CONFRONTATIONS AND ADAPTATIONS OF MUSLIMS IMMIGRANTS IN URBAN CHINA

Transcription

1 CONFRONTATIONS AND ADAPTATIONS OF MUSLIMS IMMIGRANTS IN URBAN CHINA MA QIANG 1 Abstract Since the Chinese government began to carry out the policies of reform and opening to the outside world in the 1980s, more and more muslims immigrated into cities which are not traditional muslim residential areas. The commercial cities like Shenzhen and Guangzhou of Guangdong province, and Yiwu of Zhejiang province became the most attractive places for muslims to establish companies, export goods, open restaurants, start small Halal food stores, and manage small shops to sell muslim commodities, etc. There are also cultural and technological attraction for foreign muslims to study Chinese language, Chinese medicine, engineering, manufacturing and others in Chinese universities, factories and companies in various provinces in China. Immigration to metropolitans or the cities which are prosperous in economy and technology emerged as a significant phenomenon, particularly since 1990s. These immigrants are strangers to the original Han Chinese societies to a great extent. Consequently, they are confronting many dilemmas and difficulties in the process of embedding into such a heterogenous society. This study will focus on these confrontations they encountered and adaptations they adopted, which mainly manifested in their religious activities, Halal food accommodations, occupations, communities, marriage, inhabitation, etc. and analyse their syncretic tactics in these occasions accordingly. Keywords: Muslim immigrants, confrontation, adaptation, China Introduction China has experienced its rapid urbanization since 1990s, which actually prompted by the policies of reform and opening to the outside world and series of reform projects politically and economically originated in 1980s. As minorities in China, muslim ethnic groups which constituted by 10 ethnic minorities with more than 20 millions obtained great profit in this historic period, and they are confronting with many difficulties in this quick modernizing occasions at the same time. For urban muslims particularly, these difficulties can be ascribed to many facets, such as urban immigrants domestically and internationally in the process of urbanization; compact connections and intercommunications between China and Islamic world within up-to-date 30 years; the attractions of thriving and prosperous commodities of some cities; rapid development of all sorts of high quality but low price markets alongside the coastal areas, especially, in the earliest open cities, such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen, both of them are near Hong Kong and Macao, etc. Urbanization has become a prominent issue which deserved to study on all accounts. This paper will not concern on the phenomenon of urbanization itself in China, but discusses about 1 Associate Professor, Dr., Northwest Ethnology Center, Shaan Xi Normal University, Xi An City, China,

2 the influence of urbanization to muslims and muslim organizations, i.e. communities based on the writer s many years fieldwork on urban muslims in China. 1. Research background There are several Anthropological, Sociological or ethnographical books which focused on Chinese muslim communities published in China. The research on urban muslim Chinese can be summed up as follow aspects. 1.1 Urban muslim communities in Northwest China. Such as Zhang Zhongfu, one of scholar came from Tai Wan, and Gao Zhanfu cooperated in studying on the Hui muslim s enterprise, Halal food, religious practice, marriage relationship, cultural renaissance, the Shayh s tomb and religious rituals in Lan Zhou and Lin Xia of Gan Su province, this can be regarded as the earlier Anthropological investigation on urban muslim Chinese. Gao Yongjiu has been studied on minority s community in northwest China, whereas he shifted his study to eastern cities. Ma Huilan has studied one of the Hui muslim communities in Yin Chuan, capital of Ning Xia Hui Autonomous Region. Zang Xiaowei took a sociological research on Hui muslim community in Lan Zhou, capital of Gan Su province. Yang Wenjiong selected Lan Zhou, Xi An, Xi Ning and Yin Chuan as his four sites for fieldwork in order to take a comparative study on the polytype muslim communities in northwest China, which concerned about issue of community, ethnic identity, and the influence of