NĀGA ICONOGRAPHY IN KERALA

Transcription

1 138 NĀGA ICONOGRAPHY IN KERALA The branch of knowledge that deals with the typical art in the form of illustrations of figures, images or icons is called iconography. The term iconography is derived from two Greek words, eikon and graphe which mean image and writing respectively. There is also one another word Iconology, it explains the detailed study of iconography (Rao 1981; Gupta 2003). It means a holy painting or carving of a divine human being on different mediums like wood and stone. However, there are different opinions about the meanings of icon and generally accepted view is that; which are related to divine attributes of figures for a religious worship are called icons (Banerjea 1956). In fact the religious icon is an object of reverence basically related to the devotees or followers of a particular religion. The devotees believe that icons personify the Gods and Goddesses as such. So the devotees always try to find divine and conceivable aspects on these icons as representatives of Gods. However, iconography explains basically about the religious figures and drawings which can found enormously in temples of different sects. In India icons are generally called as Vigraha / Vigraham whereas the main icon in a temple is called as Mūrthi. Religions in India have different types of sculptures which are regarded as icon or representatives of God. Such believes makes the changes and it lead to the sculptural development of icons. The icons have different symbolic meanings. Such meanings are emerged from its different postures, gestures, arms, weapons, dress, ornaments, consorts and vehicle. These symbols are well discussed in various Purāna like Viśnu Purāna, Śiva Purāna, Upanishad and Agamas (Akhtar 1972; Acharyam1988).

2 139 DEVELOPMENTS OF ICONS IN INDIA: In India the iconographic representations have been started since Indus Valley civilization in the forms of floral and faunal divisions. The subsequent development found on seals and sealing had taken place during the period of Mauryans, Śunga, Śathavahana and Gupta (Rao 1981). It reached its zenith in post-gupta period. Basically in India customs of making sculptures, paintings and images are based on the human body. Thus the sculptures are considered as the primary sources for studying the major streams of Indian art history (Choodamani 2006; Kramrisch 1985). It is believed that the development of art and architecture in relation to religion in South India had been witnessed in the period from 5 th A D to 17 th century A D. This period had witnessed quite a number of canonical works in Sanskrit related to iconographic manuals called pratimā lakṣaṇas. During the same time, the construction of temples also had begun in a different architectural form other than stūpa, ćaitya or vihāra. Simultaneously the mythical stories related to Gods had become popular. The deities of the lower or indigenous classes had also developed and started complex worship in their own ritual spaces. Such development gradually makes a movement of deities from the temples to strengthen the beliefs of people for an existing dominant religion. With this development, Indian iconography was more or less decided and formalized by the end of 5th century AD (Rao 1981; Gupta 2002). ELEMENTS IN ICONOGRAPHY: Iconography have numerous fundamental features like classification of images, textual principles of making images, mode of casting, materials used in making images, the accessories and the characters of Gods and Goddesses. Icons stand as a representative of divine powers and became the main reason for the getting prominence of religion. Moreover, God and Goddess have two forms: one is the concrete / finite

3 140 form and the other is the abstract and infinite form (Kramrisch, 1946). Temple comprises two types of deities; sub-deities and main deity, which differs according to the belief in temple. Mūrthi (idol) is called as the main deity of the temple. Gradually sub-deities will appear on the basis of the religious faiths of the temple (Krishnaswami 1920; Kelly 1998). The Hindu images are divided into three classes; Ćala (movable), aćala (immovable), and Ćalāćala (movable-immovable). The same classification of icons of God and Goddesses can be seen in all over Kerala. But the category of Ćala and Ćalāćala are more common than the rest of classification (Gupta 2002). Other classifications of divine images are seen in the form of paintings and drawings generally depicted either in the temple or other ritual spaces. This classification is rarely seen in Kerala. The rules of making images of Nāgas are not been strictly followed throughout Kerala. Actually the details of different postures and measurements of the various parts of the body is needed for making a relative proportioned image and it is usually given by concerned iconographic or sacred texts. The partial details of the measurement related to Nāga image are available in the texts like Dhyānaslōka and Thantrasamuchaya. Instead of these sacred texts, an impression of their power and personality was created by the Sthapatis (the sculptors). The sacred text Śilpaśāstra, deals with the rules of the preparation of all kinds of images (Saletore 1981; Smitha 2003; Mishra 1992). Iconometry: This is the most important aspect of Icons or iconography. The study of the measurement of icons or images is known as iconometry. These measurements are

4 141 discussed in sacred texts like Śilpaśāstra, Thantrasamuchaya and Dhyānaslōka (Namboothiripadu 1998). The sculptors make the image according to the prescribed measurements and produce a well-finished image. The sculptor usually follows two types of measurements which is known tālamāna and the aṅgulamāna. Among this, tāla or tālamāna system of measurement is generally used for the preparation of the idols. The word tāla refers to the length of the palm, which is considered to be equivalent in sculptures, as in human beings, to the length of face from forehead to chin (Gupte 1972). Generally, images are made according to different tālamāna systems such as uttama, madhyama, adhama dasatālās, navatāla measurement for Rakśasa (demon), Yaksha (Sylvan deities), Saptatāla for Vetālās etc. The measurement of making the Nāga idols are not mentioned completely in the above mentioned text. Only some measurements like Adhama-daśatāla (of 116 dehāṅgulas) for Śeśa and navatāla and uttama navatāla for Yakṣa or Yakśi (sylvan deities) are explained. But in Central Kerala normally Nāgas images are made in navatāla measurement and it explains the length of image is nine times the length of its palm or face. The nine-face length is distributed thus: Face Throat to navel Navel to the tip of the knee Lower knee to ankle One tāla; Two tāla; Three tāla Two tāla Remaining one tāla is divided among the height of foot, knee and top knot (Gupta 2002). Dwarfish figures are made according to the ćaturasratāla, or four-tāla formula, four times the length of the image s face (Sivaramamurti 1963). Nāga figures can be

5 142 seen with or without dwarf or Gana. Most of the times, male dwarf figures are dominating rather than of female dwarfs. The details of the iconography of such ganās will be discussed in the latter section of this chapter. Simultaneously, there is also another measurement which is used in image making is called Aṅgula. It can be measured in three ways: mānāṅgula, one-twelfth of a tāla; mātrāṅgula, the length of the middle digit of the middle finger of the right hand of a man; dehalabdāṅgula, the length of the middle digit of the middle finger of the right hand of the donor or the Sthāpati. For measuring lengths along with plumb-lines an instrument called the Lamba-phalaka is employed. Between the two schemes, tālamāna iconometry is more popular probably due to the differences that exist as to the size of the basic unit (Bhattathirippadu 1974; Stapati 2006). There are different attributes, weapons and postures that are specially intended for each deity and it is based on different religious aspects for worship. These features are described in the various texts like Dhyānaslōka, Thantrasamuchaya, Śilpaśāstras and aesthetic views of sculptures. Sculptors may show a special preference for one or another sacred text. It may lead a slight variation in the similar images. The iconographic text, Śilpaśāstra, mentions that the materials such as stone, bronze, ivory, panchalōha and clay are used for the making of images. The most important and popular material is stone due to its durability. Infact, wood is also used to make images whereas stone and metal is used well than the wood. Nāga images in Central Kerala are usually made in stone rather than other materials and such sculptures made by the local sculptors on the basis of related locally available texts. Nāga images are also made in metal and this is used as offering object in the Nāga worshiping temple for Nāga related problems.

6 143 NĀGA ICONOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL KERALA: Nāga icons attained a significant position in Kerala Hindu mythology without having a support of different vast iconographical texts. Images of Nāga have been identified as a decorative motive in the early centuries of Christian era. Because, the earlier temple in Central Kerala, particularly, Thiruvanchikkulam Siva temple and Bhagavati temple at Kodungallur have the details of intertwined Nāga depiction in theriomorphic pattern. Such temples can be placed in the earlier stages (9 th century A.D) of structural temples. It was also associated with both Buddhism and Jainism all over India in general and Kerala in particular. However their images occur in independent forms. Infrequently they have figural or iconic representation similar to the major deities. The presence of Nāga can be seen in iconic and non-iconic features and were found both in female and male forms. The details of iconometry related texts of Nāga images already mentioned above. Only two hymns are found in Dhyānaslōka, which are describing the attributes, ornaments, garments of Nāgayakśi (female Nāga deity). These works portray the Nāgas sometimes as a mere animal or as a human being caped with snake hood behind the head. But, generally both the human and animal blended figures (Therio-anthropomorphic) are absolutely unavailable in this region. The male form of Nāga is called Nāgarāja whereas female called Nāgayakśi; a counter part of Nāgarāja. Other nomenclature is given to represent female Nāga figurine is Nāgini, Nāgayakśi, Nāgaćāmundi, Nāga Kanni, Sarppayakshi and Nāga dēvata. In the theriomorphic representation, same terminology has been given without denoting any distinguishable changes in the forms. Such names are Kannināgam, Manināgam, Kuzhināgam, Anjilamanināgam and Karināgam. There is one more classification that has been evidenced from this area on the basis of caste in Nāgas which is similar to the social classifications in the societies of Kerala. These are Brahmanasarppangal (Nāga

