UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

Transcription

1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING HIS 505: The Sokoto Caliphate (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Dr. Hamza R. Tukur

2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: HIS 505: The Sokoto Caliphate Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your selfassessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one 2

3 hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. 3

4 In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and 4

5 major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they 5

6 are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e- tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. 6

7 In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. 7

8 Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. 8

9 TITLE PAGE HIS 505 : THE SOKOTO CALIPHATE 9

10 Table of Contents 10

11 General Introduction The course will examine religious revivalism in West Africa. The ideals and nature of the establishment and consolidation of the movement. The Sokoto caliphate. Internal and external relations. The British conquest. 11

12 Objectives of the Course The objectives of the course are to discuss: i.) ii.) Islamic Revivalist Movements in West Africa The Ideals and Nature of the Sokoto Revivalist movement iii.) The Establishment and Consolidation of the Caliphate iv.) v.) vi.) Administrative Structure of the Caliphate Problems of Consolidation Sokoto Relations with Emirates and Inter-Emirate Relations vii.) Sokoto-Borno Relations viii.) The British Conquest of the Caliphate 12

13 Study Session Islamic Revivalist Movements in West Africa 1.1 Introduction The 19 th century witnessed the emergence of revivalist movements in West Africa. These movements sought to revive Islam to be in consonance with the classical caliphate. The first movement was that of Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio whose influence led to the emergence of similar movements led by Ahmad Lobbo and Alhaj Umar al-futi. 1.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of the session, the students should be able to: i.) Identify the revivalist movements which emerged in West Africa, ii.) Discuss the concept of Tajdeed (Revivalism). 1.3 In-Text 1.3.1Islamic Revivalist Movements in West Africa The 19 th century saw great changes in West Africa the most significant of which were brought as a result of the 13

14 Jihads launched by revivalist movements scattered across the savanna belt from the Senegal River to the Cameroon highlands. The revivalism of the 19 th century was the culmination of the process of Islamic acculturation from North Africa. Islam did not penetrate West Africa instantly, rather it was a very gradual, if persistent, process made up of distinct phases one leading inevitably to the other. The first phase of Islamic penetration of the West African region covers the period from the 9 th to 13 th centuries. During this period, Islam spread and for the most part peacefully. The main agents of Islamisation during this period appear to be itinerant traders, a few scholars (mostly Berbers) and equally effective ardent indigenous converts. As the educational institutions had not then taken concrete shape, systematic learning did not obtain on a general level. It was also during this period that the Almurabit movement emerged. The second phase covers the period from the 14 th to 16 th centuries. This is the period when the Muslim states of Mali and Songhai emerged and developed, Borno which had 14

15 emerged much earlier reached maturation under Idris Alooma while many Hausa states notably Kano and Katsina became Islamized. More importantly this was the period during which educational centers developed and produced a multitude of indigenous scholars like Abdur Rahman al- Sa adi, al- Barnawi, Muhammad al-kashnawi and a host of others. It was also the period when the region received visiting scholars such as Muhammad al-maghili who were to sharpen the taste of scholarship and hasten the process of Islamization. The third phase covers the period from the 17 th to 18 th centuries. This was a phase which started with the Moroccan invasion of Songhai during which Timbuktu had become the intellectual centre of the region, was sacked. The destruction of the state of Songhai and Timbuktu with the consequent dispersal of scholars combined to rob of the region its political stability and intellectual stamina. This plunged the greater part of the region into ignorance, injustice and oppression often under the patronage of venal scholars ( ulama al-su). 15

16 These were the very conditions which occasioned the next phase. The next was a phase during which Muslim scholars took up their responsibility of educating Muslims and mobilizing them against the inequities, moral laxities and the excess of rulers or more properly the oppressors of their land. The leading figures were Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio in early 19 th century Hausa land, Ahmad Labbo and Alhaj Umar al-futi in Sene-Gambia and Bambara regions. The concept of revivalism is therefore based on Islamic teachings of the belief that human being as indeed human society, is subject to lapses and often the pursuit of knowledge and society stagnates or even retrogresses. In such circumstances, the ultimate hope for the Muslim society is a process of rejuvenation of knowledge and scholarship, the spread of this knowledge to the wider society and the subsequent application of such knowledge in society with all the transformation that has to go with it. This process of rejuvenation and revitalization of society is what is in Islam 16