geographical change to the ethnic relationship and identity. Ding Kejia investigated in Xi Ning (capital of Qing Hai province), Lin Xia (one of the famous muslim city in Gan Su province) and Wu Zhong (in Ning Xia), his doctoral thesis discussed on Islamic issues in these areas. Shu Xihong discussed on the status of Hui community and its relationship with modernization in northwest China. Yang Zhijuan focused on Hui muslim s marriage, particularly on intermarriage in the cities of northwest China. Zhang Jianfang studied on Islamic culture change in Wu Zhong. Zhou Chuanbin studied on Hui muslim communities in Yin Chuan and Shi Zui Shan of Ning Xia Chen Dai Hui muslim community of Quang Zhou city in Fu Jian province. It is an assimilated community with local Han Chinese. Therefore, Pan Hongli studied on its acculturation from an Anthropological perspective, and he considered that the cultural identity of the Hui people here is their common historical memories which different from the muslims living in northwest China who expressed their identity as a muslim and a Chinese simultaneously. Lan Jiongxi concerned about the population, land, market and enterprise here. Fan Ke s doctoral thesis discussed on Hui identity in Chen Dai and Bai Qi of Quan Zhou Studies on Guang Zhou (Guang Dong province) and San Ya (Hai Nan province). Ma Jianzhao studied twe Hui communities from perspective of History and Anthropology in San Ya, which based on his several years fieldwork. Sun Jiuxia continued his work discussed about the ethnic identity and ethnic relationship. Ma Qiang studied the history of Guang Zhou muslim community, and discussed on the 2

3 changing process, multi-ethnic groups, the concept of Jamaat and its relationship with Ummah, and the theoretic issues of spiritual communities, etc About Bei Jing. Zhou Chuanbin and Ma Xuefeng took Bei Jing as a case study, discussed on the structure of muslim community here. Liang Jingyu, selected one of the famous muslim community, namely, Niu Jie in Bei Jing, took an Anthropological research About Nan Jing (capital of Jiang Su province) and Shang Hai. Bai Youtao studied on Qi Jia Wan Hui community in Nan Jing, which intended to analysis the social and cultural functions in the context of urbanization. He begins to take a sociological investigation and research on muslim communities in Shang Hai, Hang Zhou (in Zhe Jiang province), and Yi Wu (in Zhe Jiang province) in succession, and compare with the result which presented in northwest urban China Research on other cities. Shui Jingjun studied on Shui Nan Guan Hui community of Qin Yang city in He Nan province, in which she combined methodology of Sociology and Anthropology. Ma Shourong investigated Shun Cheng Street community in Kun Ming of Yun Nan province. Yang Wenjiong also begins to study on the scattered urban muslim communities in eastern China. Dru Gladney selected four communities as his research fields in Bei Jing (2), Yong Ning (in Ning Xia) and Quangzhou, from which he induced all of muslim communities in urban China in such four stereotypes that can not include the diversity of urban Chinese muslim communities practically General comment on the contemporary research. We can classify the above mentioned studies into two categories. The first category mainly involved with the cities in northwest and southwest China, where traditional and principle muslim communities located, such as Xi An, Lan Zhou, Lin Xia, Yin Chuan, Wu Zhong, Xi Ning and Kun Ming. The second category focused on the issues of eastern cities, such as Bei Jing, Shang Hai, Quang Zhou, Guang Zhou and San Ya, etc. Comparatively speaking, muslim issues of cities in central China are still out of observation from the scholars. The contents of the research works concentrated in the change of Hui communities, their religious and economic life, cultural identity, marriage, education, and employment and adaptation of immigrants, etc. This kind of academic preference indicates that the eastern cities, especially the coastal and commercial cities, nevertheless traditional muslim communities or new immigrant cities are confronting with more religious dilemmas and difficulties because of rapid development and high degree of opening to the outside world. The western cities where muslims are inhabiting in special areas are also confronted with such dilemmas. Actually, these urban issues in western cities stimulated by the rapid development of urbanization of China in the 30 years opening to the outside world which led to great change of muslim communities in China. 3. Research Methodology I have been studied urban msulim Chinese communities since I began my master thesis in I focused my fieldworks in five cities, namely, Lan Zhou and Xi An in northwest China, Guang Zhou and Shen Zhen in south China, and Yi Wu (famous as 3