7 144 in Brahmin category) (Plate5.1), Kśatriyasarppangal (Nāga in Kshatriya category) (Plate5.2) and Śūdrasarppangal or Adhamasarppangal (Nāga in lower category) (Plate5.3). This classification can be seen only in the temple and household sacred groves of Brahman community. On the basis of such classifications, these deities are hallowed separately in sarppakkāvūs. So the pūjas also varied according to these hierarchical socio-religious classifications. The iconographic text, Śilparatna explains different forms of Nāga deities. It suggests that the iconic form of Nāga should be in snake characters on the lower portion and human characters on upper part (therio-anthropomorphic figures). The head portion of the human must be covered by the snake hood (anthropomorphic figures). The number of the hood varies from 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and so forth. Each of the mouth must be shown with bifid tongue and hands should hold two attributes (Namboothiripadu 1998; Rao 1914). The sacred text Dhyānaslōka explains the iconic form of Nāgayakśi. Two hymns are dedicated to this female Nāga deity. One hymn is; Japākusuma sat prabhām Kalitha chāru rakthāmbarām Jwālad bhujanga bhōshanām Phanila sanmani dyōthithām Varadabhayakaradwayam kanaka Kumbha thungasthanim smarāmi Vishanāshinim manasi Nāgayakshim sadā (Dhyānaslōkangal) (Namboothiripadu 1998) As mentioned above, this quoted hymn gives the details of the attributes and characters related to the peculiar deity. She appears like a reddish colour (colour of a

8 145 typical flower), wearing a beautiful red coloured draperies (lower and upper), having different patterns of ornaments (hāra, keyūra, kankana, kuņdala), hands showing the mudras of Abhaya and Varada, having beautiful golden colour like big breast, shining like Nāgamānikyam (A precious mythical gem usually keep in the head of snake God) and also it praise, able to give cure from any kind of high poisons. Such type of beautiful Nāgayakśi is remembered always in everyone s minds. The iconographic text Māyamata of Mayāsura explains that Nāga must have white complexion and her body is shining like a pearl (Gupta 2002). In addition to this, seven great Nāgas are described with the name: Ananta. Takśaka, Vāsuki, Karkkodaka, Mahapadma, Samkhapala and Kulika. These are having two arms and carrying rosary (japamāla) and water pot on each hand. It also explains the details of mythical seven hooded snake adorned with precious gems on each hoods. Another canonical text Matsyapurāna explains that the representation of Nāgas should have hood with crown and should be half human and half snake mode (Therio-anthropomorphic). Amśumathbhedagama, a sacred text mentions about the anthropomorphic representation of Nāgas. Here Nāga has been described in human form with five hoods and stands on a patmapīta. He has to be shown with either three eyes or four arms. Abhaya and Varada mudra should be shown in lower right and left hand respectively, whereas both of the upper hands hold two snakes. The complexion is red but adorned with white clothes. His head is highly ornate and the face should be in Saumyabhāva (peaceful expression). The references about Nāga sthambās is shown in the lines from 142 to 164 of Shilparathnakōsa and also explain the sculptural style of Nāgas. According to this, Nāgas are sculptured with round body and gem stone should be studded on its hood (Smitha 2003; Panda 1986; Vogel 1926).

9 146 Several canonical texts systematically describe the details of iconographic features. But most of the times, sculptors or sthāpati or śilpi may have their own intuitions and ideas gained from their ancestors. The sculptors in the whole Kerala makes the Nāga images on the basis of guidelines given by Tantri (chief priest) or astrologer. It is believed that, on a religious point of view, all of the lands in Kerala are belonging to Nāgas. The legend of Paraśurāma clearly explains the accommodation of snakes in the land of Kerala. According to the astrological laws and theories, Nāgas are believed that the guardians of earth, water and it represent ancestors too. If any problems are related to family or temple, usually, the people go to an astrologer to get the reasons behind the problems as well as for its solution. If the problem is related to the temple, usually tantri proposes the preparation of a sanctified ritual which is called Aśtamangalapraśnam or Dēvapraśnam. It is a lengthiest and expensive ritual conducted only in the temples. It is believed that tantri can identify the problems related to the temple through this holy act. If the problem is related to the Nāga, he proposes to consecrate new Nāga images in the sarppakkāvu. Infact, he is well aware of iconographic texts like Dhyānaslōka, Thantrasamuchaya etc. So usually, he gives the features of Nāga images. He can also have a right to decide the number of Nāga images for the sanctification on the basis of the concerned problem. However, he gives all types of measurement and attributes to the sculptors related to the particular Nāga deity (female or male) like measurement (tālamāna), number of hood, details of arms, postures, details of crown and ganās. The list of such details is called as chārthu. After getting the list or chārthu, sculptor starts the process of making the image of Nāga by referring some of the above mentioned iconographic texts. Lack of iconographical texts,

10 147 variations in tantri (chief priest) and astrologer and the nature of available raw materials for art work make regional slight variation for each icon. CLASSIFICATION OF NĀGA ICONS: Generally Nāga figures are shown in different patterns. Typologically they can be classified under four broad divisions as stated below: Theriomorphic: It stands for animal form of snake worship. It is simplest form of snake worship and diverge its hood numbers. Under this category Nāga figures usually showed in multiple hoods which varies from three, five, seven and nine (molycephalous) or single hoods (monocephalic). Anthropomorphic: This category is always shown in human form caped with cobra hood behind head. Number of hoods are varies according to the deity. Generally both carved male and female figures are shown in this category. Such deities sit over the coiled snake body served as pīta. Sometimes these coiled designs may cover completely behind the body. Therio -anthropomorphic: It is the combination of both human being and animal elements in Nāga figure. Usually the upper part has the appearance of human being whereas the lower part, below the waist, provides snake coils looped in various patterns. Symbolic representation: Peoples are worshipping Nāgas by consecrating natural pebbles, cobbles, simple stone slab, and laterites instead of images and also construct miniature form of house locally termed as Chitrakūdom of all not only in Central Kerala but Kerala also. Systematic and gradual chronological development in artistic evolution of Nāga figures with distinct forms and features have not been explored or studied yet in Central Kerala. Nāga figures in theriomorphic forms are seen in the maņdapa of the early

11 148 medieval temple (1000 A.D to 1200 A.D) at Thiruvanchikkulam, near Kodungallur, Trissur district. It will be explained in the following portions. The wide development of anthropomorphic Nāga images are started to see in the later periods of Kerala. Nāga in anthropomorphic form do not appears in the early centuries of Christian era at Central Kerala. So the identification and dating of Nāga images can be studied only by analysing the associative evidences and also keeping a full consciousness about the importance of available iconographic texts for the study. As mentioned above Nāga deities in Kerala are appearing in theriomorphic, anthropomorphic and symbolic forms. Therio-anthropomorphic sculptures are completely absent in the central part of Kerala. The antiquity of Nāga images in Kerala can be partially done by tracing the iconographic characters and its developments through the ages in Kerala. The earlier evidence of Nāga depiction in Central Kerala can be placed in the period after 9 th century A D. Majority of the images found are invariably carved in chlorite (Kriśnaśila) and rarely in laterite, metal and sometimes in woods (Plate5.4). The chlorite stones are used for making all kind of icons related to the temples worship. It is because; Nāga icons in Kerala are placed open to the nature for worship. The sculptors have a division on such stone i.e. purusha (male), stri (female) and napumsaka (neutral). Puruśa stone is used to make the idol of male Nāga whereas stri is used for female deity. So, purusha stone for Nāgaraja and stri for Nāga Kanni, Nāgayakśi, Nāgaćāmundi and Nāgamātha. They are devoid of tālamāna for making Nāga icons in Kerala due to the lack of related iconographic texts. INCLUSION OF NĀGAS WITH GODS AND GODDESS: The presence of Nāga can be seen together with most of the Gods and Goddesses of Brahmanical religious pantheon. Though they are associated with other Gods, it has

12 149 its own independent iconographic features. However their association shows that, before the advent of such Gods and Goddesses into this area, it might be worshipped as an independent deity. The adoptions of Nāga by various Gods are different in each other. The details are following; Śiva : Kandābharanam (Necklace) Viśnu : Nāgaśayya (Coat) Ganapathi : Pōnūl & Aranjānam (Yagnopavitha & girdle) Durga : kayar & Āyudham (Coir & Weapon) Kāli : Vala (Bangle) Sūrya : Coir for his Ratha (Chariot) Dakśināmūrthi : Utharēyam (Upper garment) Thwarithādevi : Kundalam (Ear ring) Saptamātrikkal : Pōnūl, Vala & Kundalam (Bangle Ear ring) NOMENCLATURES OF NĀGA IMAGES IN KERALA: Study on Nāga images, particularly its history and antiquity still remains to be understood. In the present work a brief description on Nāga images has given on the basis of available survey materials. It can be said that, sculptural representation of Nāga started to be seen in larger quantities since 9 th century A.D in Kerala. There are several texts which give the details of various major Brahmanical deities. However, none of these works except Śilparatna, Kuzhikkattu Pacća, Thantrasamuchaya and Dhyānaslōkangal avoided the appearance and attributes of Nāga icon. Moreover, it is possible to presume that the Nāga icons was a part of other religion like Buddhism and Jainism in India generally and Central Kerala particularly. However, in later stage, followers of Brahmanical religion adopted and merged the Nāga concept into their pantheon. For the better understanding of the analysis the data has been classified in the following way (Fig. 5.1):

