CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM THE TIME OF THE APOSTLES AND EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS SPEAKER S NOTES

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1 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM THE TIME OF THE APOSTLES AND EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS SPEAKER S NOTES Sources of Early Christian History Jewish Writers: Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo of Alexandria Roman Historians: Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger Christian Writings: Acts of the Apostles, Pauline Letters, Apostolic Fathers Oral Tradition The Mission of the Apostles and the Spread of Christianity Peter First Bishop of Rome (martyred upside-down on a cross in Rome in 64) James the Lesser First Bishop of Jerusalem (martyred by being beaten to death in Jerusalem in 62) John Ephesus and Patmos (died of natural causes in Ephesus c. 101) Paul Four Missionary Journeys (martyred by beheading outside Rome in 64) Philip Greece, Phrygia? (martyred by crucifixion) Thomas Persia and India? (martyred by a spear in India?) Andrew Asia Minor, Greece, and Scythia? (martyred on an x-shaped cross) James the Greater Spain? (first apostle to be martyred, by sword, ordered by Herod Agrippa in 44) Jude Syria, Mesopotamia, Edessa? (martyred by being beaten to death, then beheaded) Matthew Judea and Ethiopia? (martyred by a spear, depicted with a winged man or angel) Bartholomew Asia Minor, Armenia? (martyred by being flayed alive) Simon Mesopotamia, Egypt? (martyred by crucifixion or being sawn in half) Matthias Cappadocia, Egypt, Ethiopia? (martyred by stoning) Developing a Christian Identity Jewish Christians starting in Jerusalem and Judea, then spreading to the Jewish Diaspora in the major cities of the Empire; location of Jewish settlements initially guided the travels of the apostles (Alexandria, Rome, Ephesus, Corinth, Thessalonica, etc.); followers of the Way seen as one movement within Judaism like Pharisees or Sadducees Gentile Christians Cornelius becomes first Gentile to be baptized (Acts ); formal preaching to Gentiles began in Antioch (Acts ), then spread throughout the Roman Empire; most often the apostles preached to the Gentiles only after being rejected by the Jews (see Acts , ) The Council of Jerusalem Acts is it necessary for Gentile Christians to observe Jewish law? Gradually led to a separation of Christianity from Judaism

2 Ebionites the poor Jewish Christians who retained Jewish practices; separated from orthodox Jews because of their belief in Jesus, separated from Gentile Christians because of their insistence on following Jewish law; considered heretics or a non-christian sect by Christians from Irenaeus (d. 202) onward Temple of Jerusalem destroyed by Romans in 70 (end of Sadducees); City of Jerusalem destroyed by Hadrian in 135 Jews expelled from Judea, Jerusalem rebuilt as a pagan city, Aelia Capitolina; Rome secured as center of Christianity Condemnation by the Jews (85): May the Nazarenes and the heretics be suddenly destroyed and removed from the Book of Life. (The Eighteen Benedictions); Jews needed unity of belief after destruction of the Temple Pharisees emerged as dominant movement Identity within the Roman Empire first as a sect of Judaism (tolerated), then as a separate movement (suspected) Persecutions of Christians under Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96) Nero blamed Christians for fire of Rome (64), incest, and cannibalism Domitian required oath to emperor Early persecutions often limited in scope and sporadic; few widespread persecutions Early centers of Christianity: Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome; followed by Corinth, Alexandria, and Ephesus The Apostolic Fathers and other Early Christian Writings The First Letter of Clement to the Corinthians Date c (reign of Domitian) Setting Rome Author Roman Christians (by tradition, Pope St. Clement) Purpose re-establish order and peace in the divided church at Corinth; early example of looking to the church in Rome as an authority to settle disputes and bring unity The Didache Date c (known by many early Christian writers, full text rediscovered in 1873) Setting Syria Author Unknown Jewish Christian (many parallels with Matthew) Purpose to provide specific Christian instruction, most likely prior to baptism The Apology of St. Justin Martyr Date c. 150 Setting Rome Author Justin Martyr (d. 165), Palestinian philosopher and convert to Christianity Purpose provide a defense of Christianity for non-christians

3 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM THE CHURCH PERSECUTED AND DEFENDED SPEAKER S NOTES Challenge of Christianity in the second and third centuries unity a common faith and a common way of ordering life and worship THE CHURCH PERSECUTED Persecutions Sporadic during the 2 nd and 3 rd Centuries persecutions were common under Trajan (98-117), Decius ( ), and Valerian ( ) Hostility toward the Church increased following the celebrations of Rome s millennium in 247, in which many Christians refused to take part; Decius required all people living in the empire to produce a libellus certifying that he/she had sacrificed to the pagan gods in the presence of imperial witnesses Valerian forbade public meetings for worship and ordered bishops to be killed (after the death of Pope St. Sixtus II in 258, the Church in Rome decided not to elect a new bishop until after Valerian s death The Great Persecution begun by Diocletian (emperor from ) when the Oracle of Apollo declared that Christians were causing false oracles and disloyalty in the army; an edict issued by Diocletian declared that all churches be destroyed, Bibles and other Christian books surrendered, and all public meetings of Christians forbidden; later edicts ordered the arrest of all clergy and sacrifice to the pagan gods on pain of death; enforcement of edicts was more widespread in the East than in the West Martyrs With the exception of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. John the Apostle, all recognized Saints from the first 250 years of Christianity were martyrs; St. Martin of Tours (d. 397) was first non-martyr to be venerated as a Saint. St. Ignatius of Antioch (d. 115) first to use the phrase Catholic Church and earliest writing referring to the Bishop of Rome as the supreme head of the Church; martyred in Rome under Trajan Ss. Perpetua and Felicity (d. 203) martyred laywomen in northern Africa; most extensive surviving account of martyrdom Pope St. Sixtus II (d. 258) martyred Bishop of Rome under Valerian; one of the most revered early Christian martyrs