17 known as Tajdeed. This is supported by prophetic tradition that in every 100 years Allah will raise for the Muslim community someone who will renew for her, her religion. It is important to note that Tajdeed (renewal or revival) of the deen (way of life) is a technical expression connoting a total societal change. It is a profound and comprehensive change which seeks to return the Muslim community to its purity free from decadence and lethargy that had crept in over a period of time. The first revivalist movement in the 19 th century West Africa was the one led by the Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio in Hausa land. There were certain factors in the life of the Sheikh which favoured a career of teaching and, later of political reform. As a young man he had been taught by the radical Jibril b. Umar and unlike scholars of his time he insisted on teaching of fundamentals of Islam and also engaged in preaching tours, around Hausa land. The decadence in the Hausa states made Islam attractive and in particular Islamic justice. Within a short period of time, the Sheikh s followers 17

18 increased which led to open confrontation with the Hausa rulers. The end result was the subjugation of Hausa land. Although outside the immediate sphere of the Sheikh s Jihad, the Jihad of Ahmad Labbo in Masina belongs to the same revivalist movement. Ahmad Labbo looked to Sokoto, not only for the blessings of the Sheikh to start his campaign, but also for books on which to base his administration. The other most notable movement was that of Alhaji Umar who though travelled extensively, could not establish a viable state up to the period of his death. The explicit purpose of these revivalist movements was to establish a society governed by the Sharia, a society where men could be Muslims under a Muslim administration. In both Sokoto and Masina Muslims had been so harassed by nominally Muslim governments which had been in existence in one traditional form or the other for several hundred years that by the 19 th century there seemed to reforming Muslims to be no alternative but to replace the old regimes entirely. It was this that led to the overthrow of the Hausa state system and 18

19 the enthronement of the Sokoto Caliphate that brought together disparate groups in Hausa land into one formidable political entity. 1.4 In-Text Question (ITQ) Examine the major revivalist movements that emerged in 19 th century West Africa. 1.5 In-Text Answer (ITA) There had been the penetration of Islam into the West African region since the 11 th century. By the late 18 th and early 19 th centuries, there was the militant demand for reform which started in northwestern Hausa land. This was the revivalist movement led by Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio. There was also the emergence of similar movements in the Sene-Gambia and Bambara regions. 1.6 Activity Activity Timing: Time allowed is 5 minutes Activity Text: meet a colleague and discuss the influence of Uthman b. Fodio on the other revivalist movements in West Africa. 19

20 1.7 Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) What do you understand by the concept of Tajdeed? 1.8 Summary Islam had penetrated the West African region in phases and by the 19 th century there was high level of Islamic acculturation. As a result of this there was the militant demand for reform which saw the emergence of revivalist Ahmad Labbo and Alhaj Umar al-futi. 1.9 Reference J.F.A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder,eds. (1974) History of West Africa Vol. I ; London: Longman Suggested Reading Murray Last (1977) The Sokoto Caliphate, London: Longman. 20

21 Study Session The Ideals and Nature of the Sokoto Revivalist Movement. 1.1 Introduction Some attempts have been made to portray the Sokoto jihad as just a war by the Fulani against their Hausa rulers. But according to the writings of the leaders of the movements their ideal was to establish an Islamic just society and the nature of their movement was intellectual. 21

22 1.2 Learning Outcome At the end of the session, the students should be able to: i.) Examine the ideals and nature of the Sokoto revivalist movement. 1.3 In-Text 1.3.1The Ideals and Nature of the Sokoto Revivalist Movement Some attempts at explaining the meaning of the Sokoto jihad tend to conceive it primarily as warfare by the Fulani against their Hausa overlords. This view is very popular among colonial administrators. Another interpretation of the jihad similar with the colonial theory is the assertion that it was simply a warfare between Muslims and pagans, with the Fulanis at the head of the former because they had a longer history of Islamization than the Hausas. However, Abdullahi Smith pointed out that the jihad should be viewed as an intellectual movement involving in the minds of the leaders a conception of the ideal society and the philosophy of revolution. The real significance of the movement, he 22

23 continued, cannot be understood unless emphasis is laid on this aspect. The ideals of the movement can therefore be derived from the writings of its leaders- the triumvirate. Succinctly put, they contended that pure Islamic practice by a Muslim per se, is not possible in an anti-islamic state. Therefore, non-muslim states or states like those in Hausa land and the western Sudan generally, which administered at best corrupted versions of the shariah, constituted unjust societies. These societies were to be reformed by a process of education aimed at inculcating in the Muslim the best ideals of the faith as represented by its practice in the golden age of the Prophet and the first four caliphs of Islam. Their central objective was thus to bring Islamic practice in their states to a level of consonance with the golden age and thus by implication to turn each of the governments of the states to one that is Islamic. The obstacle to attainment of that objective was the system in operation in Hausa land. It is therefore necessary to 23