13 150 Fig. 5.1: The chart showing the model of the categorisation of Nāga iconography in the study. The intensive and extensive exploration in the different part of central Kerala such as Ernakulam, Trissur, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Palakkad and Idukki districts has given the evidence near about 500 Nāga and Nāgini images. Most of them are in a bad state of preservation causing very difficult in their detail identification. However, on the basis of the good condition of the image from around 150 ritual spaces, 300 Nāga/Nāgini sculptures is been selected for the present analysis (Fig. 5.2). Among the 150 ritual spaces, there are 100 ritual spaces belongs to households and the rest 50 comes in temples. Apart from this there are also 210 single hoods and multi hooded theriomorphic figures was identified. At the same time, 190 symbolic representations (Chitrakūdom) of Nāga also documented from 150 Nāga ritual spaces. The following figure will shot the details of total number of Nāga images which were identified from the study area (Fig 5.2). The study more concentrated into some part of Kottayam, Alappuzha Ernakualam, Trissur and Idukki. The researcher has covered only some

14 151 parts of Palakkad region whereas complete survey could done in other parts of Central Kerala. The following figures are also gives the idea of the distribution of snake sacred groves with in the study area (Fig 5.4). The geo-coordination of each snake sacred groves have taken during the field exploration and thus on the basis of these the researcher could plot each ritual space either temple or household sarppakkāvūs at Ernakulam (Fig. 5.5), Trissur (Fig. 5.6), Alappuzha and Kottayam districts (Fig. 5.7). Fig. 5.2: Figure showing the total number of Nāgas related ritual spaces. Fig. 5.3: Figure showing the total number of Nāgas of each category.

15 152 Fig. 5.4 : Showing the distribution of Nāga related ritual spaces in the study area Courtesy: Courtesy: Fig. 5.5: Showing the distribution of ritual spaces in Ernakulam and south of Trissur district

16 153 Courtesy: Fig. 5.6: Showing the distribution of ritual spaces in Trissur and north of Ernakulam districts Courtesy: Fig. 5.7: Showing the distribution of ritual spaces in Alappuzha and Kottayam districts The distributions of snake sacred grove or sarppakkāvūs in this region are attached to either temple or household. The red circle marks are given for pointing the distribution of household related nāga ritual spaces and the square white marks are given for identifying the temple related Nāga worship.

17 154 THERIOMORPHIC IMAGES: As seen in the history of worship and Gods in India, earliest representation of theriomorphic or zoo morphological Nāga has been reported from the Indus valley civilization (Marshal 1931). Following to this a number of terracotta Nāga figurines belonging to about 1650 BC have been identified at Chirand, Saran district in Bihar (Sankalia 1974) and other parts of India. The depiction of Nāga has been identified with single and multiple hoods in all parts of India in general and Central Kerala particularly. Such Nāga images were found from different ritual spaces like temple and household related sacred groves. Theriomorphic figures of Nāga are seen in different ritual spaces like temple and household related sacred groves of almost all parts of Central Kerala. Nearly 150 ritual spaces (sacred grove in temple as well as households) were explored and studied for understanding the system of worship along with iconography of Nāga. The details of ritual space (sarppakkāvūs) have already been discussed in the fifth chapter. These ritual spaces are located different areas of six districts like Alappuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Ernakulam, Trissur and Palakkad. The distribution of theriomorphic figures of Nāga can be seen in all sarppakkāvūs along with other representations. Infact, mostly, the sacred grove holds all types of figures together such as anthropomorphic, theriomorphic and symbolic representations. The exploration over the central part of the Kerala could collect total 210 theriomorphic figures by including 150 single hooded Nāga, 59 multi hooded and one two hooded Nāga. However the study has been done by concentrating 65 theriomorphic figures which was found from the different districts of study area. These figures were selected on the basis of the basis of its shapes. These selected figures are located in the areas like Anikkadu, Kadanad, Edathanadil, Kakkarupilli, Melukavu, Mampilli, Churamala etc. in Kottayam district where as others

18 155 are located in the areas of Ernakulam district such as Parayakad, Manakkapady, Paravur, Chendamangalam, Kochangadi, Aluva and Pallippuram. There are some examples, which will give the details of characteristic features of iconography of theriomorphic figures. The theriomorphic figures are taken and divided randomly into above mentioned six districts. The following figure will explain the total number of theriomorphic Nāga classification. Fig. 5.8: Showing the total number of hooded Nāga classification The result of the study gives the idea that it is the simplest and mythical form of Nāga worship. These figures could be monocephalic or polycephalic varying from one to three. The most common number of hoods is three for theriomorphic figures from these areas. Monocephalic features for Nāga images also can be seen in this category. But an interesting thing is that two headed theriomorphic figure could have been found along with other anthropomorphic figures (Plate 5.5) at Kottayam districts of particular community called as Chettiyanmar (a business related migrated community). These communities was migrated from Karnataka region in the earlier time and settled in the areas of high land.

19 156 Theriomorphic images from Kottayam District: The following images are basically located in the Taluk of Meenachil (9 42 N E / 9.7 N E) at Kottayam district. One of the theriomorphic figure found in Kadanad at Kadanad village, has its own iconographic features. It is being held by a Brahmin family and consecrated in the north eastern portion of their house compound. It is in a well preserved form. It is a single hooded cobra with one coiling on the square pedestal. It is found still in living condition and getting all types of adoration especially during the Ayilyam puja (Plate 5.6). Another deity has been identified from temple related ritual space (sarppakkāvu) at Kalluvattom (N E ). The temple is basically dedicated to Śiva and the Nāgas are considered as a sub-deity over here. There are two theriomorphic figures along with one Chitrakūdom (symbolic shelter for Nāgas). One is represented in three hooded Nāga looped in two layers and resting on a square pīta. This deity is having a broad capped hood and the mythical name of the particular deity is Anjilamanināgam. Apart from this, the next deity is placed in the left side of Chitrakudom and shown in three hoods with lean nature. It is also placed in square pedestal and it s mythical name is Nāgayakshi. It is worshipped every day as a part of temple rules and regulation (Plate 5.7). The depiction of theriomorphic figures also found associated with Śaivite religious sects of Brahmanical religion. It is found in a temple called as Vērabhadrakāli, Kunnumala in Meenachil Taluk. The main deity of this temple is Kāli or Durga. The particular Nāga images are shown like a overlaid snake hood on a small linga (Plate5.8). This is a unique figure which will get associated with temple as well as household sarppakkāvūs. The Brahmin households at Mankombu in Alappuzha

20 157 district are having snake coiled linga figure. It shows, the Nāga image is representing the snake God Vāsuki; an attribute of God Śiva. So the customs and rituals are done through the Śaivite system only. Along with this deity, there is another Nāga association can be seen with God Muruga. It is placed near to the above mentioned deity and along with Chitrakūdom. The particular three hooded Nāga deity is coiling and topped a Śūl (Plate 5.9). Moreover there is another typical Nāga image found at Vechoor in Vaikkom Taluk, which shows a covering of an elongated small mirror like object by its snails. The Nāga image is shown in three hoods. It exemplifies Śakti (female) associated worship of Nāga (Plate5.10). An interesting single Nāga figure was found at Meenadom, Kottayam Taluk. It is a single hood Cobra holding an intertwined Nāga designed Chitrakūdom over the hood measuring by 1 m height (Plate5.11). The family is belonging to the Nāyar community. The ritual space (sarppakkāvu) for this particular deity is too large (5 x 5 m) and kept in north-eastern portion of a household. Generally sarppakkāvūs are made in south-western portion and rarely in north-eastern portion of the household. Śaivite mantras are chanting for adoring the typical theriomorphic Nāga figure during related festivals. Theriomorphic Figures from Alappuzha District: The following descriptions of theriomorphic figures are basically found from the village of Mankombu in the Taluk of Veliyanadu (9 29 N E / 9.49 N E) at Alappuzha district. This area is located in the border of the Alappuzha and Pathanamthitta Districts. Nāga images of this area have some similarities with the theriomorphic images which were found from Kottayam. Among this, the images of Nāga associated with

21 158 Siva and Muruga are also evidenced from this area too. But slight changes can be seen, particularly in the number of hoods. Theriomorphic images are also found from other districts like Ernakulam, Trissur, Palakkad and Idukki. The following details are extracted from this category of Nāga images. 30 images from the theriomorphic sample are included in three hooded category whereas 15 comes under in single hood. There are total eight snake coiled linga images explored as yet. Moreover, other two categories like snake coiled Śul and mirror were found in the number of five and eight respectively. Generally these deities placed in rectangular or circular shaped pedestals, known as bhadrapītha. Sometimes the deities are consecrated in high squared platform with or without making clarity in pedestals. The pedestals of the some deities are made with two layer of body coiling by showing a tip of tail on the front (Plate5.12). Usually the number of coil has been unique in everywhere whereas one layer of coiling has also encountered from different places like Anikkad in Kottayam and Chendamangalam in Ernakulam districts. The nomenclatures of these poly-cephalous or mono-cephalous hooded snakes are varied and such names are Alnāgam (Plate5.13), Anjilamanināgam (Plate5.14), Karināgam (Plate5.15), Kuzhināgam (Plate5.16), Paranāgam (Plate5.17) and Manināgam (Plate5.18). These kinds of names can be seen only in theriomorphic category. All these are the mythical names of Nāgas. Such names are usually seen in the folk songs of Pulluvar community which is generally related to the stories of the origin of snake worships. Such type of names may stands for showing the vast variety of snake species which is seen in Central Kerala. The analysis of these mythical names of snakes will help to understand which kind of snake species is being worshipped in Central Kerala. The study explains different species of Cobra are worshipping in several part of this region.