4 THE CHURCH DEFENDED Heresy - believing a doctrine contradictory to faith as defined by the Church, while maintaining faith in Christ - e.g., denying the divinity of Jesus Christ Apostasy - completely abandoning the Christian faith - e.g., a professed, baptized Christian sacrificing to pagan gods Schism - separating oneself from the unity of the Church - e.g., denying the leadership of the Pope Defenders of the Faith in the Second and Third Centuries St. Irenaeus ( ) born in Smyrna (student of St. Polycarp), studied philosophy in Rome, bishop of Lyon; two extant works, including Against Heresies, defending the Church against gnosticism For this is why the Word became man, and the Son of God became the Son of man: so that man, by entering into communion with the Word and thus receiving divine sonship, might become a son of God. Tertullian ( ) born in Carthage, father of Latin theology, studied rhetoric and law, concerned with the purity of the Church s teaching, wrote on moral and doctrinal problems, including: baptism, penance, Trinity, and Incarnation; first to use the phrase three persons in one God and the term Trinity; first theologian to write in Latin; ended his life as a Montanist Origen ( ) head of catechetical school in Alexandria, wrote over 6,000 brochures, letters, or books; student of Scripture and philosophy, seeking to reconcile the two; ended his life outside the communion of the Church because of differences with his bishop and the bishop of Rome Christian Heresies in the Second and Third Centuries Gnosticism Definition: general term for a variety of beliefs, both Christian and non-christian. Encountered by St. Paul in Corinth and Colossae. Responsible for most of the noncanonical gospels and other writings during the first 300 years of Christianity. Gnostics generally believed that: 1) they had a secret knowledge (gnosis) that was not available to people outside their chosen, limited group; this knowledge often included ideas on the origin of the world and human destiny; 2) salvation was available only to those who had been given this gnosis; 3) all material things, including the human body, are evil (dualism); led to either strict asceticism or moral license; 4) God would not take on bodily form, which is evil; therefore, Jesus is divine but not human, rather he is an apparition

5 Response: St. Irenaeus it is necessary to have an authoritative, public list of accepted Christian writings (canon of Scripture); appealed to apostolic authority and succession; Christian doctrine does not change over time and among different teachers; within this apostolic teaching is the consistent belief in Incarnation and the Trinity; Origen Christ is the key to understanding all Scripture, which can have both a literal and a spiritual sense; Christ alone gives us knowledge Docetism Definition: Gnostic sect centered on Jesus as divine but not human; he was a pure spirit whose appearance was an optical illusion; God would not take on human flesh because it is evil Response: Tertullian flesh is an object of God s love, as well as spirit, so it is possible for God to take on flesh; because God created the world and all that is in it, the world can be redeemed; because God created human beings in their entirety, they are able to be brought to salvation, in their entirety Montanism Definition: Montanus, a Phrygian, and two women in the 170s delivered a New Prophecy that they claimed was the Holy Spirit speaking through them and called all Christians to recognize them as the chosen prophets of the Spirit; caused great divisions among Christians based on who believed the prophecy; later, became strict in its morality (predating Novatianism and Donatism) Response: St. Hippolytus (d. 235) recognized that the divisiveness of Montanism was proof of it being heretical and schismatic; prophecy meant for the whole Church is not given to individuals, and such prophecy does not cause division; rather, all believers have the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Novatianism Definition: What to do with lapsed Christians, especially in times of persecution? View of Novatian (anti-pope elected in 251) that the Church did not have power to declare forgiveness of the sins of murder, adultery, and apostasy; St. Cyprian (d. 258) supported this view initially, but eventually sided with Rome. Response: Pope St. Cornelius (d. 253) and Pope St. Stephen (d. 256): reconciliation is possible Donatism Definition: Are the sacraments celebrated by apostates valid? Begun when Caecilian was consecrated a bishop in 311 by a traditor, another bishops who had surrendered church documents and vessels during the persecutions of Diocletian. Donatus (Bishop of

6 Carthage) and his followers held the view that such sacraments are not valid they worked to keep the Church pure of apostates, separating themselves from communion with the universal Church and leading to deep and long-lasting schism. Response: Condemned by the Council of Arles (314) and St. Augustine the validity of sacraments does not depend on the moral state of the minister but on the proper administration of the sacrament with the proper intention. Donatism survived in some form in northern Africa until the 7 th Century. Primary Concerns for the Church by the time of Constantine Scripture: authority and canon Doctrine: the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ Morality: reconciliation of lapsed Christians Unity: role of the Bishop of Rome and the Rule of Faith

