantly used colour to represent weapon parts at both palaces, being specially attributed to depictions of wood, such as on arrow shafts, bows and spear shafts. Martial equipment was a far more prominent category of polychromy at Khorsabad, which may reflect the greater number of martial-themed relief scenes from that palace in comparison with those of the North-west Palace (Reade 1979b: 338). Blue features infrequently, but was found on parts of weapons that were made of metal. Considering this and the use of red being attributed to wood, it is possible that polychromy was used to represent a colour likeness to the actual materials depicted. Metals can have a greysilver sheen akin to shades of blue, whilst red is close to the brown colouring commonly attributed to wood. It can be suggested therefore, that the closest match to the physical appearance was produced with the pigments available to Assyrian artisans. Ashurnasirpal II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum arrow shaft 0 bow 7 7 chariot 0 horse trappings 0 metal weapon 1 1 sword strap 0 weapon accessory 0 weapon handle 0 whip 0 Grand Total 8 8 Sargon II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum arrow shaft 1 1 bow chariot 0 horse trappings metal weapon sword strap 1 1 weapon accessory weapon handle 1 1 whip 0 Grand Total Tables 9 & 10: Appearance of colour on martial equipment features from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. The category metal weapon includes spears and their component parts, including wooden shafts (see appendix II). 8

9 Natural human features (tables 11 & 12) In all polychromed representations of Assyrians, the colours for hair and eye pupils were found to be highly standardised as black, and at the North-west Palace, the skin of all figures had no traces of polychromy. The single instance of red found on a relief from Khorsabad was assigned to a section of a shield-man s upper arm from an illustration of a relief by Flandin (Botta 1849). This result was unusual, as no polychromy was found to exist on depictions of exposed skin of Assyrians on all reliefs studied. This anomalous result could potentially be interpreted as the red colour of a short sleeved garment, as no other polychromy is visible on the figure. In addition, as the record is an illustration, there is a possibility that the colour was copied erroneously. Unfortunately, colour scans of this illustration were not available for this study, and online records are in greyscale, so this suggestion could not be examined with certainty. Whilst no instances were seen on the reliefs, it was clear from the wall paintings at Til Barsip that non-assyrians were sometimes deliberately represented with red skin and hair colour. As forms of dress were used to signify different cultures upon reliefs, the application of colour may have been used to additionally distinguish the different peoples subject to the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Ashurnasirpal II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum eye 5 5 eye pupil 5 5 eyeliner 1 1 facial hair skin 0 Grand Total Sargon II Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum eye 1 1 eye pupil 1 1 eyeliner 3 3 facial hair skin 1 1 Grand Total Tables 11 & 12: Appearance of colour on natural human features from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. Natural forms (tables 13, 14 & 15) Fire and water were represented in red and blue respectively, reflecting the colours most frequently seen of these natural phenomena in nature. In contrast, flora and fauna were not coloured naturalistically, with plants most commonly painted blue and horses coloured red and blue. In addition, the use of unnatural colours for natural features was not consistent, as weapons made of wood were frequently coloured red, whilst living trees and their branches were more commonly blue. 9

10 Plants Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum Ashurnasirpal II 0 plant 1 1 Sargon II 0 fruit 1 1 leaf 3 3 pinecone 1 1 plant wood Grand Total Animals Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum Ashurnasirpal II tongue 2 2 Sargon II bird 1 1 feather goat 1 1 horse Grand Total Natural phenomena Black Blue Brown Green Red White Yellow Sum Ashurnasirpal II fire 9 9 Sargon II fire water 1 1 Grand Total Tables 13, 14 & 15: Appearance of colour on features from natural forms from the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. Each table features the statistical results from both palaces attributed to different natural features, of animals, plants and natural phenomena. Changes in polychromy over time The palace of Sargon II was built 150 years after the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, therefore the differences in colouration on these palaces reliefs represent changing trends in the application of polychromy. The clearest difference was the introduction and large use of blue at Khorsabad, which was not used in the North-west Palace. Reasons for this are uncertain, although with the increased use of polychromy and fashion designs unique for the king at Khorsabad, this may be an indicator for status, associated with the value of the colour blue. Re-colouring the reliefs Using the study s findings, digital re-colourations of four different reliefs from the palaces of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II were produced (figures 4-11). In doing so, it was possible to detect specific changes in the use of polychromy on reliefs between the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II, and to speculate the potential colour schemes that may have been used. To achieve this, scales of reliability were applied to each reconstruction, by evaluating the statistical evidence of the dataset to consider which colours and features were most likely to have been originally used and painted. 10