22 159 Altogether it can be clearly said that, Nāga worship in Kerala are associated with all sects of Brahmanical religion. It is associated with Śiva, Viśnu, Bhagavati and Muruga of Brahmanical pantheon. Most of the hymns are also related to either with Śaivite or Vaiśnavite. However Nāga plays a role of minor deity and developing its own identity by adding itself as an attributes to the major Brahmanical Gods in Central Kerala. At the same it has got particular ritual spaces for worship as a main deity as well as minor deity too. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION: This is the second and most important evidence for which Nāga is being worshipped in Central Kerala. It is considered as a symbolic shelter for the snake Gods in their settlement (sarppakkāvūs). Symbolic representation of Nāga is basically include Chitrakūdom (PL 5.19). Sometimes family from the different communities erects simple granite or laterite small block without making any carvings on rectangular pedestal (PL 5.20). In earlier period Chitrakūdom is made out of laterite because inside it doesn t keep heat always. But nowadays, instead of laterite, sculptors use concrete material for making such kind of Chitrakūdoms. These were usually erected over the platform which is left for ritual. During the time of festivals, concerned households and temples gives offering to Nāga through these structural representations. This can be seen along either with anthropomorphic, theriomorphic figures or together in a sacred grove. Different names are to be given to such representation in different regions and it varies like Paranāgam, Kuzhināgam, Manināgam, Anjilamanināgam etc. However, it is basically called as Chitrakudom and the names which denoting will be different according to the names of mythical Nāgas.

23 160 Chitrakūdom is a combination of several mythical Nāgas. It is believed that the mythical power of all kinds of Nāga Gods like Manināgam, Kuzhināgam, Karināgam, Anjilamanināgam and Paranāgam even Nāgarāja, Nāgayakśi, Nāgaćāmundi can be invocate from netherworld into the Chitrakūdom through different types of hymns during the consecration time. During the time of offering the priest gives offering in the name of such mythical Nāga God or Goddesses. Chitrakūdom is not an icon and it is called as Kannādibimbam (Mirror Image). Chitrakūdom is prepared on the basis of measurement as it is described in sacred text Thantrasamuchaya and Kuzhikkātupacha (Malayalam version of tantric Thantrasamuchaya). The measurement is followed by Aņgula system. The total height of the Chitrakūdom varies to 6 ¾, 9 ¾ and 10 ¾ Aņgula. This typical house like structure has basically three parts like as Pādukam (foundation), Bhithi (wall) and Melkkūra (roof). The Sculptor makes Adisthāna or Pādukam by measuring one third of the total measurement which Tantri has given. The most important character is that, the measurement of Adisthāna and Melkkūra will be in same proportion. The role of Chitrakūdom in Nāga worship got high profile in religious aspects. During the time of its consecration, Tantri gives the details of objects which have to put in that symbolic shelter for mythical Nāgas. The main objects include silver egg, a small Nāga made by gold and putt (ant-hill) of copper. The number of silver eggs depends on the number of Nāgas which tantri need to call from the netherworld. Inside the foundation of the Adisthāna iron sheet is covered and play the role of the fourth metal; Panchalōha. As mentioned above, all powers of mythical Nāgas were invoked and installed in the particular symbolic shelter. So it is called as sakudumbaprathiśta. After the consecration of Chitrakūdom, the ritual space is considered as Sarppakśētram or snake temple in a symbolic ways. Chitrakūdom itself has the presence of many

24 161 mythical Nāgas. So Chitrakūdom is considered as the most important consecration for Nāga in the sacred grove rather than other deities. For example, there is some sacred grove which is having several Chitrakūdom consecrated behind the Nāga images. So, infact, altogether it makes feeling of a large temple in symbolic aspect. Instead of Chitrakūdom, there are different other types of small structures which also plays the role of symbolic representations of Nāga worship in Central Kerala (Plate5.21). Different communities follow such a kind of typical structures which are denoting the symbolic aspect of Nāga worship. The dedication of these typical styles of symbolic representation is done on the basis of astrology. The number of eggs, measurement of Chitrakūdom and number of mythical Nāgas which have to invoked are explained by an astrologer by making discussions with Tantri. ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURES: This form bears a human shape capped with single or multiple hoods of snakes placed behind the human standing or sitting figures. It has a long history which goes back to first and second millennium B.C. (Suresh 2000). Most of the Nāga images from this time particularly from northern and central India encountered anthropomorphic and therio-anthropomorphic forms. In most of the cases Nāga images in this category are visible in three or five hooded. The images are represented either with elaborate headdress or be-jewelled with heavy ornaments. Sometimes it stands against the coil of a snake, a tail of which seems going underneath passing through its leg side. Usually Nāga in the anthropomorphic forms have shown with two hands. Both of the hands are shown in Abhaya- Varada or Varada-Abhaya mudra. The attributes which hold in the hands are basically khadga, kamaņdalu, child and Nāgas. The representation of female Nāga images in this form has been shown both in standing or seated posture with bulbous breasts and prominent

25 162 hips, placing her hands on hip or legs stylistically. Sometimes the right hand is shown in Abhaya mudra. Moreover, the snake canopied Gods and Goddesses have been discovered from different part of India and such images were worshiped by considering as an icon. Different region and sect those are related with the tradition makes differences in the nomenclature of Nāga icons accordingly (Panda 1986; Panda 2004). The anthropomorphic figures which were identified from various part of central Kerala can be classified into two; Male and Female figures. The male figures are always called as Nāgaraja and the female forms are known in different names like Nāgayakśi, Nāgachāmundi, Nāgakanni and Nāgamātha. In most of the cases the Nāga/Nāgini images are found in association with Dwarfish figures (Gana). The gender variation can be seen in these figures too. Alike to Nāga figures, the dwarfish (Gana) images are also made according to the tālamāna system. The measurement of charturasratāla or 4 tāla formula and it is four times larger the length of his or her face. Nāga images are usually made in saptatāla or navatāla system in Kerala generally and Centre Kerala particularly. However most of the early Nāga images were not made on basis of tālamāna system. But, nearly, all images are having a few specific features other than aesthetic value. All these deities hold different objects in both hands and also wear variety of ornaments like Karnapuśpa, Karana Kuņdala, Canna vīra, Hāra, Bhujavalaya, Aņgada, Valaya, Keyūra, Kankana, Nupura, Upavita and Udarabanda. Moreover, different draperies like Puramkuppāyam (blouse) and Upavita as the upper and diaphanous and non-diaphanous dhoti with fold as the lower garment are also seen (Nāgarāja image from Mankombu, Mannāraśāla, Alappuzha district, Nāgayakshi and Nāgachāmundi figures from Melukavu, Meenachil Taluk in Kottayam district). Apart from ornaments and draperies, different pattern of crowns or Mukuta have been also

26 163 noticed. Generally, three types Mukuta i.e. Kirīta-Makuta with and without Śikhamani, Jatāmukuta and Karaņda Mukuta are the most important and common crowns seen in India. But, Central Kerala mostly witnessed the category of Jatāmukuta and the other minor varieties. The other type of crowns includes different local varieties like flora designed (Fig. 5.2), snake hood shapes (Fig. 5.3), leaf designed (Fig. 5.4) crowns and buns arranged in segmented tiers (Fig. 5.5). Usually, in Jatāmukuta, the hair arranged like a ponytail. The Nāgas sculptures are commonly seen arranged with their hair in a loosely tied like a turban twisted on the left. This style is called as Śirastraka or Śirastrāna and these styles are started to see from Śunga period onwards. Very often few images are found with Karaņda mukuta form the study area like Mankombu, Veliyanadu village in Alappuzha district. The description of such crown is a tall conical mukuta, often with a series of diminishing tiers of roundels used mostly in the south by Vaiśnavites (Gupta 2002). A detailed description of each form is given below. The exploration has given the evidence of about 105 male Nāga images and 195 female Nāgini images in different part of the study area both in the temple as well as in the household compound. All these sculptures are found either in association with the Ganas and sometimes are found without the Ganas. The icons without Ganās are noticed to in both standing and seating posture whereas in association with the Ganas, the images are found only in seated portion. Again in seated portion these images are found basically in three postures: Savya-Lalitāsana, Padmāsana and Vāma-Lalitāsana. As mentioned above the Nāga images can be divided into two; Male and Female images and the nomenclature has given as for male deity is Nāgaraja only as there are hardly any other difference is observed specially in attribute. The female deities are also called as Nāgini in common classification whereas several names can be given in this category such as Nāgakanni, Nāgayakshi, Nāgachamundi and Nāgamātha depending on