7 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM CONSTANTINE, THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREED SPEAKER S NOTES Life as a Christian AD 300 The Great Persecution Scripture: authority and canon Doctrine: the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ Morality: reconciliation of lapsed Christians Unity: role of the Bishop of Rome and the Rule of Faith Constantine Personal Background father: Flavius Constantius (Roman officer who became governor of Dalmatia and Caesar of Western Empire); mother: St. Helena (peasant Christian; later made pilgrimage to Holy Land and discovered Holy sites, including Calvary and the true cross); declared Caesar by the army after his father s death, eventually becoming Augustus in the West, but without control of Rome (which was held by Maxentius) Battle of Milvian Bridge October 28, 312 Constantine attacked Maxentius at Rome; Constantine had a dream in which he saw a cross in the sky and heard a voice saying, In hoc signo vinces; Constantine had the Chi-Rho put on the shields of his army before the battle; rather than staying within the Roman walls, Maxentius sent his army outside the walls to the other side of the Tiber at the Milvian Bridge, where they were easily defeated by Constantine; Constantine becomes the undisputed Augustus of the West Edict of Milan AD 313 Constantine (Western Augustus) and Licinius (Eastern Augustus) meet in Milan and declare religious freedom, allowing free Christian worship for the first time in the Roman Empire Influence on Christianity and establishing a Christian Society Legalization of Christianity and personal favor of the religion Imperial attention on matters of church doctrine, morality, and unity Gave the Lateran Palace to the pope as a residence (used as such until 1308) Church Building in Rome and elsewhere: St. Peter, St. John Lateran, St. Paul Sunday declared as an official day of rest and worship in the Empire Ordered Christian property that had been confiscated under persecutions to be returned Declared clergy exempt from military service and forced labor Christian influence on laws, e.g., forbade branding criminals on the face Recognized as a Saint in the East Saw Christianity as a means to achieving unity and peace in the Empire

8 The Greatest of All Heresies Arius the Presbyter of Alexandria ( ): born in Lybia, priest in Alexandria Arianism Jesus is not divine controversy begins c. 318 God is a unity and cannot be shared or divided in any way, otherwise God would be changeable; Jesus is therefore the first creature, perfect and beyond all other creatures, born outside of time but with a beginning; Jesus might be called God but only by grace, not truly God but in name only Arius drew many followers throughout the Church, including Eusebius of Nicomedia the division among bishops over Arianism threatened to divide the Church The First Ecumenical Council: The Council of Nicaea AD 325 Location: Nicaea in northwest Asia Minor (originally called for Ancyra) Origin: Called by Emperor Constantine called and convened the Council, but did not vote Attendance: 318 Bishops (mostly Eastern) and two priests representing the Pope West: Carthage, Pannonia (Austria), Gaul, Calabria, Cordoba (Spain) Beyond the Empire: Persia, Scythia Nicholas of Myra Purpose: Address the divisions caused by Arianism The Creed of the Council of Nicaea The Apostles Creed baptismal creed first found in Hippolytus Apostolic Tradition c. 215 Prior to Nicaea, creeds were local and baptismal used for questioning catechumens The Creed of Nicaea was written to be universal and was the first to use philosophical, non- Scriptural language Homoousios (Latin equivalent: consubstantia) one in essence, one in substance philosophical term non-scriptural championed by Athanasius, deacon and scribe to the bishop of Alexandria We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the substance of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, True God from True God, Begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father, through Whom all things were made. Who for us men and for our salvation came down and became incarnate, and was made man, suffered and rose on the third day, and ascended into heaven, and is coming with glory to judge living and dead, and in the Holy Spirit.

9 But those who say, There was when the Son of God was not, and before he was begotten he was not, and that he came into being from things that are not, or that he is of a different hypostasis or substance, or that he is mutable or alterable the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes. The Creed of Nicaea did not end the Arian disputes; St. Athanasius ( ) led the theological argument against the Arians; much depended on the theological state of the Emperor: Constantius II ( ) and Valens ( ) were Arian; Julian ( ) tried to revive paganism; Arianism was only outlawed more or less definitively under Theodosius (see below) The Canons of the Council of Nicaea Bishops must be ordained by at least three bishops, preferably all bishops of a province, bishops have jurisdiction only over their own diocese Clergy eunuchs barred from the clergy; clergy could not have women living in the same house except a mother, sister, or aunt; waiting period after baptism before ordination Reconciliation of apostates, heretics, and schismatics Date of Easter set following the Roman practice Baptism and Death of Constantine Constantine was baptized on his deathbed in 337 by Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian The Second Ecumenical Council: The Council of Constantinople AD 381 Location: Constantinople (Eastern Capital of the Empire) Origin: Called by Emperor Theodosius Attendance: 150 Bishops (all Eastern) Purpose: Address the identity and role of the Holy Spirit The Creed of the Council of Constantinople We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten from the Father before all ages, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father, through Whom all things were made. Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and became incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and was made man, And was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, And rose the third day according to the

10 Scriptures, And ascended into heaven and sits on the right hand of the Father, And is coming again with glory to judge both living and dead, Whose kingdom shall have no end; And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, Who proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is jointly worshipped and jointly glorified, Who spoke through the prophets; In one holy catholic and apostolic Church; We acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins, We look