11 Figures 4 & 5: Digital re-colourations of a relief the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (see figure 1 for its present plain appearance). (Above) the most probable original polychromed appearance, as all colours featured had been found on the specified relief features at this site. (Below) Less probable polychromy appearance, with yellow crenulations, and blue and white clothing added based on occasional evidence from wall paintings. Different colours of clothing were applied to Assyrian soldiers and city defenders to distinguish the two sides. Stone colour has been lightened to reflect the original pale grey appearance of the gypsum stone. Image sources: modified by author, after Trustees of the British Museum 11

12 Figure 6: Digital re-colouration of a relief from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, depicting an attendant of the king carrying the king s bow, and a winged genie. This displays the most probable original colour schemes, as all colours were certainly known to have been found on the specified relief features at this site. Image source: modified by author, after Trustees of the British Museum Figure 7: This reconstruction of a colour scheme is less certain as the additional areas of polychromy are based on later Khorsabad and Til Barsip wall painting findings. There was also only one instance of a bucket being shown as white on a wall painting. Image source: modified by author, after Trustees of the British Museum 12

13 Figure 8: Digital re-colouration of a relief from Sargon II s palace, Khorsabad, showing Sargon II (left) holding a staff, facing an attendant. This displays the most probable original colour schemes, as all colours were found on the specified relief features at this site. Image source: modified by author, after Trustees of the British Museum Figure 9: This reconstruction of a colour scheme is less certain as the additional areas of polychromy are based colour evidence from wall paintings, not reliefs. Although no rosette clothing patterns were found to be coloured in this way, single rosette motifs were often red. Image source: modified by author, after Trustees of the British Museum 13

14 Figures 10 & 11: Digital re-colourations of an illustration of a doorway relief from Khorsabad. The top register depicts Assyrian soldiers assaulting a city with archers and a battering ram. The lower register depicts a chariot advancing to the right, with archers in front. (Left) The most probable original colour scheme, as all colours were found on the specified relief features at Khorsabad. (Right) A less probable colour scheme due to the use of additional polychromy based on infrequent and speculative evidence from wall paintings and glazed bricks, including the red skin of the Assyrians enemies. Image source: modified by author, after Albenda 1986: plate 124 Figure 12: illustration of a Til Barsip wall painting (left), and detail of the digital re-colouration from Khorsabad (right). Sources: Parrot 1961:269-70, and modified by author after Albenda 1986: plate

15 These reconstructions show how great a change polychromy makes to the reliefs appearance, accentuating specific features and producing a clear contrast between coloured and noncoloured sections. This is further demonstrated at the lower the scale of reliability, where increased amounts of colour produce more vivid appearances. Details of particular features, such as the trims of the garments, are picked out in interchanging colour patterns. The recoloured reliefs of Sargon II in particular demonstrate this, as the red rosette patterns on his robe contrasts against the body of the garment (figure 9). In addition, the facial features are much livelier, with coloured pupils and beards highlighted. When fully polychromed, the horse trappings depicted on reliefs from Khorsabad have a very similar appearance to those from the wall paintings of Til Barsip (figure 12). The relatively short period of time between the reigns of Tiglathpileser III ( BC) and Sargon II ( BC), to whom these designs are associated with, could explain these similarities. It may suggest that the colours in fashion were similar, or that horse fittings for the Assyrian army were depicted in a regulated way. Discussion Through the reconstructions and the results observed in this study s dataset, it has been demonstrated that a substantial amount of polychromy survives, and further inspections of reliefs not covered in this dissertation are likely to discover more traces. Whilst it is not possible to know for certain how much of the reliefs were painted originally, these results suggest that polychromy was not likely to have covered reliefs and their backgrounds entirely. On the basis of this current evidence however, it is likely that most if not all reliefs from the North-west Palace and palace of Khorsabad featured colours on specific features, reflecting Reade s opinion of the matter (2008: 15). Specific findings from this research prompted further investigation, particularly in regards to existing knowledge of Neo-Assyrian art, and are further discussed below. Using colour to distinguish people The study found that standardised colour schemes were used in both palaces. In particular, the standardised colours applied to Assyrians facial features reflected the method of representing Assyrians recognisably on the carvings through their hair styles and clothing, in order to distinguish them from other ethnic groups depicted. Such presentations were intentional, as the use of relief artwork for Assyrian imperial propaganda was suggested to have had influence from Egypt, where methods of representing royal and native superiority had long been established (Feldman 2004: 141). The application of colour is therefore likely to have emphasised racial differences for the use of propaganda, in addition to differentiated carved depictions of ethnic groups (figure 13). The standard schemes of depiction for Assyrians and foreigners may have been intentional, to enable viewers of the reliefs to understand the scenes and narratives depicted, particularly to audiences who would not have been able to read the cuneiform inscriptions (Zimansky 2005: 317). 15