24 eradicate these non-islamic and anti-islamic practices and their substitution with proper Islamic observances. In the numerous writings of the leading reformers such as Kitab-al- Farq, Wathiqat ahl-al Sudan and Talim-al-Ikwan all by the Sheikh, the heretical practices of the rulers are listed. These rulers indulged in or condoned heathen practices, most heinous of which was polytheism, pouring dust on the head before the Sakuna as a mark of respect in greeting, the worshipping of spirits ( iskoki) and gods and the making of sacrifices to them; venerating and praying to them, indulgence in black magic and the art of conjuring and divination. The mixing of heathenish practices with Islam by confessed Muslims was seen as even more culpable than acts of heathenism by outright non-muslims. The persecution of Muslims or hindering them in the practice of their faith was also seen as a mark of unbelief. So was giving support and friendship to non-muslims against Muslims an act of unbelief as it amounts to apostasy. 24

25 The Sheikh went on to list the failings and misdemeanors of the non-muslim and nominally Muslim Hausa rulers. He states that they impose taxes such as the jangali or cattle tax without any reference to the shariah. They take bribes and fail to observe the Islamic law on matters of inheritance and succession. Furthermore, the rulers compel the people to serve in their armies, even though they are Muslims and whosoever does not go, they impose upon him a money payment not imposed by the shariah. In the sphere of political administration all the states of the Western Sudan that administered laws contrary to the sharia, or governed without reference to whether or not their actions were in consonance with pure sharia, had the status of unbelievers. Other practices included taxes not sanctioned by the sharia, taking bribes to pervert the course of justice, forcibly seize the property of their subjects, forced labour, and compelled Muslims to fight in un-canonical wars or pay heavily in lieu of fighting. The Sarakuna also indulged in illegal luxuries, licentiousness, voluptuous living and accumulation 25

26 of women in their harems. Offices of state were abused and appointments made contravened Islamic norms. It was these ills that the reformers amplified with the hope that both Muslims and non-muslims who suffered oppression and hoped for better days would respond. By way of contrast, Islam was shown as providing a system in which the evils attendant in contemporary governments would be non-existent. The philosophy was that once Islamic orthodoxy was enthroned, the just society would be realized not piece-meal, but wholly. The revolution to achieve the objective was not just any revolution but one which restored practice to what it was in Islam s golden age. The depth of their ideological background and the purist religious norms they put across illustrate their desire for total conformity with Sunni orthodoxy. In his book-the Kitab al-farq, the Sheikh explains how a Muslim government should be organized and the role and function of some of its officials. The Caliph, for example, in accordance with the Sharia should appoint a Qadi, a Muslim 26

27 judge to supervise all the other judges in the provinces and towns under his rule. The Sheikh s description of the state of government and religion in 18 th and early 19 th century Hausa land was in substance correct. This and other writings of the leader of the Islamic revivalist movement in Hausa land provide an insight into the doctrinal justification for the launching of the jihad in Hausa land. Thus, although the jihad represented different interests to different groups, the ideal of Islam appealed to all. Knowledge of Islam was widespread enough, and the Hausa states corrupt enough, to make Islamic reform welcome. Thus, when a reformer of the caliber and personality of the Sheikh appeared, the Muslim protest against the Hausa states found the leadership necessary for the jihad. The aim of the revivalists had been to restore purity to the Islam practiced in the neighbouring Hausa kingdoms. Although they started by preaching it became clear that the rulers of Gobir were not prepared to reform, and that Muslims 27

28 had to be ready to defend themselves and conquer. The nature of the movement was scholastic. Though the majority of the scholars more Fulani, many of whom were related to the Sheikh, the movement also included non-fulani scholars and enjoyed popular support among the non-fulani population, who doubtless welcomed the movement s demands for Islamic legality. 2.4 In-Text Question (ITQ) What was the nature and ideals of the Sokoto revivalist movement? 2.5 In-Text Answer (ITA) The movement in Hausa land was part of a larger movement in the history of Islam in West Africa. The nature of the movement was intellectual and ideals of the movement included the enthronement of an Islamic state, justice and an equitable society. 2.6 Activity Activity timing: Time allowed is 5 minutes 28