11 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE; COUNCILS AT EPHESUS AND CHALCEDON SPEAKER S NOTES The Third Ecumenical Council: The Council of Ephesus, AD 431 Location: Ephesus in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) Origin: Called by Emperor Theodosius Attendance: About 200 bishops, mostly Eastern, including 2 papal legates Purpose: Address the nature of Christ and the title Theotokos for Mary St. Cyril of Alexandria vs. Nestorius Nestorius denied calling Mary, Mother of God, but rather the Mother of Jesus; Cyril took this to deny the divinity of Christ; Cyril put forth a theology of Jesus being one person with two natures, fully human and fully divine, and thus that Mary could be called the Mother of God, or Theotokos The Fourth Ecumenical Council: The Council of Chalcedon, AD 451 Location: Chalcedon (near Constantinople) Origin: Called by Emperor Marcian Attendance: About 500 bishops, mostly Eastern, but governed by the papal legates Purpose: To confirm the faith of the previous Councils against dissidents Pope St. Leo the Great s Tome: This is the faith of the Fathers and of the Apostles. This we all believe. Peter has spoken through Leo. The Fall of The Western Roman Empire Continuous barbarian invasions throughout Europe, from the time of Constantine on December 31, 406 Rhine River froze, allowing Germanic tribes to cross easily 410 Rome sacked by Visigoths, the first time Rome fell in 800 years 476 Emperor Romulus Augustulus (14 years old) overthrown by Odoacer Result of barbarian invasions and fall of Rome: both centralized and local government collapsed, public works destroyed, communication crumbles The Church is the only stable and strong institution and the only source of unity in Europe The Early Middle Ages ( ) The Dark Ages? illiteracy, no centralized rule, violence

12 Feudalism Germanic ideal of liberty (equality of warriors, respect and loyalty) combined with simple Christian faith; the ideal that all people should be characterized by virtue and a deep sense of personal loyalty Strong Papacy temporal as well as spiritual rule; only universal connection New Missionaries barbarians were either pagan or Arian Christian Monasticism centers of faith and learning, home-base for missionaries Rise of Islam begin conquests in Europe (Spain) in 711 Significant People in the Church: AD The New Missionaries St. Patrick ( ) The Apostle of Ireland born in Britain, kidnapped at age 16 and sent to Ireland as a slave, spent time as a shepherd in the Irish hills; had a dream in which he was told to return to England, so he escaped slavery and went to England and then mainland Europe where he studied in monasteries; priest; named a bishop and sent by the Pope to evangelize Ireland; spent 33 years preaching in Ireland; champion of orthodox Christianity, especially teaching on the Trinity (shamrock, Breastplate) St. Columban ( ) born in Ireland, Benedictine monk; became missionary first in Scotland, then in Gaul; established monasteries as centers of missionary activity and faith; lived for extended periods in a cave in solitude seven miles from the monastery; known as a healer and miracle-worker; preached against corruption among the royal Frankish courts; came into conflict with the Franks and travelled throughout Europe, eventually settling in northern Italy; known to have the ability to communicate with animals when he wanted to use a cave for solitude, he asked a bear living in that cave to leave, and it did; he later tamed a bear and put a plow on it to help the monks plant their fields. St. Augustine of Canterbury (d. 605) born in Rome, Benedictine monk; sent by Pope Gregory the Great as a missionary to England (Gregory saw English slaves in a market in Rome, asked who they were: angles, he said, no they are angels); the people of England had a reputation for violence and terror, causing Augustine to turn back on his trip, but Gregory insisted that he go; evangelized throughout England, at one point bringing a tribal king and 10,000 of his people into the Church; first Archbishop of Canterbury. St. Boniface ( )- The Apostle to Germany; born in England; Benedictine monk; ministered among the Franks in modern-day Germany, founding monasteries and dioceses; once encountered a tribe worshiping a Norse deity in the form of a large oak tree, he took an axe and cut down the tree, stood on the trunk, and asked How stands your mighty god? My God is stronger than he. As

13 the Pope s representative, crowned Pepin the Short as King of the Franks. Martyred with other missionaries by a group of pagan barbarians. Dionysius Exiguus ( ) no common method for determining dates and years; in the Roman Empire, used the consuls in office, the year in the reign of the emperor, or the years since the founding of Rome; some used a fixed point, like the beginning of the reign of Diocletian; Pope John I asked Dionysius to put together a table of the dates for Easter for the coming years; in 532, he compiled the table and also thought it would be beneficial to calculate the year from the birth of Christ; using information about the reign of Augustus, calculated that Christ was born on December 25, in the year 753 from the founding of Rome; began the calendar with the date of Jesus circumcision, January 1, AD 1; this system was used by St. Bede the Venerable in his history of the English Church and became widespread after being used in documents by Charlemagne; unfortunately, Dionysius calculations were off; Herod the Great died in 4 BC, so Jesus must have been born before then. St. Isidore of Seville ( ) Archbishop of Seville, Spain; helped to convert the Arian Visigoths; reformed church in Spain, requiring seminaries in every diocese; compiled first encyclopedia, and thus is considered the patron saint of the internet and computer users; Doctor of the Church St. Bede the Venerable ( ) born in England around the time the entire country had been Christianized; Benedictine monk; known as the most learned man of his day; wrote An Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the primary source for any information about England prior to the 8 th century; began widespread use of Dionysius Exiguus method of dating; Doctor of the Church In the weeks to come St. Jerome ( ) St. Augustine ( ) Pope St. Leo the Great ( ) St. Benedict ( ) Pope St. Gregory the Great ( )