27 164 the basis of attributes holds in the hand. In the present study all of the sculptures are discussed on the basis of two broad divisions: Images in association with Gana and without Gana (Fig. 5.6). The other variations have been discussed with these two broad types. Fig. 5.9: Showing the classification and the total number of male Nāga images Fig Classification of Nāga/ Nāgini Iconography

28 165 Male Image: Male Nāga icons are always called as Nāgarāja. There are lot of regional variations can be seen in this category whereas nomenclatures are not specified in the names of such icons. The representation of Nāgarāja is seen not only in anthropomorphic but in theriomorphic and symbolic forms also. As mentioned above, early iconic representation of either male or female deity had never followed any iconographic text. Various forms and attributes given to the particular icons are on the basis of the above mentioned texts like Dhyānaslōka and Kuzhikāttu Pcća. Nāgarāja is important among them and is considered as the king of Nāgas who ruled the netherworld. The Nāgarāja figures from the exploration at Kottayam, Ernakulam, Alappuzha district in Central Kerala has been represented in many types. The simplest of his form is, represented in Savya-lalitāsana posture hold by Gana over snake coiled body. He is also being shown in Stānaka or Padmāsana posture. The most important feature of such deities is, the particular sculptural representation sits over the coiled snake body and which is served as pīta. The number of hoods varies into three and five whereas one and seven hooded figures are also rarely seen. He wears both locally elaborated crowns and Jatāmakuta. Rarely some of the images (from Meenachil at Kottayam district) are found with a head band wrapped around the head. Some icons from Vaikkom, Vaikkom village in Kottayam district are having gem stone decoration in the centre part of the crown. He has been represented with several ornaments including kuņdala, grīva, hāra, keyūra and kankana in most of the cases. He is also shown with the objects which are held in the hands usually are paraśu, khadga, chakra, conch and kamaņdalu and also shown varada in hand and abhaya in left hand. Some sculptures

29 166 from Meenachil Taluk (Tholamakkal) at Kottayam district and Mankombu in Veliyanadu Village at Alappuzha are shown abhaya mudra in right and varada mudra in left hand. Moreover, only lower draperies are seen in almost all of these sculptural representations with different designs, mode of wearing and folds. The details of each attributes in connection with the images are explained in this section. The early sculptural representations of Nāgas (Nāgarāja and Nāgayakshi) have been seen in the reliefs and panels of old temple structures. Such a kind of representations in wood was there in the Patmāvathi temple of 14 th century A. D. at Enādimangalam, Pathanamthitta district. Now these reliefs are kept in Tripunithura Hill Placed Museum. These wooden Nāgarāja and Nāgayakshi sculptures are seen in the four brackets of maņdapa. Among the broader category of Nāgarāja certain variants can be seen and these variants are described to make understand regional variations in Nāgarāja sculpture. The following are the male categorisation of Nāga images done on the basis of its iconic features. There are six categories identifies and discussed its characteristic features. The following figure will give the details of the total number Nāga images which were collected from the study area and also come under the categorisation of with Gana and without Gana. Fig. 5.11: Showing the classification and the total number of male Nāga images

30 167 Nāgarāja with Gana: As mentioned earlier the sculpture belonging to this type consists of sitting Nāga image on coiled snake pedestal or plain rectangular/square pedestal. The image is seen seated either in Lalitāsana, Padmāsana, Savya-Lalitāsana. However, in most of the cases the image found to be seated in Savya-Lalitāsana posture. Just below the pedestal the main deity is accompanied with either a male or female Gana image that appears holding the pedestal up. The number of Gana may change from one to seven though in majority case it is either one or two. Very rarely seven Gana appears below the pedestal which is called as Ēzhu thattu Nāgayakshi. Usually Gana appears in sitting portion only holding the main Nāga deity with his/her left hand and head. The right hand is always kept into his knee. During the exploration more than 70 sculptures has been documented and identified in association with Gana out of 105 male Nāga figures for the present study. Some examples are discussed below: Nāgarāja No 1: This is one among the typical representation of Nāgarāja image. It is a high relief sculpture identified from Kannadikkadu in Chambakkara village at Ernakulam District. This place is located ( N E) in the south and boarder place of Kottayam and Ernakulam districts. The area is come under mid land zone (10 m to 300 m). It is in a preserved state and offerings are usually given once in a year. Moreover it is placed in the sarppakkāvu of south western portion of the household compound and the family is belonging to Nāyar community. The particular image is standing along with other two Nāga images and one small sized Śiva linga. All these three deities and Śivalinga are placed separate in a single square platform with each. The concerned image is consecrated in the southern side of

31 168 other deities. The image is in Vāma-Lalitāsana posture sitting on a coiled snake body and hold by a male Gana. This male figurine capped with five hooded snake. The hair is arranged in Jatāmakuta. His head is wrapped with one gem stone studded band. The expression of the face shown in peaceful grace (meditation) and the eyes are half opened only. The image is be jewelled with high ornamentation. The ornaments like kuņdala, hāra, valaya, nupura and udarabanda are visible in the particular deity. Upavita is also covered across and which is clearly visible. His hands are shown in varada and abhaya mudra in right and left respectively. One portion of transparent cloth covers the lower part till above of the knee. A male Gana holds the coiled snake body, where the main deity sits and holds with his raised left hand and banded head and kept his right hand on the knee. Gana figure is less ornate than the main image. Only kuņdala and kankana are seen as the part of ornament (Pl. 5.22) (Fig. 5.12). Nāgarāja No 2: It is a seven hooded male sculpture found also from Mattathippara ( N E) in Meenachil Taluk at Kottayam district. The particular location is also come under the midland regional zone. It is partially in preserved state and the offerings are given to the deity once in a year. This is also a family related deity but not located in their own house. The land where the deity is consecrated belong the particular family called in the name of Tholamakkal. This family belongs to the Nayar community and the south western portions of their property are given for the placement of worship. This Nāga image is represented in Padmāsana posture on a snake coiled body. It is adorned with seven snake hood and local designed crown visible by connecting only with top of three hoods. The face of the deity is shown in ferocious with protruding teeth. The head band is clearly visible and it has three layers. Kuņdala and multiple

32 169 patterned hāra are the only visible ornaments in the particular deity. Hāra which he wears looks like a multiple necklace and one end reaches up to abdomen. He has two hands and the objects which are held in the hands are sword (khadga) on right and rests on the knee. The transparent lower garment is evident with its folding whereas the upper part cloth is completely absent. The association of the Gana can be seen along with the main deity. Male Gana is holding the main deity with his raised two hands and head. Gana which is sculptured below the main deity looks ferocious and less ornamented (elongated hāra and medallion type kuņdala) and he is in a sitting posture (Pl. 5.23). Nāgarāja No 3: This sculpture is traced from Trippunithura ( N E) in Nadama village at Ernakulam district. Here three anthropomorphic figures are placed together whereas theriomorphic and the Chitrakudom are consecrated in a separate platform. It appears to be two Nāgarāja and one Nāgayakshi with Chitrakudom and one theriomorphic figure. The image is sitting in a Savya-lalitāsana posture on a coiled snake body. Crown of the particular deity identifies in a parasol shaped and a head band is wrapped around the head. It gives a ferocious expression on face and the eyes are partially open. He is represented with four hands. The upper right hand holds Paraśu and the left holds Nāga. The lower hands are showing Varada and Abhaya mudra in right and left hand respectively. The ornaments which the particular deity wears a rope designed with central locket girdle and kuņdala only. The lower garment is not evident clearly whereas the upper part is completely covered with cloth. A male Gana supports the main deity with his raised hands and head (Plate 5.24) (Fig. 5.13).