4 international small commodities market) in central China. These five different urban muslim communities represent diversified living types of urban muslim in China respectively. Lan Zhou and Xi An belong to the traditional inhabited cities where old communities are still existing but facing with removing and rebuilding perplexity. Guang Zhou can be regarded as a representative city where traditional muslim community has disappeared in the process of modernization and urbanization among the coastal cities in China. Shen Zhen and Yi Wu are the new commercial cities attract more and more muslims both from China and outside world to do business, and consequently, new communities have already emerged in both cities. Most of data and conclusions came from my participate observation in my research spots, whereas I referred to the government statistic data, communiqué, chorography, and ethnographies and research outcomes conducted by other scholars. The ethnographical data I got mostly from interviewing of Imams, students of the Masjid, summoners, workers, members of management committee of Masjid, residents of the community, Arabic interpreters, managers of the companies, transient workers, different employers, government officers, and immigrants came from different countries, etc. 4. Findings in the fieldwork 4.1 Renovation and disintegration of the traditional muslim communities in urban China This is a prominent phenomenon that emerged in the process of urbanization, and a principle factor that elicits dilemmas related with religion in the city. But what kind of factors caused the disintegration of the community? The reason would be attributed to as bellow Diminish in population of the community because of political campaign, urban renewal, migration, welfare-oriented public housing distribution system, the construction of the multi-stored buildings, the decline of economic attraction, traffic problem, housing conditions, etc Decline of the community functions. This related to the diminishment in population too, which degrade the identity of the members to the community because of inconvenience and heterogeneity caused by the urban development. Among which religious education begin to reduce, or even fade away, therefore the educational functions of the community diminish consequently. The communal members can not get religious education and exhortation, thus they have to find a new way to communicate with other muslims through migrating to other area in the city. 4.2 Classification of the urban muslim community in China today From perspective of resident pattern, we can classify as multi-site compact community, scattered region and congregational compact community From historical and developing perspective, we can classify the community as traditional one and emerging one From ethnic perspective, it can be classified as multi-ethnic community and mono-ethnic community. Table 1 Classifications of muslim communities in China 4

5 Item Type Name of city Multi-site compact Bei Jing, Lan Zhou and Tian Jin, etc. community Scattered community Guang Zhou, Shen Zhen, Shanghai Hai,Hong Kong and Yin Chuan. etc. Congregational compact community Classification 1 Classification 2 Classification 3 Traditional community New community Multi-ethnic community Mono-ethnic community Xi An Hui Quarter, Dong Guan District of Xi Ning, Guan Cheng Hui District of Zheng Zhou, and Hui District of Hohhot, etc Xi An Hui Quarter, Niu Jie of Bei Jing, Nan Guan and Xi Guan of Lan Zhou, and Shun Cheng Street of Kun Ming, etc Yi Wu and Shen Zhen, etc. Hong Kong, Guang Zhou, Shen Zhen, Yi Wu, Shang Hai and Bei Jing, etc. Xi An Hui Quarter, Guan Cheng Hui District of Zheng Zhou, and Hui District of Hohhot, etc. 4.3 Emergence of moving community. Moving community is one of the most remarkable results conducted by the rapid urbanization that indicates the instability of muslims in the city and the tactics they adopted to reply those challenges. It is also a temporary community constructed by immigrants in their living areas in most of the new immigrant cities, such as Shen Zhen and Yi Wu. It is different from traditional community in many facets. 