16 Figure 13: Facsimile Til Barsip wall painting, of Assyrian soldiers executing foreign enemies, distinguished through their red skin, hair styles and clothing. Source: Parrot 1961:107 By the time of Sargon II, cuneiform was added to relief scenes to specify the cities depicted under siege, such as Bit-Bagaya (figure 14), potentially indicating that by this time, imperial expression required greater detail that could not be achieved in pictorial form alone, even with the assistance of polychromy. Figure 14: Detail of Flandin s excavation drawing of slab 1, door H at Khorsabad. The city depicted on the relief also includes a cuneiform caption of its name, Bit- Bagaya. Source: Albenda 1986: plate

17 Colour as wealth and opulence By stark contrast, inconsistency was found between the colouration of specific features depicted on reliefs from the North-west Palace at Nimrud, and Sargon II s palace at Khorsabad. Madhloom recognised changing trends in the stylistic representation of costumes across the span of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with the design of sandals becoming lighter with a reduced heel piece (1970: 93). This study has identified that a change in colour also occurred between the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II (figure 15), particularly on footwear, with the introduction of blue to the palette. Figure 15: Close ups of sandal recolourations from the Northwest Palace (top) and the Palace at Khorsabad (bottom), emphasising the fashion changes over time. Visually demonstrating the king s superiority above others and the enforcement of Neo- Assyrian imperial ideologies was necessary in order to influence subject peoples (Liverani 1979). Corresponding with this outlook, images of royalty on reliefs were more lavishly depicted than other figures, featuring greater incision of details on their clothing (Guralnick 2004). These distinctions have also been found in colour application, as Sargon II s sandals were depicted with multicoloured banding patterns whilst other figures sandals at Khorsabad featured only one plain colour. In this instance, colour enforces notions of royal superiority by distinguishing Sargon from the other depicted figures. In contrast, the style and polychromy on earlier reliefs attributed to Ashurnasirpal II show that footwear is identically represented across all human and anthropoid forms, indicating that an active decision was made by later artisans to distinguish Sargon II from other figures by using colour. The substantial use of blue at Khorsabad, in contrast to the lack of this colour at the North-west Palace, may have been a further demonstration of elite expression, as the colour was rare, being used as a simile to denote high value in Akkadian texts (Biggs et al 2010: 196). The abundance of blue at Khorsabad might reflect the increased expansion of the Assyrian Empire over 150 years between the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II, which provided greater access to sources of blue pigment and foreign artisans whose own traditional techniques became reflected in Assyrian art (Postgate 1979:207). It can therefore be speculated that the decision to depict horses in the unnatural colour of blue was intentional, in order to denote their high value, as they were greatly prized by Assyrian kings (Breniquet 2002: 166). Furthermore, the substantial amounts of red coloured weapons could have been symbolically linked to Ishtar, the goddess of war, as red was perceived as her associated colour (Barrett 2007: 17

18 25). However, red was also frequently applied on non-martial features such as sandals, therefore such associations may not have been attributed to all accounts of red polychromy. Naturalism in colour use The majority of colours were found to have close connections to the real forms skeuomorphically depicted, such as black eye pupils and red fire, whilst the use of red for gold jewellery followed Assyrian colour conventions for describing the metal (Brinkman et al 1984: 127). It is likely that the spectrum of colours was more limited during the time of the Neo- Assyrian Empire than of present, in perception as well as description. For example, the Akkadian term for blue was lapis lazuli, indicating that concepts of the colour were associative with the material and less defined than the discrete colours that existed for red and black, whilst only a combined term existed for both green and yellow (Charvát 2002:233). Considering this, polychromy may have been used to represent other visual aspects of material, even when they do not appear to represent the object accurately. The use of blue on depictions of metal objects may have been chosen to resemble the colder sheen of specific metals like iron, as found on surviving helmets (Barron 2010: 195). Further to this, the use of red to represent gold jewellery followed Assyrian colour conventions for describing the metal (Brinkman et al 1984: 127), and surviving remains of Assyrian gold jewellery, such as rosette appliqués, cuffs and earrings found in the Queens burials at Nimrud also contain red inlays (Damerji 1999; Oates and Oates 2001: 90-93). More unnaturalistic colour choices were made in the apparent distinction between man-made objects made of wood, that were frequently red, and wood depicted in nature on trees and branches, that was blue. It is possible that the colours of pigment applied were the closest to the real features available to Assyrian artisans, as red is closely linked to brown in the colour spectrum, whilst blue is closer to green, the colour of living plants. The distinction between living trees and wood as a material may suggest that the two forms were perceived distinctly by Neo-Assyrians, whilst in modern Western culture, trees and wood are viewed as similar. A caveat to understanding the use of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs, even with the use of historical evidence, is that much is speculated. Interpretations are certainly affected by modern perceptions of art and modern classifications of colour are unlikely to be applicable to Neo- Assyrian perspectives, as it cannot be assumed that current spectra structures were used in the ancient Near East (Sinclair 2012:126). This study has identified some of these potential differences, and recommends that future research should acknowledge potential differences between Assyrian perceptions of the material world, art and colour from those of the present. Conclusion It was evident that a standardised scheme of colour was used within the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and at Sargon II s palace at Khorsabad, although the two schemes were not identical on all features. Further to this, polychromy was used to distinguish specific aspects of relief scenes, such as martial gear, natural features, facial features and costume and fashion. The main findings of this study have highlighted that standard schemes of colour existed throughout the time of the empire to portray Assyrians and other peoples distinctly, enhancing 18