14 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM ST. JEROME, SCRIPTURE, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON SPEAKER S NOTES St. Jerome and the Vulgate AD Biography born c. 331 to Christian parents in Dalmatia (modern-day Croatia); received superb education in Rome (studied Roman classics, languages, rhetoric), accumulated the largest private library of the time; baptized as a young adult; became a monk to be able to study and pray, eventually becoming an ascetic in Syria; became biblical scholar; wrote commentaries on Scripture and translated volumes of works by Eusebius, Origen, and others; secretary to Pope Damasus in Rome ( ); lived in a cave in Bethlehem; corresponded with the leading theologians of the day, including St. Augustine The Pope Commissions a Latin Bible Latin was the language spoken by the majority of Christians in the West, but the only Bible available in Latin was a very poor translation, with the OT based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew; Pope Damasus commissioned Jerome to make a standard translation into Latin because of his knowledge of Hebrew and Greek; the translation took more than 20 years to complete The Vulgate vulgar common the language of the people became the standard translation of the Bible until the Protestant Reformation and is still the official Latin translation for the Catholic Church The Development of the Old Testament Tanakh 46 Books in Roman Catholic Canon Torah (Law) Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy Nevi im (Prophets) Former, Latter (Four Great Prophets, The Twelve) Ketuvim (Writings) Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, etc. Ezra Torah recognized as authoritative Scripture; by 200 BC, the Prophets are collected and recognized as authoritative Septuagint Greek translation of Tanakh, made by tradition by 70 scholars in Alexandria in the 4 th Century BC; included more books than traditional Hebrew collections; this is the version of the Tanakh cited by early Christians Jamnia the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in AD 70 forced the Jewish community to develop a sense of identity based solely on Scripture; a rabbinical school in Jamnia (on the coast of Palestine) attracted Jewish scholars who worked to develop an authoritative list of scriptural books; the Law and Prophets were well accepted, but the Jamnia school addressed the Writings specifically Criteria for Canonicity (at Jamnia) 1. Harmony with the Torah

15 2. Prophetic inspiration 3. Hebrew language origin (the language of prophecy) Protocanonical Books 39 considered authoritative with little dispute Deuterocanonical Books Judith, Wisdom, Tobit, Sirach, Baruch, 1-2 Maccabees great dispute on whether they are considered authoritative even after Jamnia, never completely settled in Judaism; rejected by Jerome but accepted by Augustine; officially declared canonical at the Council of Trent Christian canon of OT saw many versions, none definitive until Trent; Council of Carthage (397) included most Deuterocanonical books The Development of the New Testament 27 Books in the universal Christian NT Oral Tradition stories told and retold by apostles and their followers Letters first NT writings (1 Thessalonians, c. AD 51) Gospels c. AD Other writings Acts of the Apostles, Revelation, Hebrews Marcion (c. AD ) Rejected OT considered the god of the OT a demiurge, the creator of this world, but inferior to the God of Jesus and the NT Gnostic believed Jesus was God but not human; rejected birth and childhood of Jesus; apostles and followers of Jesus had misunderstood him and corrupted his words Accepted limited NT 10 Pauline Epistles and the Gospel according to Luke (minus the first two chapters), all heavily edited to suit his understanding of God Excommunicated by the Church in Rome in AD 144 Led the Church to serious consideration of the Canon of Scripture The Canon of the New Testament Criteria for Canonicity: 1. Apostolic Origin 2. Use by the Church 3. Conformity with the rule of faith Lists developed by Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, Tertullian Muratorian Canon late 2 nd Century Rome 22 books, plus Wisdom Athanasius late 4 th Century 27 books; first list that corresponds to final canon Council of Carthage 397 accepts canon of 27 books; regional council, not ecumenical

16 Council of Trent officially recognizes as inspired and authentic the canon of 46 OT and 27 NT books; first official Church recognition of OT canon What wasn t included? Apostolic Fathers Letters of Clement, Shepherd of Hermas, Epistle of Barnabas, (did not have apostolic origin) Apocryphal Gospels and Acts Gospels of Thomas, Peter; Acts of Paul and Thecla; Apocalypse of Peter (did not conform to the Rule of Faith) Intertestamental Literature Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (all written between 200 BC and AD 100); not accepted by either Jews or Christians Lost Letters St. Paul s Letter to Laodicea, another Letter to the Corinthians

17 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY SPEAKER S NOTES Influence of St. Augustine Personal background student of Dr. Frederick Van Fleteren, teacher of Confessions First great Church theologian, one of the two greatest theologians, with St. Thomas Aquinas Catechism of the Catholic Church: Augustine quoted 85 times to Aquinas 58 times Liturgy of the Hours: Augustine: 82 readings (St. Ambrose and St. Leo the Great: 26 each) Total output surviving: 113 books, 218 letters, 500+ sermons Topics of writings: Scripture commentary, music, care of the dead, Church unity, the creed, fasting, lying, marriage, morality, patience, the immortality of the soul, the Trinity, just war Theological influence: grace, original sin, theology of history, interpretation of Scripture Monastic Rule of St. Augustine used by: Augustinians, Dominicans, Ursulines The Church and World of St. Augustine Manichaeism Founded by Mani (c ), Persian teacher and mystic; combination of Gnosticism, Zoroastrianism, and Pauline Christianity; based on a primeval conflict between light and darkness an equality between good and evil; the object of religion is to release the particles of light Satan had stolen from the world and had imprisoned in men s minds; Jesus, Buddha, the prophets, and Mani were sent by God to release these particles of light Donatism half of the Church in northern Africa belonged to this schismatic sect that refused to recognize the ordination of Caecilian as bishop of Carthage in 311 because he had been consecrated by a traditor who had betrayed the Christian faith during Roman persecution; any sacraments conferred by traditors were invalid; rebaptized Catholics who joined with the Donatists Pelagianism named for Pelagius, British monk; taught that man can take the initial and fundamental steps toward salvation by his own efforts, apart from divine grace The Church in northern Africa c. 400, Christian and Roman; Christians in northern Africa were widespread, but divided; at least 400 bishops; rooted in the Roman empire, Roman literature, and Greek philosophy Important Dates in St. Augustine s Life 354 Nov. 13, born at Thagaste 372 death of Patrick, birth of Adeodatus 383 travel to Rome 386 (July) conversion in Milan