29 Activity Text: meet a colleague and discuss some of writings of the leaders of the Sokoto jihad. 2.7 Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) What was the doctrinal justification for the Jihad in Hausa land? 2.8 Summary The Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio led revivalist movement emerged in 19 th century Hausa land. The ideal of the movement was the creation of an Islamic society equivalent to one instituted by the Prophet and the Caliphs. The nature of the movement was intellectual which sought to change the society through knowledge and education 2.9 Reference Y.B. Usman, ed.(1979) Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate: The Sokoto Seminar Papers, Zaria: Department of History, A.B.U. Zaria Suggested Reading Thomas Hodgkin (1960) Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology, London: Oxford University Press. 29

30 Study Session 3 30

31 3.0 The Establishment and Consolidation of the Caliphate 3.1 Introduction The struggle for the establishment of the Sokoto caliphate was led by the Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio which started by the beginning of the 19 th century and by the first decade of the century, the caliphate was established. However, it took a long time to consolidate the caliphate as it faced a lot of challenges. But, nonetheless, a solid administrative structure was established. 3.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of the session, the students should be able to: i.) ii.) iii.) Examine how the caliphate was established, Identify the problems of consolidation, Discuss the administrative structure of the caliphate. 3.3 In-Text 31

32 3.3.1 The Establishment and Consolidation of the Caliphate The jihad that led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate was led by Sheikh Uthman b. Muhammad b. Uthman b. Salih. He was born in Gobir in a place called Maratta on Sunday 15 December He was known as bn Fodiye, Dan Fodio or Ibn Fudiyi the son of the Fodiye. His father had earned the Fulani name of Fodiye, the learned by virtue of his teaching. The jihad in Sokoto is customarily divided into four phases. The first phase was when the Sheikh was a young man, learning, teaching and preaching: still an individual scholar despite the growing number of his students. During this phase, when the Sheikh was just thirty years old he was summoned to a meeting with the King of Gobir Bawa at Magami. He was reluctantly recognized there as a political force, it was of that time that he won from the King of Gobir five concessions: to be allowed to call people to God in his country; that none should be stopped from responding to the 32

33 call; that any man wearing a turban was to be treated with respect; that all prisoners be freed and that his people subjects should not be burdened by taxes. At Degel where he returned to, he continued to teach and travel, but students often came to him, scholars settled nearby and thus a community (Jama a) grew. The second period opened when the new king of Gobir Nafata, realized that the Sheikh s community was becoming too great a threat to his authority to be overlooked. He therefore rescinded the rights of teaching and conversion and tried to disrupt the cohesion of the Muslims by banning their distinctive turbans and veils. In addition, sufficient harassment started for the Sheikh to sanction the carrying of arms by his followers. The next king, Yunfa finding himself powerless to control the Muslims resorted to extremes. He summoned the Sheikh to his court, and drew a pistol, but it backfired, burning his own face. Soon afterwards a refugee Muslim community was destroyed by a king dependent on Gobir. When the Muslim captives from this community were 33

34 being led past the settlement at Degel a skirmish ensued in which the prisoners were forcefully released. As a proscribed party, the Muslims were forced to draw closer together and in their harassment it became clear that the only solution was to overthrow the Gobir establishment. Persecution thus bred revolution, a revolution linking Muslims, Hausa, Tuareg and Fulani, with the pastoral Fulani, who alone were to provide the base from which to launch the war. This in inaugurated the next phase. After the blatant challenge to his power implicit in the release of the Muslim prisoners, Yunfa was forced to act. He therefore, ordered the Sheikh to leave Degel and allow the community to be dispersed. The Sheikh responded by bidding all Muslims to emigrate, in the manner of the prophet, and from beyond the borders of Gobir to begin the fight against the unbelievers, for so the Gobirawa had shown themselves to be by their acts of persecution. The community formally elected the Sheikh as their leader. The Gobir forces and the Muslims met at the 34