33 170 Nāgarāja No 4: This deity is identified at Mankombu, Veliyanad Taluk in Alappuzha district. The particular sarppakkāvu is situated 1.5 km north west of Mankombu. The area comes under the category of costal area (0 to 10 m) and surrounded with small streams. Infact, the area is justifying the mythical appearance of Nāga as a water spirit or controller of water. It is a small island like area and most of the families are belongs to Nair community. The socio-economic condition in this area is based on agriculture. The interesting thing is that, all of these families have Sarppakkāvu in the south western portion of their house compound. The particular deity is found along with other two female deities. But the worship of this particular Sarppakkāvu is presently abandoned due to the regular flood in the kāyal. However, the deities in the sarppakkāvu are in a good state of preservation and some typical or unique iconic features in relation to Nāga iconography can be identified. The particular Nāgarāja is included in the category of Vaiśnava sect. The posture of the particular deity identified as Savya-lalitāsana or Vaiśnavam pattern of pāda mudra. This deity is carved and placed inside the niche which represented with petals of lotus and other leaves. The patterns of intertwined Nāga are given to decorate side and back portion of this niche. Five hoods are seen clearly and placed behind the seated deity. This figure is crowned by Kirīta-Mukuta having Śikhamani on the top, Karnapuśpa and the medallion type ear ornaments also can be seen in the particular deity. Face is round shaped and the eyes are half opened. Both shoulders are decorated with bhujavalaya and having kankana on left hand. Upavita and udarabanda are clearly visible where as katisūtra and urudāma seen in lower garment and it hangs till feet. Upagrīva and hāra are identified in the neck part of the deity. The deity is represented with four hands and upper two hands holds śankh (left hand) and the object in the right

34 171 upper hand is remains unidentified. The lower right hand is showing the Abhaya mudra and the left shows Varada mudra. The deity is in a badly preserved condition and it is difficult to identify the lower part, specifically association Gana (Pl. 5.25). Nāgarāja without Gana: The exploration in the districts of central part of Kerala also identifies Nāgarāja without associate Gana. As mentioned in the above, there are total 105 male Nāga images are found and among this 35 are not having the association with Gana. There are 25 images are standing whereas10 images are in a seating posture out of 35 images (without associating Gana). In this category almost all of the male Nāga figures are shown in seating or standing posture on rectangular or semi-circular stone and snake coiled body pedestals. Seating posture is very rare as compared to standing or Stānaka posture. Seating Posture: Nāgarāja No 1: It is a small male sculpture found from Neeloor ( N E) in Meenachil Taluk at Kottayam district. Topographically this area is covered with hillocks forming the outer fringes of the Western Ghats of the Idukki range. The particular location is also come under the midland regional zone. It is in good condition and the offerings are given to the deity once in a year. The ritual space is given for the consecration of the Nāga images by the family is in the south western part of the house compound. The family belongs to the Nāyar community. It is found at the sacred grove located in the south west portion of the house compound with other two newly consecrated deities (Nāgarāja and Nāgayakshi). This is an example of male figurine of Nāga represented in Padmāsana posture. He is seated

35 172 on a half circular pedestal (bhadrapītha). But Nāgarāja figures from other sarppakkāvūs of different places in the Kottayam district are generally sits over the coiled snake body. This anthropomorphic figurine has five overlapped snake hooded behind the head. The face of the particular deity is shown in peaceful grace. The ornaments are not visible because of well-covered draperies. The particular deity has two hands and shows Abhaya and Varada mudra in right and left hand respectively. Usually, right hand shows Varada mudra in almost all part of Central Kerala. But here, right hand showed Abhaya mudra. The presence of the garments which wrapped in the upper and lower part is featured different. The lower part is covered with transparent cloth whereas the well-covered dress is seen in upper part (Pl. 5.26) (Fig. 5.14). Nāgaraja No 2: It is found from Mevada ( N E), Pala Village at Kottayam district. It is a consecrated in the north eastern side of the particular house compound and they belong to a Brahmin family. It is in a good state of preservation. Here these snake gods are considered as Kuladaivam (tutelary deity). This particular image is found along with three other Nāga images like Nāgayakshi, Nāgachāmundi and Chitrakudom. The mode of worship is little bit different as compared to the other communities. Because these deities are belonging to the Brahmin community and the pujas are also different as compared to the other communities in Central Kerala. Such differences are already discussed in the fourth chapter. This particular image is shown in a Padmāsana posture. The deity is capped with five hoods and unfortunately the right hood portion of the deity is broken. The crown is absent where-as the presence of Jatāmakuta can be seen in the deity. Apart from the Jatāmakuta, he wrapped head band and also a gem decoration is visible over the Jatāmakuta. He wears both upper and lower draperies. The folded lower drapery

36 173 with pleat in front is covered the whole leg portion. He also wears elongated medallion type with floral designed kuņdala. He is represented with two hands. Varda mudra can be seen in the right hand whereas Abhaya mudra is seen in the left hand. The representations of two female attendants with lower draperies and hair bun arrangements are seen in the side portions of the main deity. Such two female attendants are shown in a Stānaka posture and standing on the snake coiled body (Pl. 5.27) (Fig. 5.15). Standing Posture: Nāgarāja No 1: This is found from the sacred grove of Chettiyanmar community (Vaiśya) at Neeloor in Kottayam District. It is located in the rubber plantation. The particular sarppakkāvu is situated two km north of Neeloor town ( N E). The deity is placed in the south western portion of house compound. It is in a well preserved state and as usual they are also giving offerings once in a year. This is a representation of male Nāga in a Stānaka posture with ferocious face. The consecration of Nāga deities in this sarppakkāvu shows ferocious aspects. There are three anthropomorphic (two Nāgarāja and one Nāgayakshi), one theriomorphic and symbolic representation each. The image is standing on a rectangular pedestal. Three hoods have been identified on the top of the image and having locally developed crown in a snake hood shape. The depiction of theriomorphic monocephalous Nāga figure also placed in the centre of the crown. The face of the concerned deity gives the ferocious expression and shows the protruding long teeth. Medallion shaped kuņdala, keyūra, karnabhūśana and nupura are visible ornaments which is ornamented the deity. He is depicted with four hands. The upper two hands hold snakes whereas the lower hands are

37 174 represented with small sword and pot (kalasa). The thick lower garment is clearly evident and it covers up to the feet (Pl. 5.28) (Fig. 5.16). Nāgaraja No 2: This is the image found at Chambakkara in Kottayam district. It is found along with Nāgayakshi, one another Nāgarāja with Gana and Śiva ling. It is found in a bad state of preservation and almost facial portions disfigured. It is associated with household system of Nāga worship. They belong to the Nayar community. Other details are also given in the description of Nāgarāja 1 in Nāgarāja with Gana category. His head is capped with three snake hoods and showing the muscular featured body. He holds a garland with two hands and wears folded lower garments. He stands on a semi-circular pīta and a portion of snake body is visible just behind the human figure. Most of the parts of the deity are not able to see because of the disfigurement (Pl. 5.29). Fig. 5.12: Nāgarāja I (with Gana category)

38 175 Fig. 5.13: Nāgarāja II (with Gana) Fig. 5.14: Nāgarāja I Sitting (without Gana) Fig. 5.15: Nāgarāja II Sitting (without Gana) Fig. 5.16: Nāgarāja I (Standing)

39 176 Female Image: Female icons of Nāga are also found in different forms along with male Nāga images from central Kerala. A variety of nomenclatures adopted to denote female Nāga icons. The names of such female Nāga divinities which were found from central Kerala are Nāgayakśi, Nāgaćāmundi and Nāgamātha. The nomenclatures has given to female deities are on the basis of the attributes which they hold in their hands. For example, some female deities from Pallippuram, Parayakadu from Ernakulam district hold two Nāgas in their each hand and they termed as Nāgayakshi. Dhyānaslōka mentions the characteristics of Nāgayakshi like those who have hold Nāga in two hands are called as Nāgayakshi. Another deity from Vērabhadrakāli temple at Neeloor, Kottayam district evidenced a typical female Nāga divinity holding a child with her left hand and the right hand shows an attribute of khadga. This kind of particular Nāga image is also evident from Bhubaneswar, Odisha (De 1954). The local sculptors from Kerala as well as Orissa are mentioned that they are belonging to the category of Nāgamātha. The third categorization within the female Nāga deities is Nāgachāmundi. In several places the female deity is identified with khadga / sword in right hand and kamaņdalu / pot in left hand. These types of female deities are identified as Nāgachāmundi. This deity is more associated with Durga or Kāli temples. Several sarppakkāvūs from different places like Puthanvelikara, Kottappuram, 3 k south of Kodungallur, Trissur district, places in Neeloor, Meenachil Taluk Kottayam district are evidenced the female Nāga figures with the above mentioned attributes. All these three divisions are explained in this section. Some of the female images from the study area are badly weathered and unrecognizable. It is also observed that it does not keep a strict systematic measurement