1) Population. Majority of them are national and international immigrants. 2) Diversified ethnic groups, which involved nearly all muslim ethnic groups in the world. Such character is distinct in muslim immigrant cities. 3) Diversified doctrinal groups, which include Sunni and Shi a, and some Sufi suborders (Men Huan in Chinese). 4) Different geographical characteristics accompanied with ethno-cultural elements that display the heterogeneity in Islamic culture. 5) Mobility and instability owing to urbanization and development. 5. Islamic movements and concept of religious denomination. 5.1 In China, Salaffiyyah movement which originated from Saudi Arabia and diffused throughout the whole Arabian and outside world since the late nineteenth century, is still a new campaign in most of the traditional muslim communities, therefore, case of inharmony among old denominations and the innovative groups are reported consequently. As a movement, Salafiyyah is primarily confirmed to one of the Islamic Jurisprudence schools, Hanbaliyyah. Some of the Arabian Muslims and Chinese students coming back from Arabian countries, mostly, Saudi Arabia, endeavor to spread the concept of purification which intends to eradicate the non-islamic complications they conceived in the periphery of Chinese Islam. Because of different jurisprudential interpretation systems between Hanaffiyah, which 5

6 prevailed in Chinese muslim society, and Hanbaliyyah, the appeal of detachment is an inevitable sequel, and naturally it is a kind of segregation to the whole Muslim Ummah inherently cherished by all Muslims. 5.2 The second movement is Jamaat Tabligh which seeks to intensify and purify the practice of Islam that originated from India in 1920s, and was replanted by its advocators to the urban areas in China. It hammers at a shifting secular life to a purity one, aiming at renewing the spirit of Islam through personal contact and the model of its missionaries. It emphasizes Islamic identity and Islamic superiority. Ultimately, Tabligh Jamaat is committed to the goal of revitalizing the faith of a born Muslim; of promoting the good and eradicating the unjust. This thought is mostly diffused by its adherents in China, and prompted by small international groups occasionally. The city offers a liberal space for such propagating activities relatively. 5.3 The third movement is New Sufism (mysticism) activities. Unlike traditional Sufi groups which specially emphasize self meditation and personal practice, the new Sufi movement pursues social affairs besides personal obligatory duties to Allah. Although most of these movements pursue its activities in the name of traditional denominations which are familiar with by Chinese muslims, they have anti-traditional characters both theoretically and practically to some extent. These small groups recruit their conformists in the city and practice their ritual secretly, and hope they can get more understanding and support by other muslims. Thanks to intercommunication between Chinese muslim and foreign immigrants, and more and more people went to Mecca for Haj every year, and some graduates came back from different schools of Islamic countries, Chinese muslim began to acquainted themselves with the diversity of Islamic culture around the world. Majority of them began to comprehend Islam as a whole, and gave up former conservative opinions on rituals and activities that disturbed Chinese muslims for many years. 6. Urban Islamic issues and its potential resolution 6.1 Development and innovation of the community It mainly refers to the traditional muslim community. The innovative works on traditional communities should be based on considering their belief and economic life, and try to keep the entity of Jamaat sufficiently, in order to avoid such phenomenon that the geographical community being demolished in some cities without respect the muslims living traditions, which bring about more complex problems and difficulties in their life. Some of muslim communities has already become the world cultural heritages which should be protected when make a city development planning. More investigation should be conducted by local Islamic Association and related government office in the community. Furthermore, the innovative works should be discussed with the representatives selected by the community and be carried out gradually. 6.2 About immigrants and their life It includes domestic moving population and international immigrants. Some of the immigrants have bought apartments and become the permanent inhabitants of the 6