18 387 April 23, baptized at Milan 388 Monica s death; return to Africa 389 Adeodatus death 391 ordained priest at Hippo 395 bishop of Hippo writes Confessions writes The City of God 430 August 28, dies at Hippo Confessions: St. Augustine s Biography and Conversion **Note: Book (I), chapter (i), and paragraph (1) citations are common to all modern editions of Confessions; page numbers refer to the Oxford UP edition translated by Henry Chadwick.** Context written shortly after becoming Bishop to give an explanation of his life s journey and to refute concerns about his faith, the validity of his baptism, and the sincerity of his conversion Style a long prayer addressed to God Confessions II. i (1), p. 24: Address to God Content Books I-IX: autobiography; Book X: Memory; Book XI: Time; Book XII: Creation; Book XIII: Genesis Family Father Patrick (Patricius); pagan until baptized on his deathbed Confessions IX. ix (19), p : Monica and Patrick s Marriage Mother Monica (Monnica); Christian, brought up Augustine as a catechumen Confessions I. xi (17), p : On becoming a Catechumen and the faith of his family Monica s weakness for wine; patron of alcoholics Confessions IX. Viii (18), p : Monica rebuked Monica s death at Ostia, the port of Rome (buried at Santa Maria d Aracoeli, Rome) Confessions IX. xii (29, 30), p : Monica dies Confessions IX. xiii (37), p. 178: Remembrance of Monica and Patrick Early Life Episode of the Pear Tree: Reflection on good and evil Confessions II. ix (17), p : Alone I would not have done it Student of literature and philosophy: Virgil, Cicero; becomes Manichaean Confessions IV. i (1), p. 52: Manichaean Life Friendship: distraught over death of a friend, reflects on value of friendship

19 Confessions IV. vii (12), p : Mourning a lost friend Confessions IV. viii (13), p : What we love in friends Augustine takes a concubine and fathers a child: Adeodatus Confessions II. I (1), p. 24: Adolescent urgings Confessions IV. ii (2), p. 53: The concubine Development of Faith and Conversion Travel to Rome: as a teacher of rhetoric Confessions V. viii (14), p. 80: Students in Rome and Carthage Confessions V. ix (16), p : Physical sickness vs. spiritual sickness Move to Milan as a teacher of rhetoric and introduction to Ambrose Confessions V. xiii (23), p ): Ambrose the bishop Confessions VI. xv (25), p. 109: Too many women Conversion in a garden in Milan Confessions VIII. Xii (28-29), p : Pick up and read Confessions IX. vi (14), p : Baptism St. Augustine s Life after Confessions and the Development of Theology Return to Africa; ordained priest and then bishop Worked to combat Donatism and Pelagianism as a way to preserve the faith and unify the Church Developed doctrine of original sin and salvation by grace in response to Pelagius: nature was created good by God, something went wrong, it was Adam s fault, not God s, Christ repairs that wrong through grace Spent considerable time preparing catechumens for baptism and explaining the Christian faith to the newly-baptized Developed a theology for a Church of sinners, not saints St. Augustine s Death Vandals reached northern Africa in 429 and began to siege the city of Hippo; Augustine fell ill with a fever as the Vandals were attacking the city; he asked to be left alone so he could pray; he asked for large-print copies of the penitential Psalms to be put on the walls of his cell so that he could pray, repenting of his sins; he died on August 28, 430; Hippo fell to the Vandals a year later St. Augustine is buried in Pavia, Italy

20 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM ST. LEO THE GREAT, ST. GREGORY THE GREAT, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY SPEAKER S NOTES St. Peter The First Bishop of Rome Matthew : You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church. I will give you keys to the kingdom of heaven. Luke 22.32: You must strengthen your brothers. John : Feed my sheep. Acts : Peter presides over choosing a replacement for Judas Traveled to Rome, where he lived for up to 25 years Martyred under persecutions of Nero c. 64; buried on the Vatican Hill Why is Peter more important than the other apostles? Clearly chosen as a leader by Jesus and seen as leader by the early Church; more mention of Peter in NT than any of the other 12 apostles Why Rome? Capital of the empire, center of politics, law, culture, communication; location of death and tombs of Ss. Peter and Paul, as determined by God s providence Why Pope? Successor to St. Peter as Bishop of Rome and as pastor or shepherd of the universal Church; instrument of unity of faith and morals; head of the college of bishops St. Victor I and the Quartodeciman Controversy Early example of the authority and decision of the Bishop of Rome affecting the universal Church Controversy: date of annual celebration of Easter o Quartodecimans celebrated Easter on 14 Nisan, the Jewish Passover, no matter what day of the week it fell on (Asia Minor) o Roman and Alexandrian custom celebrated Easter on the Sunday following the Jewish Passover Pope St. Victor I ( ) held synods to address the discrepancy and declared that the Roman practice of celebrating Easter on Sunday should prevail in the universal Church; declared the Quartodecimans excluded from communion (unity) with the Church in Rome and the universal Church; first example of the Pope exercising authority over other churches Quartodecimans continued to celebrated Easter on 14 Nisan until the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea, which again condemned the practice