19 the different designs used to distinguish them on relief scenes. Colours may have been attributed to specific values, such as prestige, and expressed in high quantities on reliefs to emphasise this in the palaces, for displays of opulence. Also, colour choices were likely to have been naturalistic, however the pigment shades were limited to those available in the ninth to seventh centuries BC. Due to this, it is possible that closely associated available colours were used in place of true colours in some instances. By recognising the issue that polychromy evidence surviving to the present day has been greatly reduced, researchers should refrain from being colour-blind to the past, as it has been shown that colour had a high impact on the original appearance of the reliefs. Polychromy is therefore a subject requiring greater consideration. These findings are important to recognise, as studies of the reliefs have largely focussed on contemplating the representations on scenes through the outward meaning of the art, in an art-historical sense (Ataç 2010: xvii). In highlighting that it is unlikely that Assyrians shared the same concepts of colour as modern Western society, this raises a concern that future research must consider, not only regarding relief carvings, but of all Neo-Assyrian art forms. Word count:

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23 Appendix 1: Database of all recorded polychromy on reliefs Specified colour Broad description Description of area colouration Frequency on relief Original palatial site Associated king Data source type Date of viewing/ publication/ production Reliability rating out of 10 Black Footwear sole Upper sandal 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Photograph Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Photograph Red bow Bow 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Drawing by Layard Red tongue Tongue 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Text citation from Layard Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red bow bow 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief

24 Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole Sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red bow bow 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red Footwear sole sandal sole 1 Nimrud Ashurnasirpal II Current state of relief Red lion neck of spirit 1 Nineveh Ashurbanipal Current state of relief Black? facial hair hair of king 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Current state of relief Black facial hair hair of king 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair beard 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair beard 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair eyebrows 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair eyebrows 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black eye eyes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II description by researcher of Botta's illustration Black eyeliner eyeliner 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black eyeliner eyeliner 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headwear stripes of mitre 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headband headband 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red weapon handle king's staff 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash sashes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash sashes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black Footwear sole Upper sandal 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black Footwear sole Upper sandal 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black footwear straps Sandal straps 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash sashes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash sashes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration

25 blue; red Footwear sole king's upper sandal 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration blue; red Footwear sole king's upper sandal 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration blue; red footwear straps king's sandal straps 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair hair 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair beard 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black facial hair eyebrows 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black eyeliner eyeliner 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Black goat stripes of goat horns 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red plant rosette 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headband headband tassle 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red plant flower stem 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red plant flower edges 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headband outer edges of circle pattern headband 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Blue leaf flower leaves 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Blue plant flower base 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Blue headband centres of circle pattern headband 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headwear mitre 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red horse trappings horse trappings 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red horse trappings straps 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red horse trappings reins 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red rope ropes 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration blue; red horse trappings horse harness decorative patterns 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration blue; red horse trappings horse headgear patterns 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red fire fire 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red fire fire 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red bow bow 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red bow bow 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red arrow shaft arrow shafts 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headband headbands 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red metal weapon spear 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red metal weapon spear 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red metal weapon weapon (uncert. def.) 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Blue metal weapon arrowhead 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration blue; red headwear helmet plume 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red bow bow 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red bow bow 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red headband headband 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash body sash 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red body sash body sash 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration Red weapon accessory quiver top 1 Khorsabad Sargon II Plate illustration