7 city. But most of immigrants are still transient populations whereas urban religious problems emerged accordingly. Such as Exotic Street in Yi Wu city, where muslim businessmen concentrate from all over the world, namely Arabian, Indian, Pakistani, Malay, African muslim, Afghanistani and other central Asia countries, etc. Being a famous trade fair, Guang Zhou Fare attracts nearly all of the muslim ethnic groups to find commercial opportunities in Guang Zhou, therefore, Yearning Prophet Masjid (Huai Sheng Si) and the Sage Tomb of Abi Waggas have become the principle Friday prayer place and tourism sites that receive tens of thousands of guests around the world. The moving of domestic immigrants has such characters as: 1) from west to east, to coastal cites particularly; 2) From rural or underdeveloped areas to developed cities; 3) from traditional muslim communities to non-muslim areas; 4) from small and medium-sized cities to metropolitans. The majorities of immigrants are Hui muslim chinese besides a small quantity of Uyghur migrated from Xin Jiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. They are managing Halal food and restaurant, leather and fur, native products and trade companies, and so forth. The most salient occupation is Arabic interpreter who graduated from Islamic universities abroad, or from Islamic institutes and Arabic schools interior, plays a connecting role between Arabian businessman and local factories. Actually, the new religious community is always constructed by these immigrants who have acquired Islamic knowledge in different ways. The dilemma is how to manage these moving communities in order to provide a convenient religious life for muslims in the city. Some of the small prayer sites and Masjid have been approved by the government, and certain amount of financial support and assistance has obtained too, but this procedure is always delayed because in most of the cities such issue is completely a new one in the process of urbanization. The other problem exists in that children s education of immigrants. In China, system of nine-year compulsory education is implemented even in remote rural areas. But the problem is the native place of immigrants are not in the city where they are living, foreigners in particular, they are confronting with such difficulty that they can not get the equal opportunity for their children to study as the residents of the city. Even they got the opportunity for education by paying extra fees eventually, they still have difficulies in offering Halal food to their children. Obviously, the educational cost of mulism immigrants is higher than the city resident. It should be drawn close attention from the government to eliminate the dilemma in order that the immigrants can take root in the city and cooperate with other people conveniently. 6.3 Religious activity and its management This can be elaborated from two perspectives. One is for the local government. The other is for the management committee of the Masjid, which actually the real leadership of muslim community. The religious issues need the relevant government office to contact with the local residents, immigrants, and Islamic associations, and to discuss the probable resolutions when difficulties emerged. The quality and attitude of the service and management provided by the government determines the reactivity of muslims. 7

8 The local Islamic Association needs to improve its service quality relying on the muslims it represented. The Masjid should pay more attention to select the members of the management committee in order to give a favourable service to the muslims involved. Selecting members of the management committee should be accord with the spirit of Quran and Hadith. He must be a pious muslim with honesty, equality, ability, and well-behaved. Once the committee organized, they should take counsel together according to the teaching of Prophet, and select the excellent Imam and Ustaz to develop education and practice religious rituals. For those new muslim immigrant cities, the immigrants should be considered to be promoted participating the management committee in order to hearing their anticipations and difficulties smoothly. 