35 decisive battle of Tabkin Kwatto on 21 st June 1804 where the Gobir forces were routed and Yunfa escaped. The reorganization of the administration and the creation of Muslim types of government form the final phase of the jihad. The Sheikh s administration was a model for the whole caliphate. Under the Caliph in Sokoto were his agents the emirs of the provinces, and with them were the judges who advised on and administered the full Islamic law. The foundation of the Sokoto caliphate dates from the swearing of the Oath of Allegiance (bay a) to Sheikh Uthman b. Fodio as Amir-al-Muninin by the leaders and the generality of the Muslim community at Gudu. By constituting the Sheikh s followers into an independent polity, the hijra from Degel proved the final phase of the separatist movement which Gobir opposition had forced on the reformers. Similarly the opposition of other governments beyond Gobir was pushing the Jama as into rebellion and separation. The caliphate extended territorially, not only through the success of the Sheikh in the Gobir area from 1804 to 1808, 35

36 but notably through that of the jihad of scattered Muslim Jama as throughout Hausa land and beyond. The leaders of these Jama as had received both authority and investiture from Sheikh Uthman to prosecute the jihad in their localities. Each leader, known as a na ib (deputy), received a flag as a symbol of the Sheikh s authority. The first two years were the most decisive in the struggle of the jihadists. During this period their army inflicted notable defeats on the Gobir army as well as suffering a number of reverses. Successive victories in the opening battles manifestly improved the chances of success for the jihadists, strengthened morale immensely and sapped that of their enemy. Kebbi was sacked and the Muslims moved to Gwandu and settled there. A combined force of Gobirawa, Kebbawa and Tuareg attacked the new base. At the battle of al Wassa the Muslims suffered a terrible reverse in which about 1000 of them were killed. Defeat was soon turned into victory in the gallant defense of Gwandu which culminated in the rout of the allies in Alkalawa finally fell to the Muslims at 36

37 their fourth attempt in October Henceforth the triumph of the Muslim cause was assured. In 1809 Sokoto, which became the capital of the caliphate was built by Muhammad Bello. The jihad originally a revolt against Gobir authority, had meanwhile spread to other Hausa states. The Sarakuna of the Hausa states, such as those of Katsina and Kano, had refused an appeal from the Sheikh contained in a letter he addressed to them late in 1804 to support his jihad and the reform of Islam. Only Zaria whose Sarki Jatau accepted the appeal was not attacked. As the rulers of the other Hausa states took the offensive against their subjects who joined the Sheikh s revivalist movement, the local revolt in Gobir became general throughout Hausa land and beyond. From 1805 onwards, leaders of Muslim communities came from far and wide to pay homage ( bay a) to the Sheikh and to be appointed by him as his nuwwab (deputies) charged with waging the jihad against the recalcitrant rulers and peoples in their various localities. By the Sheikh s acceptance of the submission of these leaders, 37

38 their scattered communities were formally brought under one central authority. The jihad against Katsina was begun during the dry season of Daura, Katsina and Kano allied to oppose the Muslims, but the military collapse of the allied forces early in the struggle led to the fall of each of these. Following the revolt of Zaria against the Sheikh s authority after Sarki Jatau s death, a force under Mallam Musa, a former student of the Sheikh, was sent against it. While these emirates were founded, the Fulani revolted in Borno. Besides Ardo Lerlima who led the jihad in Borno, Gwoni Mukhtar, Ibrahim Zaki, Bi- Abdur and his brother Sambo Digimsa all received the flags from the Sheikh to wage the jihad in their various localities on the western frontiers of Borno. The eastern emirates of the caliphate, those of Gombe, Bauchi and Adamawa shared a common peculiarity of having been established amid multifarious tribes. The establishment and defene of these emirates against the opposition of numerous tribes involved protracted fighting. After receiving 38

39 their flags from the Sheikh the jihad leaders Buba Yero, Yakub b. Datti and Adama b. Hasan for Gombe, Bauchi and Adamawa had to assert their authority among their own peoples. Owing to the numerous fronts on which the jihad had to be fought to preserve their emirates, they gave full expression to a policy of delegating authority to subordinates to conquer and superintend their various districts and tribes In the Western emirates the process of establishing Muslim dominance was slower, and even in the end, apparently less complete than in the east. It seems that the planting of Islam in the regions to the south of Gwandu and Kebbi had been difficult because they had less solid traditions of Islam and consequently an insufficiently strong core of Muslims to lead and wage the jihad locally. Islam did, however, find strong outposts in Nupe and Ilorin. However, despite all odds, with the building of Sokoto as the capital of the caliphate in the last decade of the 19 th, a form of a centralized government was created. Although the period is usually referred to as the period of 39