21 St. Stephen I and the Novatian Controversy Example of other churches appealing to Rome to settle a question of faith and morals Controversy: forgiveness of lapsed Christians o Novatian: Christians who had denied the faith under persecutions can never be reconciled with the Church, even on their deathbeds; supported by Cyprian of Carthage in question of baptisms performed by traditores: these baptisms were not valid o Catholic position: Reconciliation is possible Bishops from Gaul and Spain appealed to Pope St. Stephen I ( ) to declare the Church s position St. Stephen I sided with Roman tradition (as well as Alexandrian and Palestinian) that lapsed Christians could be reconciled with the Church and that baptisms performed by traditores were valid St. Stephens position and authority were upheld by his successor, Pope St. Sixtus II St. Leo the Great ( ) Pope during declining days of the Western Roman empire; Rome had been sacked in 410, and continued to be attacked and occupied by barbarians Began to use the authority and influence of the papacy in temporal as well as spiritual matters In 452, personally went out of Rome to meet Attila the Hun and convinced him not to attack Rome; in 455, met with Gaiseric the Vandal and, while unable to convince him not to invade Rome, won a peaceful invasion that consisted only of looting and seizing the city Spoke with the authority of St. Peter in dealing with other churches and on doctrinal matters Sent his Tome to the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, where it was received as authoritative: This is the faith of the Fathers and of the Apostles. This we all believe. Peter has spoken through Leo. First Pope to be given the name Great; first Pope after Peter to be buried in St. Peter s Basilica (148 of 265 deceased popes are buried in St. Peter s); one of two popes to be declared Doctors of the Church (with St. Gregory the Great)

22 St. Gregory the Great ( ) Born into a wealthy Roman family; educated in legal studies; became Prefect of Rome, the highest political office in the city; one of the richest men in Rome; gave up his career to become a monk; used his wealth to found monasteries; first monk elected Pope Primary achievements as Pope: 1) established the Pope as temporal ruler of central Italy, what became the papal states, organizing a feeding program for a population left starving after barbarian invasions; 2) strengthened papal primacy over other churches; 3) worked to convert the barbarians and to evangelize in England; 4) wrote a lasting collection of theological and spiritual writings, including Pastoral Care on the role of the bishop as shepherd of souls Strengthened the Church and the Papacy as the dominant unifying force of Europe in the Middle Ages Began unification of liturgy, composing many prayers for the liturgy and having some connection to the development of Gregorian Chant, which is named for him Second Pope to be given the name Great; one of two popes to be declared Doctors of the Church (with St. Gregory the Great); one of the four great Doctors of the Western Church (with Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine) Significant Popes of the First Christian Millennium There were 140 Popes in the First Christian Millennium, from St. Peter to Pope Sylvester II (17 below, plus one antipope) St. Linus (c. 66-c. 78) first successor of St. Peter, appointed by Ss. Peter and Paul; mentioned as a companion of St. Paul in 2 Timothy 4.21; mentioned in Roman Canon St. Cletus/Anacletus (c. 79-c. 91) erected first monument to St. Peter; mentioned in Roman Canon St. Clement I (c. 91-c. 101) possibly mentioned by St. Paul in Phil. 4.3; wrote letter to the Church in Corinth, first example of the Church in Rome taking an interest in the intervention of Rome with other communities; Church of San Clemente in Rome built over his house St Victor I ( ) African; first Latin-speaking Pope; first Pope known to have dealings with the imperial household (in freeing Christian slaves using the influence of a Christian imperial mistress); exercised the authority of Rome in setting the feast of Easter on a Sunday, against the Quartodecimans St. Hippolytus (antipope ) priest and chief theologian in Rome; wrote extensively, including the Apostolic Tradition, which includes the oldest existing Eucharistic Prayer; when a theologically-dubious man became Pope (Callistus I), Hippolytus set himself up as

23 bishop of a small, schismatic group in Rome, becoming the first antipope; continued as bishop of Rome through three papacies; eventually was reconciled with the Church of Rome and the Pope; commemorated on the same day as Pontian, who was Pope when he was antipope and with whom he reconciled St. Stephen I ( ) exercised authority of Rome and the Pope against Cyprian and other north Africans who followed Novatian; allowed reconciliation of lapsed Christians with the Church St. Sylvester I ( ) Pope during the reign of Constantine, the legalization of Christianity, and the Council of Nicaea; his influence was negligible next to the authority and influence of Constantine St. Damasus ( ) Pope during the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, but did not take part; first widespread reference to the papacy as the Apostolic See; commissioned St. Jerome to translate the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) St. Leo I the Great ( ) see above St. Gelasius I ( ) used private wealth to relieve famine and feed the poor; first Pope to be referred to as the Vicar of Christ; developed an understanding of the differing yet complementary roles of secular and religious authorities both received their authority from God, but the religious authority was superior because it was concerned with salvation; several prayers in the Sacramentary are attributed to him St. John I ( ) commissioned Dionysius Exiguus to compute the date of Easter and thus the date of the birth of Christ Pope John II ( ) born Mercury; first Pope to take a new name St. Gregory I the Great ( ) see above St. Martin I ( ) last Pope to be venerated as a martyr (died of cold, starvation, and harsh treatment after being deposed because of his opposition to heresies that were supported by the Emperor) Stephen [II] (752) died of a stroke four days after his election, before being consecrated; canon law at different times in history has seen either election or consecration to be necessary to become Pope; generally not considered a Pope because he was not consecrated St. Leo III ( ) crowned Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor Pope John VIII ( ) political Pope, leading forces to unite southern Italy against Muslims ; first Pope to be assassinated (poisoned and then clubbed to death)