6.4 About Islamic thoughts and movement The international Islamic movement such as Tabligh Jamaat, Salaffiyah and new Sufi activities, which will bring about great influence to Chinese muslim definitely in such a globalized world. For Chinese muslim, no one can keep away from these movements if only one is living in this globalized world because of convenient media and network. But the question is how could we reply to these movements and thoughts? Generally, each movement will be Sinicized or localized when it enters into local society in China. We should wait for this process of localization finished and then give a precise comment in the future, it is too early to criticize or acknowledge these movements hastily when it is still in the course of Sinicization. In terms of the complex of ethnicity as well as diversity of Islamic dogmatics and Jurisprudences, urban muslim community is undoubtedly representatives of these pluralities. All the muslims ought to have known that the universalism of Islam intends to transcend ethnic, local, or national boundaries and teach the believers to express their membership and brotherhood adherent to Muslim Ummah. If only one confess to abide by the teachings of Quran, he (or she) should be regarded as the member of Ummah, and should be cared for by other members respectively, because Prophet Mohammed emphasized such kind of solidarity and brotherhood in his Hadith numerously. 6.5 Halal food This is a problem in most of cities in China with the development of population, geographical periphery and markets. Not only because of shortage of Halal food factories and supplement, but the supervisory works by the government is also need to be improved. Actually, majority of ethno-religious conflicts between muslims and non-muslims in China originated from disrespect to muslim s diet habits because of ignorance and misunderstanding by non-muslims, regardless of history and reality. 6.6 Religious education In most of cites, the traditional education attached to masjid has already stopped or degenerated in these years. This situation can be ascribed to the reason such as the development of civil education, secularization, and diminish of traditional Islamic education in the masjid. But the problem is in some cities, the young muslim generations know little about Islam, their activities and beliefs are different from their parents, which caused problem of intergenerational identity. Some of the children are 8

9 segregated from the Imam s religious exhortation for a long time, they begin to pursuit the anti-islamic fashions and undertaken the activities that Islam forbid. Studying Quran or attending school became a contradiction for urban muslims. 6.7 Female masjid (madarasa) and other woman issues Female masjid is a particular phenomenon in China, which originated in central China as early as the late Ming ( ) and the beginning of Qing dynasty ( ). Such kind of emergency of female masjid also became prevalent since 1990s in the process of urbanization. It is a special issue which I discussed in another academic paper. The question here is can we male muslim, especially the Imams, management members of the masjid, and worldly elites of the community understand and be tolerant to the female masjid (or madaras), and give them more opportunities to express their religious appeal, though in some areas, this kind of renewal is still a controversial topic. Being a social activity in diffusing basic knowledge of Islam and make convenient for female muslims to fulfill their prayer and communicate with each other in the quick development of urbanization, female masjid (or madarasa) gives the woman a separate space to learn from each other, exchange information, and communicate among females. It can be looked as a tactic for those pious female muslims to fight against the dissimilation and alienation by modernization, whereas it is a strength for urban muslims to keep their traditions from female s attitude, and change the reality that male monopolize the religious resources for a long time. 6.8 Maintenance of Iman and acculturation in the culture How to maintenance their muslim identity and adapt to city life simultaneously is a severe question for urban muslims. Urban community and urban life are different from rural areas in that the members are strange with each other where