40 establishment, one can with some degree of confidence say that by the time of the death of the Sheikh in 1817, the caliphate was firmly established Administrative Structure of the Caliphate The caliphate was a loose confederation of emirates that recognized the leadership of Uthman b. Fodio as Commander of the Faithfuls. By mid- 19 th C there were about 30 emirates linked to Sokoto. The caliphate stretched from present day Burkina Faso in the West; to Cameroon in the east. Emirates tended to their own political affairs, although sucession disputes were often referred to Sokoto.The caliphate was set up on the principles of justice and rule of law. It evolved into a quasi-federal system of emirates and local jurisdiction with balanced responsibilities. The problem of consolidating the newly founded emirates of the caliphate, including as it did, the establishment of effective administrative machinery, was extremely difficult. In an age of slow communications, the enormous distances between the various emirates and Sokoto did not render 40

41 administrative control from the centre easy yet it was possible through the application of Islamic norms of state organization to evolve a structurally coherent administrative system for the caliphate. In the arrangement that emerged, the caliph was the effective source of all authority and certainly, the common bond which held the component parts together as one polity. The coming together of the Islamic communities in the various localities of the caliphate under one authority the caliph was the result of their acceptance of the supreme authority of the caliph. The caliphate derived cohesion from its machinery of government which, while placing a premium on obedience and subordination to the caliph, allowed local rubbers a great measure of independence subject to their not going against the shariah and the proper discharge of functions delegated to them by the caliph. The duties of the caliph chiefly was to uphold the religion and exercise political leadership, ensure religious practices, enjoin good and prevent evil, protect rights of citizens, promote expansion of Islam, ensure the collection of canonical taxes 41

42 and that revenue is properly disbursed and appoint only the right and loyal people into offices. The caliph s position as the supreme constitutional authority was the central binding force in the caliphate. The caliph was the ultimate source of all authority and powers were exercised in his name. The officers appointed in Sokoto included the Wazir, a judge, chief of police and tax collector. The first emirs of the provinces were appointed by the Sheikh and so depended on his authority for their acceptability to their communities. The emirates were controlled from Sokoto through a system of supervision. In 1812, the Sheikh divided the caliphate into two-the eastern provinces under Muhammad Bello and Western provinces under Abdullahi. Besides this a further measure of control was later introduced in the eastern emirates whereby particular emirates came under the supervision of particular office holders in Sokoto. Under this arrangement, the Wazir was the chief officer of state to whom much of the caliph s power over eastern 42

43 emirates was delegated. In the course of the 19 th century the Wazir had seven emirates-kano, Zaria, Hadejia, Gombe, Katagum, Missau and Adamawa under his direct supervision. Some Sokoto officials supervised the other emirates like Katsina, Daura, Gusau, etc. The Wazir travelled round his emirates on his supervisory rounds armed with the caliph s authority. The official confirmation of the appointment of the emirs of the provinces was delegated to him. The emirates were in the theory of the constitution, expected to pay certain taxes to Sokoto. These included Zakat, Jizya (from dhimmi), irth-inheritance money and the Khums fifth of the booty, among others. Some duties of the emirs included ensuring unity among his followers, to repair mosques, to pray in them, study and teach the Quran, study and teach Islamic sciences, improve markets and to wage jihad Problems of Consolidation Although Islamic reform was the prime factor behind the founding of the Sokoto caliphate, its consolidation depends on 43

44 the physical forces it could muster. Even at the height of its territorial expansion, the area within its perimeter did not wholly come under its jurisdiction. The emirates were not contiguous as interspersing them, un-subjugated and recalcitrant, were pockets of enemy states and peoples. This situation persisted throughout the 19 th century. The problem of expansion and consolidation was the single most outstanding problem which the caliphate had to face throughout its existence. These problems can be divided into external and internal. The external was the problem of maintaining and expanding the boundaries of the caliphate against its various enemies. These states to the west were Borgu, Gurma, Dendi, Zaberma, Arewa, Kebbi and Gobir, which could either not be conquered or had persisted as undigested and rebellions conquests, and regular sources of attacks on the caliphate. Borno also remained an irreconcilable enemy on the eastern frontiers of the caliphate. Internally the problems were many. First was the problem of controlling or integrating undigested conquests 44