24 Pope Formosus ( ) on the losing side of political rivalries in Italy, supporting Arnulf of the Franks over Lambert of Spoleto; nine months after his death, Pope Stephen VI [VII], a supporter of Lambert, put Formosus on trial for perjury, coveting the papal throne, and violating canons forbidding the translation of bishops; Formosus body was exhumed, put on a throne in full pontifical vestments, and put on trial, with a deacon answering for him; found guilty, with all his papal acts and ordinations considered null and invalid; the three fingers of his right hand used for blessing were chopped off, and his body was thrown into the Tiber River; a hermit retrieved the body and buried it; the populace of Rome revolted, deposed Stephen and put him in jail, where he was strangled to death; rehabilitated by Pope Theodore II (897), who ordered his recovered body to be clothed in pontifical vestments and reinterred in St. Peter s

25 CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM FROM ST. BENEDICT TO CLUNY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTICISM SPEAKER S NOTES The Ascetic Movement Early in the Church, but the fourth century, some Christians had the desire to live a simple life away from the problems posed by politics, wealth, and possessions; devoted their entire lives to detaching themselves from the world in order to live for Christ; spent their time in prayer and doing works of mercy; most of the early ascetics did this as individuals, but they gradually became organized. The Desert Fathers hermits living in Egypt in the second half of the fourth century; greatly revered for their wisdom; individuals would visit them asking, Speak to me a word, father, that I may live; The Stylites individuals who lived for long periods on top of columns, trying to live as simple a life as possible, with no shade from the sun, little food, little clothing, and little contact with the world; e.g., Symeon the Stylite ( ) in Syria and Daniel the Stylite ( ) in Constantinople, who spent 33 years on a column St. Antony of Egypt ( ) most famous of the early hermits; renounced his family wealth, giving the money to the poor, and moved farther and farther into the desert; attracted followers, for whom he founded monasteries, although he preferred the solitary life; biography written by St. Athanasius; known as the Father of Monasticism St. Pachomius (c. 290-c. 346) contemporary of St. Antony; began as a hermit, but felt called to found monasteries in Egypt based on a communal life (coenobium), called cenobites; stressed obedience to a superior and community life based on a rule; wrote earliest known rule for monks St. Basil the Great ( ) saw the value of the ascetic movement, but it was separated from the structure and life of the Church; worked to bring monasticism into the fold of the Church by having monastic communities be governed by a Rule and subject to the authority of the local bishop; Archbishop of Caesarea; known as the Father of Eastern Monasticism St. Benedict ( ) The Father of Western Monasticism Biography born in Nursia (Umbria) during the age of barbarians, after the fall of Rome and the Western Roman Empire; studied law in Rome, but became discouraged with the paganism he saw there; retreated to a cave near Subiaco (30 mi. east of Rome), where he lived as a hermit for three years; was asked by a group of monks to become their abbot, and he reluctantly agreed; the monks were undisciplined and thought him to be too strict

26 and so tried to poison him, but he survived; left Subiaco and founded 12 monasteries of 12 monks each, including Monte Cassino (80 mi. southeast of Rome) where he lived and wrote his Rule for monks; named patron of Europe St. Scholastica sister of St. Benedict (possibly twin); head of first monastery for women that followed the Rule; visited her brother annually and they had intense theological discussions Abbey of Monte Cassino most important Benedictine monastery, founded in 529; destroyed by Lombards in 577, by the Saracens in 833, by earthquake in 1349, by Napoleon s army in 1798, and by Allied bombings during World War II in 1944; rebuilt in 1964 The Rule of St. Benedict written to govern the daily life of the Abbey of Monte Cassino; topics include: election and role of the abbot, arrangements of the psalms for prayer; how to correct faults among monks; clothing; procedure for becoming a monk; obedience; humility; reception of guests; often summarized as Ora et Labora, Prayer and Work, although this phrase does not occur in the Rule Excerpts From the RB (The Rule of St. Benedict in English, The Liturgical Press: 1982) Purpose of the Rule: Prologue 1-3 (p. 15) Death and Everlasting Life: (p. 28) Sleeping and waking: (p. 49) Communal Ownership: (p. 56) Manual Labor: 48.1 (p. 69) Lent: (p. 71) Guests: (p. 73) Monastic Promises: (p. 79) The Spread of Monasticism The influence of individual monks like St. Gregory the Great led to the spread of Benedictine monasticism; monasteries that became too large broke apart and formed new monasteries; monastic living became a popular way of Christian living throughout Europe, especially as monasteries became centers of learning they were one of the few places men could receive an education or be guaranteed a stable livelihood; missionaries who were monks helped spread monasticism: Ss. Patrick (Ireland), Augustine of Canterbury (England), Boniface (Germany), Columban (Gaul); Charlemagne (c. 800) promoted use of the Rule of St. Benedict; monasteries became the center of religious life for towns The Reforms of Cluny The Challenge of Feudalism as feudalism developed in the Dark Ages, feudal lords exercised more and more control over the church, having great say in appointing bishops and abbots; local bishops and abbots were often selected because of their skill in managing