muslims are the heterogeneous group to the Han Chinese and vice versa. Because of their special food request and religious activity, some of the opportunities can not be obtained in their daily life. For example, majority of muslims are doing business, small trades people and peddlers, or specialized in Halal food shops and Arabic interpreters, they can seldom get chance to study handicraft or technology in the factories which managed by non-muslims. Even for businessman, how to deal with the profit of bank, and how to use the loan from the bank to enlarge their career is still a critical issue. For those urban vagrants, they are confronting with many difficulties in practicing Islam, such as how to practice Islam in their daily when it is difficult to find a mosque or take ablution on prayer time, let alone majorities they affiliate with everyday know little about Islam. Such pressing tasks like this are all want to be explained by the scholars of Islamic Jurisprudence. As a consequence, the writer advice to collect all the related questions of muslim minorities and organize a special committee by the muslim scholars in the world to give interpretations and diffuse these Fatwa from internet or by reading materials. This will help muslim minorities who are living in different countries to take a reference instead of being confused by the random explanations from local interpreters blindly. Conclusion After 30 years development since China implemented the policies of reform and 9

10 opening to the outside world, Chinese muslim obtained this precious opportunity to make profit in many spheres. Among them, urban migration came out to be the most significant activities undertaken by the muslims. After 1990s, international muslim immigrants come to China from all over the world attracted by the quick developed markets and affluent goods. They are living in the cities that completely strange to them in many aspects, therefore, they captured a lot and experienced a lot too. Nevertheless, both of Chinese muslim and foreign muslim are confronting with the opportunities and difficulties, and they want to cooperate to deal with the challenges of urbanization in urban China. If the difficulties, or rather challenges can be dealt with properly, they will acculturate with city culture harmoniously. But this procedure seems still ambiguity in the rapid development of urbanization. 1 张中复 : 回族现象观察的 点 与 面 从三本回族调查资料的研究取向谈起, 载 回族研究,2003 年第 2 期, 第 页 ; 都市回族问题研究定位的再思考 从 社区 与 现代化 的互动观点谈起, 载 第十四次全国回族学研讨会论文汇编, 内部资料,2003 年, 第 页 台湾国立政治大学民族学系 : 黄土高原上的穆斯林 : 中国大陆西北穆斯林社会田野调查队研究报告, 内部资料,2004 年 高永久 : 西北少数民族地区城市化建设研究, 兰州大学出版社,2003 年 ; 高永久 张小蕾 : 对天穆社区不同社会群体宗教生活状况的分析, 载 回族研究 2007 年第 1 期, 第 页 马惠兰 : 城市化进程中的回族社区 以银川郊区红花乡北塔村为例, 载 西北第二民族学院学报,2004 年第 2 期, 第 页 ZANG Xiaowei, Ethnic Differences in Neighboring Behavior in Urban China, Published in Social Focus, Vol. 36, 2003, pp 杨文炯 : 互动 调适与重构 西北城市回族社区及其文化变迁研究, 民族出版社,2007 年 其论文主要涉及兰州 西宁两地, 建树较多 文章名从略 丁克家 : 当代甘宁青城市化进程中的伊斯兰教研究, 中央民族大学博士论文,2006 年 束锡红 : 西北回族社区现代化实践的新探索, 商务印书馆,2004 年 ; 杨志娟 : 宁夏城市回族通婚现状调查研究 以银川 吴忠 灵武为例, 载 回族研究,2002 年第 1 期, 第 页 张建芳 王丽宏 : 城市化进程中回族伊斯兰文化的调适和发展 以宁夏回族自治区吴忠市为例, 载 回族研究, 2007 年第 1 期, 第 页 周传斌 : 宁夏河西地区的城市化与回族社区变迁 以银川市和 石嘴山市为例, 载 西北第二民族学院学报,2007 年第 2 期, 第 5-12 页 2 潘宏立 : 陈埭回族文化涵化的研究, 载 陈埭回族史研究, 中国社会科学出版社,1991 年, 第 页 蓝炯熹 : 城市化进程中的福建回族社区 以晋江市陈埭镇回族七村为例, 第十四次全国回族学研讨会论文汇编, 内部资料,2003 年, 第 页 Fan Ke, Identity Politics in South Fujian Hui Communities, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, 马建钊 : 海南回族的历史来源与社会变迁 对海南省三亚市羊栏镇两回族村的历史学与人类学考察, 载 回族研究,2001 年第 4 期, 第 页 ; 孙九霞 : 现代背景下的民族认同与民族关系 以海南三亚凤凰镇回族为例, 载 民族研究 2004 年第 3 期, 第 马强 : 流动的精神社区 人类学视野下的广州穆斯林哲玛提研究, 中国社会科学出版社, 2006 年 4 周传斌 马雪峰 : 都市回族社会结构的范式问题探讨 以北京回族社区的结构变迁为例, 载 回族研究,2004 年第 3 期, 第 页 良警宇 : 牛街 : 一个城市回族社区的变迁, 中央 民族大学出版社,2006 年 5 白友涛 : 盘根草 城市现代化背景下的回族社区, 宁夏人民出版社,2005 年 白友涛 陈赟畅 : 流动穆斯林与大城市回族社区 以南京 上海等城市为例, 载 回族研究,2007 年第 4 期, 第 页 李晓雨 白友涛 : 我国城市流动穆斯林社会适应问题研究 以南京 和西安为例, 载 青海民族学院学报,2009 年第 1 期, 第 页 6 水镜君 : 中原回族社区水南关的发展与文化变迁, 载 回族研究,1999 年第 2 期, 第 页 马寿荣 : 都市回族社区的文化变迁 以昆明市顺成街回族社区为例, 载 回族研究,2003 年第 4 期, 第 页 ; 都市民族社区的宗教生活与文化认同 昆明顺成街回族社区调查, 载 思想战线 2003 年第 4 期, 第 页 ; 都市化过程中民族社区经济活动的变迁 昆明市顺城街回族社区的个案研究, 载 云南民族大学学报,2003 年第 6 期, 第 52 10

11 -55 页 杨文炯 樊莹 : 回族文化的地域差异与民族认同的错位 关于江苏连云港回族社会的调查研究, 载 北方民族大学学报,2009 年第 2 期, 第 页 Dru Gladney, Ethnic Identity in China: The Making of a Muslin Minority Nationalism, Florida: USA,1998;Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subject,The University of Chicago Press,