45 which revolted within the emirates. This was more pronounced in emirates like Gombe, Bauchi and Adamawa where the ethnic groups rejected political integration with the emirates. Secondly was the question, from one emirate to another, of rivalries among the leaders of the jihad, their groups of followers, and as the century wore on, their descendants. In virtually every emirate, political rivalries among local leaders were beginning to emerge. There was rivalry among the various clans of the Fulani in Adamawa for leadership of the jihad from the beginning and the Sheikh had to intervene. There was also succession dispute in Muri. The examples of Adamawa and Muri can be multiplied. In Nupe there was bitter rivalry between the two sons of Dendo. There were similar rivalries in Kano and some other emirates. Rivalries such as these created the need to balance appointments to high offices of state in the various emirates. Administration became increasingly complex as the century wore on, and increasing patronage directed at creating an ever-expanding clientele by rival groups became a vital factor 45

46 in the contests for succession to the emirship. Thus, after the first emirs, offices proliferated. Most top-ranking offices appear to have changed hands with the succession of a new emir anxious to install his own clients in key positions. These internal rivalries considerably weakened the internal solidarity of the emirates. Political problems in the emirates went beyond the juggling for position among the ruling classes. Furthermore, the emirates were supposed to be replicas of the Sokoto model. This, except in a general sense, does not imply uniformity of administrative structure and practice throughout the caliphate. Revolutions, including that of the jihad, do not create a vacuum which they then proceed to fill with entirely new concepts and practices. The differing historical antecedents of each emirate as well as circumstances attendant on its formation, no doubt produced diversity in administrative practices. Ambitions for office in the nascent caliphate may be seen as deviation from the ideals in which the jihad was conceived and on which the caliphate was established. Aberrations from 46

47 these ideals had been noted with disgust by Abdullahi as early as even among the Sheikh s community. The creation of offices of state was a fertile ground for dissension. There were also succession disputes to the caliphate itself. The greatest threats to the caliphate arising from such disputes were the Abdulsalam revolt and also Abdullahi s resentment of Bello s succession. With all the factors mentioned, it becomes evident that what was going on within and on the frontiers of the caliphate was a series of military conquests which were not completely successfully consolidated in terms of territorial expansion and consolidation it continued virtually until the overthrow of the caliphate. Thus, in all emirates, the problem of consolidation against recalcitrant enemies remained a general one, but it can be said that most of the more pressing dangers posed by the caliphate s enemies had either disappeared or had become sufficiently reduced to enable the caliphate to live with them without any serious apprehensions by the time of the British conquest. 47

48 3.4 In-Text Question (ITQ) What were the challenges the caliphate faced in the process of its consolidation? 3.5 In-Text Answer (ITA) By the first decade of 19 th century, Sokoto had established as the capital of the caliphate but the process of consolidation took a longer time. The challenges which the caliphate faced in the process of its consolidation can be divided into two- internal problems and external challenges. 3.6 Activity Activity timing: Time Allowed is 5 minutes Activity text: meet a colleague and discuss the administrative structure of the Sokoto caliphate. 3.7 Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) Examine the phases in the establishment of Sokoto caliphate. 3.8 Summary The Sokoto caliphate was established in the 19 th century with areas reaching as far as present day Burkina Faso, Chad 48

49 and Cameroun. There were about four phases in the establishment of the caliphate. It faced internal and external problems in the process of its consolidation. Finally an administrative structure was established with the Caliph at the head and some officials at Sokoto with emirs at the emirate level. 3.9 Reference A.M.Yakubu and H. Bobboyi (2006) The Sokoto Caliphate: History and Legacies, Kaduna: Arewa House Suggested Reading Obaro Ikime, ed., (1984) Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan: Heinemann. Study Session Sokoto Relations with her Emirates, Inter-Emirate Relations and Relations with Neighbors 4.1 Introduction 49

50 The Caliph at Sokoto though, was the supreme authority, sometimes had frosty relations with the emirates especially in the appointment of unpopular candidates as emirs. The Caliph however was able to settle some inter-emirate disputes when they were referred to him. The relations with neighbors also was not always cordial as demonstrated with Sokoto relations with Borno. 4.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of the session, the students should be able to: i.) Examine that existed between Sokoto and its emirates, ii.) Discuss the relations between Sokoto and its neighbors especially Borno. 4.3 In-Text Sokoto- Emirates Relations and Inter-Emirates Relations. As the sole authority over the caliphate, the Caliph at Sokoto had mandate to supervise the emirates and from time to time intervene in the affairs of the emirates in cases of 50