40 177 for making the idol. On the other side some figures are made in a navatāla measurement. As mentioned above, recently, most of the female Nāga divinities are carved on the basis of sacred text Dhyānaslōka, Thantrasamuchaya and Kuzhikkātupacha; a local text for architecture. Female Nāga divinities got prominent position in Nāga worship in Kerala along with the male forms. It is clearly evident from a numbers of female images which were encountered from the study area. In the previous chapter an attempt has already been made to explain the role of female devotees in the worship of Nāgas and also discussed about most of the rituals and customs in Nāga worship related to female. Nāgayakśi is the commonest and important among all female deities and is considered as the female counterpart of Nāgarāja. She is represented in various forms. The representation female deities are usually seen in Savya-lalitāsana posture sitting over a coiled snake body usually holding by Gana (one, two and three). She may also be shown in standing posture. The numbers of hoods vary from three or five. Five hooded female Nāga deity are commonly seen in central part of Kerala rather than one or seven hooded deities. Crowns of female deities from central Kerala show the features of local designs and sometimes wear only head bands. Most of such crowns are highly decorated. The crowns of female Nāga deities are completely different from male deities. Śikhamani kind of Kirīta-Mukuta and Karaņda Makuta are absent in female Nāga deities from the study area. She has been represented with several ornaments including kuņdala, grīva, upagrīva, hāra, keyūra and Kankana. Her bust portion is generally found bare. Usually a common type of cloth is used to cover the bust portion completely to the female figures in this area. However her body covers different types of draperies sometime shown by short lower garments with pleats. The presence of katisūtra and canna vīra is also visible in

41 178 some deities. The female deities are showing with two or four hands. Majority of the icon hold two snakes on each hand. Khadga and Kamaņdalu are the attributes shown in hands of Nāgaćāmundi. Certain female Nāga sculptures from the central part of Kerala particularly lowland ( m) are of great aesthetic value. All of these deities are beautifully carved with fleshy round shaped body. Sarppayakshi or Nāgayakśi images are worshipped commonly by barren women for fertility in central part of Kerala. There are several temples in central Kerala which promote fertility cult by worshipping such female deities. It has been already discussed in the previous chapter (Chapter IV). In this broader category few variants can also be seen as the female division. Details of these variants are given below. Fig. 5.17: Showing the details of classification of female Nāga figures As mention in the previous chapter, usually sarppakkāvūs holds more than two Nāga images apart from the symbolic representation (Chitrakūdom). The exploration in the study area has identified 195 female Nāga images. The common names are already mentioned in the above paragraph. The classification of the female deities is similar to that of male Nāga images. So the female Nāgini (Nāgayakshi, Nāgachāmundi and

42 179 Nāgamātha) images are classified into with Gana and without Gana. Nāgini without Gana classification is again divided into Nāgini in Standing and Seating. The following figure is showing the total numbers of these two categories. Nāgini with Gana: During the exploration more than 120 sculptures has been documented and identified in association with Gana out of 195 female Nāga figures for the present study. Some examples are discussed below: Nāgini 1 (Nāgachāmundi): This is one among the typical representation of female image, probably of Nāgachāmundi a life sized sculpture identified from Ramapuram, Pala in Kottayam district. It is a village situated ( : N E) 12 km north of Pala and 28 km west of Neeloor, (Meenachil Taluk) in Kottayam. It is a household deity and in a good state of preservation. The sarppakkāvu is located in the north-east portion of the house compound because they belong to the Brahmin community. The rituals and customs are conduct only once in a year by the elder male member or priest from the Brahmin community. The image is in a Savya-lalitāsana posture sitting on a coiled snake pedestal. This female figurine is also crowned by five hooded snake. Her head is represented with a locally designed crown over his round bald head as mentioned earlier. The face of the particular deity is shown in meditative nature and the eyes are half opened. Head band is also visible and wrapped around the head by leaving the forehead. The ornaments visible on the deity are the medallion type kuņdala with floral design on the centre, karnapuśpa, hāra and cannavīra. The deity is shown in two hands and the right hand holds khadga and the left hand placed on the knee. The deity is having both upper

43 180 and lower garments. The upper garment covers the whole chest area whereas the lower garment is found hanging down up to the pedestal. A male Gana holds the snake coiled pedestal with his head and gives support the right leg of main deity with his right hand. The face of the Gana is round and having head band with protruding teeth and tongue (Pl. 5.30) (Fig. 5.18). Nāgini 2 (Nāgachāmundi): The particular female Nāga deity was found in a Brahmin family called Kizhakkedathu Madom in Thalayolaparambu, Vaikkom Taluk at the boarder of Ernakulam and Kottayam districts. This is situated ( N E) 6 km west of Thalayolapparambu Bus stand. It is a small sculpture identified with other one Nāgarāja, Nāgayakshi and Chitrakudom. It is in a bad state of preservation and thus it made difficult to identify the details features of the image. The image is shown in Savya-Lalitāsana posture sitting on the coiled body of capped hooded snake. Here coiled snake body act as a pedestal for the main deity. Three hoods are depicted and attached to the crown. She is having locally developed floral designed crown with a head band wrapped around. The garments are not visible clearly due to disfigurement of the sculpture. The ornaments used by the deity are kuņdala and hāra. She is shown in a four hand and her lower hands are holding sword and pot in right and left hand respectively whereas the upper two hands are holding Nāga in each. The face of Nāgachāmundi and the Gana are shown in ferocious feature by showing protruding teeth and eyes. A male Gana supported the coiled snake body with his raised hands (Pl. 5.31) (Fig. 5.19). Nāgini 3(Nāgayakshi): This is one another the beautiful representation of female Nāgini image. It is a high relief sculpture identified from Pulinchuvadu, Vaikkom Taluk in Kottayam district.

44 181 The sarppakkāvu is located ( N E) 1 km south of Vaikkom bus stand. It is the area of a rubber plantation and given the south western portion of a particular property for the worship of Nāgas. It is found in a good state of preservation and consecrated along with one male Nāga sculptures (Nāgarāja), theriomorphic representation (Anjilamanināgam) and Symbolic representation of Nāga i.e. Chitrakūdom. It is owned by Nāyar family. The image is shown in Savya-lalitāsana posture sitting on a coiled snake body. This female figurine is topped by five hooded snake. She is having local designed crown with a head band wrapped around. A gem stone is found inserted over band. Depiction of single cobra hood can be seen at the top of crown. The folding of the lower garment is clearly visible with all other characters. The ornaments include Chakra kuņdala, waist band, hāra, nupura, kankana and karnapuśpa. The kuņdala are fixed to elongated ear and also showing the karnapuśpa in the upper part of ear. The face of Nāgayakśi is shown in peaceful grace. A floral motif is provided on the bhadrapītha. Two male ganās hold the bhadrapītha on the raised hands of the upper Gana. Upper Gana characterised by showing protruding tongue and teeth. The striking feature is that one Gana is being carried by the upper one on his shoulder. Both male ganās are highly ornamented and wears circular locally designed crowns. The presence of gem stone can be seen in the centre of each ganās crowns. The lower placed Gana ornamented with kankana, chakra kuņdala, keyūra and bhujavalaya. The upper male Gana hold one daņd in his right hand. Another important design has given in the back and two side of the concerned deity. The back side of this deity is decorated with creepers and leaves and the image is accompanied with three attendants. This shows the attachment of Nāga with the ecology. Such depictions can also been explained similar to a canopy of sarppakkāvūs or sacred groves (Pl. 5.32) (Fig. 5.20).

45 182 Nāgini 4 (Nāgayakshi): It is a randu thattu Gana Nāgayakśi (two layered Gana figure) figure identified from Paryakad, Paravur Taluk in Ernakulam district. It is a temple related deity and dedicated to only Nāga. This is situated ( N E) four km north of North Paravur in Ernakulam district. This sarppakkāvu owned by Ezhava community. Here the offerings are given to the snake God in monthly and yearly basis. This temple related ritual space holds one Nāgayakshi with other two Chitrakūdoms. This has been documented during the time of Āyilyam puja. Different natural colours were given to the deity for propitiating the concerned deity. Such kinds of rituals and customs have been discussed in the previous chapters. It reveals a well decorated female figure supported by two female Gana and seated in a Savya-lalitāsana posture. Five hooded cobra can be seen over the head of this female deity. She is having local designed crown of snake hooded shape and also decorated with several types of round and elongated beads which made it in three layers. She used kuņdala and hāra ornaments. She is holding two snakes in both hands and its tails is reaches up to thigh. Lower garment is clearly evident and a portion of pleated lower garment is shown hanging down up to feet. The upper garment which she wore covers the bust portion. Two female Gana are holding the pedestal of main deity with two hands. Lower placed Gana is in a sitting posture and holding the upper female Gana with her two hands. Both ganās are wearing kuņdala, nupura, kankana and kanthābhūśana ornaments whereas lower and upper draperies are in simple forms (Pl. 5.33).

46 183 Nāgini 5 (Nāgamātha): This is a typical relief sculpture identified from Vēra Bhadrakāli temple at in Vechoor ( N E) in Vaikkom Taluk at Kottayam District. Temple belongs Nayar community but the Brahmin priest is doing all the pūjas related the main and sub-deities. Infact, this temple is basically dedicated to Bhadrakāli. However, Nāgas are worshipping as a sub-deity and placed in the south western part of the temple. This is the unique and a single image found from the exploration of all parts of Central Kerala. This is a crude image of Nāgayakśi and is shown in Savya-lalitāsana posture sitting on a coil of hooded snake. One female Gana is holding the snake coiled pedestal with her raised hands. Three hooded snakes crowned the particular deity. This image has shown with a child on the left thigh. So it can be named as Nāgamātha. Similar kind of depiction was seen in Odisha and it is called as Nāgamātha (De 1954). Eyes are protruding that gives her a ferocious outlook. Akin to other images she is having local designed crown and used a head band wrapped around. The ornaments are not clear due to the weathering. She is having four hands; the upper two hold snakes, the left lower hold the child and right lower is with sword. Lower garment is not clearly visible (Pl. 5.34). Nāgini without Gana: Female Nāga (Nāgini) also is seen in standing and seating posture without make any association with male or female Ganas. The exploration in the central part of Kerala helped to get the details of the distribution of Nāgini in a seating posture. But the evidences of this category are very rare as compared to the standing postures. Only 15 images are identified out of 75 images are not having the association of Gana.