51 disputes. The cases that the Caliph had to intervene in emirates were succession disputes and inter- emirates conflicts. In the early days of the jihad the Caliph s intervention in settling leadership disputes such as in Adamawa and Kano was successful. In most cases the Caliph traditionally played the role of final arbiter. However, it is to be noted that on a number of occasions, the Caliph did get his fingers burnt by unpopular intervention in succession disputes. For instance the succession of Umar Sanda of Adamawa had been challenged by Hamidu who sought and received the Caliph s initial support. As Hamidu was not a popular candidate with the electors, the latter and politely set the Caliph s instruction aside while the affair was settled with Hamidu s death on the eve of his armed revolt. However, the Bukhari and Yusuf revolts in Hadejia and Kano emirates in C and 1893 provide an illustration of the limits of the Caliph s power of intervention in legal and practical terms. In 1848 Bukhari b. Muhammad Sambo succeeded to the throne of Hadejia. He disobeyed the Wazir, 51

52 lost the support and obedience of his subjects and when summoned by the Caliph he rebelled. Following his disobedience, a protracted war out between Bukhari and Sokoto, that lasted till his death in The Caliph s cause enjoyed widespread support because its justice was as patent as the rebel s cause was reprehensible and illegal. It showed that in practice the Caliph could prove incapable of enforcing his decision even when the justice of it was beyond doubt because of the military weakness of the caliphate. The Yusuf revolt in Kano (1893-5) demonstrated the fact that the Caliph was in a still weaker position when it came to enforcing a decision considered unjust and that his power of control over the emirates depended on his obedience to the sharia, which demanded that he be just in all dealings. The Caliph s appointment of Tukur rather than Yusuf was unpopular and was considered unjust, the Caliph s attempt to sustain his decision failed primarily because, although it did not arouse overt hostility in the emirates, it enjoyed on sympathy. 52

53 In all their actions the Caliphs were trying to play their role as supreme authority in the caliphate. On the balance, their role as mediator was productive of more positive achievements for the caliphate than failures. A few examples from disputes between emirates illustrate this. Muri which was created by Buba Yero s brother, Hamman Ruwa was originally part of Gombe. Buba Yero plotted Hamman Ruwa s death to maintain the ruler ship in his line. When the people of Muri appealed to the Caliph, Muhammad Bello recognized Muri as a separate emirate and so settled the dispute once and for all. In Kano the rising of Dan Tunku against Ibrahim Dabo lasted for years. As a last resort they took their case to the Caliph for arbitration. Dan Tunku was recognized by Muhammad Bello as Emir over an independent emirate of Kazaure. In the emirates of the eastern marches there were numerous instances of inter-emirate disputes settled by Sokoto arbitration. Muhammad Manga of Misau was in a protracted conflict with Katagum over a Fulanin Borno town of 53

54 Isawa. Through the good offices of the Caliph conflict was averted and the town put under Missau. Manga was also involved in the Galadima of Akko revolt against Gombe. The conflict proved insoluble until it was submitted to the Caliph for arbitration. These instances of the Caliph s intervention in interemirate disputes prove Sokoto s authority, influence and acceptability, and the fact that the emirates looked up to the Caliph in their difficulties. As custodians of the general welfare, the Caliphs were able to use this position and their authority to strengthen the defense and security of the caliphate by coordinating the efforts of neighboring emirates on regional basis Borno Sokoto Relations In the course of the jihad in Hausaland, the Fulani in Western Borno under Ardo Lerlima led a rebellion against Mai Ahmad of Borno. As a result of the Fulani revolt Borno lost considerable amount of her territory in the West and South- West. Out of this captured territory rose the emirates of 54

55 Hadejia, Katagum and Misau. In 1808 Birni Gazargamu, Borno capital, was attacked by the Fulani forcing the Mai to flee. The Mai had to seek for help from el- Kanemi to drive the Fulani. In 1809, also, the Fulani attacked again and el-kanemi had to recapture Birni for the second time. Hostilities continued between the Borno rulers and the Fulani within and close to their Western frontiers until In 1827 a settlement was worked out with Sokoto whereby Borno accepted the loss of Katagum and Hadejia and Sokoto returned some areas to Borno. The grounds on which the Sheikh and Muhammad Bello justified the jihad against Borno were given in their correspondence with el-kanemi which went on for a period of 3 years ( ). Letters passed first between the Fulani in Borno to the Sokoto leaders where they justified their actions. They accused Borno of being land of unbelief, where people squandered orphans money, took bribes, pass false judgments in law courts, made sacrifices in certain places, and where women did not veil themselves. El Kanemi accepted that that 55