47 184 Generally these images are sitting in a rectangular or semi-circular pedestal. However 60 female images are identified in a standing posture out of 75 (without Gana). Nāgini without Gana Seating Posture: Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi): It is a small relief sculpture identified from Pullūt, Kodungallur Taluk in Trissur district. This is located in the road side of Kodungallur Trissur route. It is situated ( N E) 4 km far from Kodungallur town. It is a temple related sculpture and also seen along with two Chitrakūdoms. It is a temple related deity and comes under the Ezhava community. The image is shown in Paryańka posture sitting on a Bhadrapītha. Five hooded snakes crowned or hallowed the image from backside. The ventral lines of cobra are clearly visible in such hoods. The hair of female image is tied with a hair band. Here the face of the particular deity is shown in peaceful grace. This female deity is adorned with different ornaments which include medallion type kuņdala, pendent like hāra and garland. The presence of garland is an interesting attribute in this deity. The folded lower garment is clearly evident and a portion of pleat is hanging down up to the pedestal. The upper portion of the deity is covered with usual cloth which is seen in other images. She is holding snakes in both of her hand (Pl. 5.35) (Fig. 5.21). Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi): It is a small female sculpture found from Neeloor ( N E) and already discussed its location in the seating category of Nāgarāja No 1. Both of these deities do not have any association with Gana. This is house hold related deity or

48 185 sarppakkāvu and placed in south-west part of house compound. It is in a good state of preservation. The concerned female deity is shown in a sitting posture on a semi-circular stone are called as bhadrapītha. She sits in a Padmāsana posture. The canopy of three hooded snake is see behind her head. She wears snake hooded shaped crown. Her face is looking like elongated and also holding two Nāga by her both hands. The lower and upper garments are clearly visible and some line designs are seen in the lower folded cloth (Pl. 5.36) (Fig. 5.22). Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi): The location of the deity is in Mankombu, Veliyanadu Taluk in Alappuzha district. The particular sarppakkāvu ( N E) is situated 1.5 km north west of Mankombu. The area comes under the category of costal (0 to 10 m) and surrounded with small streams. The particular female deity looks like a dwarfish figure. The icon is not made on the basis of any tālamāna system. It is a low relief sculpture. The image is shown in Ardhaparyankāsana posture sitting on a Bhadrapītha. This female figurine is crowned by five hooded snake. The hair is arranged like the petals of typical flower called as Sarppagandhi or Nāgapuśpa. This typical floral design was evident in the pillars of Mauryans and top of the Bharhūt Gateway. The Nāgayakśi is shown with ferocious face. She is less ornaments and represented with a few ornaments. The visible ornaments are kuņdala, karnapuśpa and grīva. The garment which she is depicted in the upper portion of the body is completely covered by a simple cloth. Her two hands are represented with two Nāgas (Pl. 5.37).

49 186 Nāgini without Gana: Standing Posture: Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi): This is a unique relief sculpture identified from Nediyasala in Thodupuzha Taluk at Idukki district. It is located ( N E) four km west of Thodupuzha town. It is found in a house hold related ritual space and consecrated five deities along with the concerned image. The family belongs to Brahmin community and according to the members of the family they have been keeping this sarppakkāvu for three four generations before. This is a quite polished image of Nāgayakśi and is shown in Stānaka posture. There are three anthropomorphic Nāga figures consecrated along with the particular deity. A representation of Nāgarāja in a Padmāsana posture with two attendant deities is identified over there. She is standing on a circular pīta which is considered as used for worship. She is capped by three hooded snake which looks unfinished and unpolished. She is having snake hood shaped crown with the arrangements of small circular beads on the centre and also characterised a head band wrapped around. The top part of the crown looks like a hood of a snake. These three hoods like projections are connected with the real cobra hood which is capped behind the deity. The deity is less ornamented. The ear ornaments are not clear due to the mutilation. But the other ornament found on body is hāra. She is holding snakes in both hands. Lower garment is clearly evident and it covers the lower body completely. Folding of the garment is arranged such a way that it looks like of three parts (Pl. 5.38) (Fig. 5.23). Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi): This female deity is identified from Pallippuram, Munambam Taluk in Ernakulam district. It is belonged to the Ezhava family. It is located near to the sea

50 187 ( N E).The position of the sarppakkāvu is similar to that of other. It is found with one theriomorphic figure and Chitrakudom. This is a crude image and is shown in Stānaka posture standing on a circular pedestal. The image is topped with three snake hoods. She has locally designed crest similar to tribal crown. It is decorated with feather like objects. The deity is ornamented with kuņdala and hāra. She is holding snakes in two hands. The folding of the lower garment is clearly evident and a portion of it is shown hanging down up to feet (Pl. 5.39) (Fig. 5.24). Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi): This is another beautiful representation of female Nāga image. It is a high relief sculpture identified from coastal region (0-10 m) and is located in the bank of Vembanattu kayal at Alappuzha district. Unfortunately, the deity is in a bad state of preservation due to the flood in the kayal (lake). The details of location has already mentioned in Nāgarāja 4 comes under the classification of male Nāga with Gana. The lower portion of the deity is completely covered by the river sand, thus, the identification of the lower part was not possible. The image is shown in Stānaka posture. This female figurine wears five designed cobra hooded crown. The face of Nāgayakśi is shown in peaceful grace. The particular deity is adorned with several ornaments like medallion type kuņdala, grīva and hāra. There are also one more ornament is seen in the upper part of the ear called as Karnapuśpa. The hāra which she wears is similar to the design of Kanthābhūśana. The upper garment commonly used to hide the bust portion also seen with the small bead design at the edges. The presence of garland also can be seen. The particular deity is holding two Nāgas in both of the hands (Pl. 5.40) (Fig. 5.25).

51 188 Fig.5.18: Nāgini 1 (Nāgachāmundi with Gana) Fig. 5.19: Nāgini 2 (Nāgachāmundi, with Gana) Fig. 5.20: Nāgini 3 (Nagayakshy, with Gana) Fig. 5.21: Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi)

52 189 Fig. 5.22: Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi, Sitting) Fig. 5.23: Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi Standing) Fig. 5.24: Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi, Standing) Fig. 5.25: Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi, Standing)

53 190 Plate 5.1 Brahmanasarppangal (Upper cast Nāga) Plate 5.2 Kśatriyasarppangal (Nāga in Kshatriya caste) Plate 5.3 Adhamasarppangal (Nāga in lower caste)

54 191 Plate 5.4 Kriśnaśila (Chlorite) Plate 5.5 Two headed Nāga, Chettiyanmar community, Kottayam district Plate 5.6 Single hood Nāga (Brahmin community): Kottayam

55 192 Plate 5.7 Three hooded Nāga: Ritual Space Temple. Kalluvattom Kottayam District Plate 5.8 Snake coiled Linga Plate 5.9 Snake coiled Śūl

56 193 Plate 5.10 Snake hood cover mirror like object Plate 5.11 Nāga with Chitrakūdom over the hood Plate 5.12 Tip of the tail positioned in front Plate 5.13 Āalnāgam: Kottayam district

57 194 Plate Anjilamanināgam Plate Karināgam Plate Kuzhināgam

58 195 Plate Paranāgam Plate Manināgam Plate Chitrakūdoms

59 196 Plate Single stone served as Nāga deity Plate Strictures represent Chitrakūdom Plate Nāgarāja I with Gana

60 197 Plate Nāgarāja 2 with Gana Plate Nāgarāja 3 with Gana Plate Nāgarāja 4 with Gana Plate Nāgarāja 1, Sitting

61 198 Plate Nāgarāja 2 Sitting Plate 5.29 Nāgarāja 2,without Gana; Plate Nāgarāja 1 Standing Plate 5.30 Nāgini 1 with standing Gana

62 199 Plate 5.31 Nāgini 2 (Nāgachāmundi) with Gana Plate Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi)with Gana Pulinchuvadu, Kottayam district Plate Nāgini 4 (Nāgayakshi) Parayakad, Ernakulam district

63 200 Plate Nāgini 5 (Nāgamātha with Child) Sitting Plate Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi) Plate Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi) sitting Plate Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi) Sitting

64 201 Plate Nāgini 1 (Nāgayakshi): Standing Plate Nāgini 2 (Nāgayakshi): Standing Plate Nāgini 3 (Nāgayakshi): Standing