CHAPTER IV BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF MYANMAR

Transcription

1 CHAPTER IV BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF MYANMAR The Art and Architecture of Myanmar were described to fifth century AD or even earlier by many scholars due to existing of her ancient architectures in the country. But, owing to the destructive nature of the climate and partly on account of devastating wars, the earliest surviving remains of architecture are rather scanty. According to local chronicles. Theravada Buddhism has been advanced in Thaton, about the 3rd century BC. And tradition has it that Tagaung. In Upper Myanmar also came to settle there more than 2500, years ago. But, no traces of religious art of such antiquity have yet been discovered. Significant evidence has, however, been found of a very flourishing state of Buddhism around Sriksetra (then Old Pyay) from the 5th to about the 9th century AC. This early phase of Myanmarese art and architecture is followed by a period when the height of development was attained under the benevolent rule of a long line of Myanmarese Kings from the 9th to the 13th century AC. In Ninth century AD the Pyu kingdom came to an end and architectural monuments including characteristically shaped stupas, sculptures in bronze, stone, and minor arts excited with high degree of skill. Much of the stone sculptures show characteristics similar to the late Gupta or post Gupta style in India. The great development of Myanmarese architecture commenced as from the 11th century. The art of decorating the terraces of a Bagan with terracotta plaques, illustrating scenes from the Jatakas, is found to have commenced at an age prior to the Bagan period. There were many evidences that the bas-reliefs at the Mya-thein-dan pagoda or the 172

2 Tha-gya-paya at Thaton. The date of construction of this pagoda is unknown, but some of the plaques, which depict characters from the Buddhist Jatakas, bear testimony to the antiquity of the pagoda. Near it is the Shwe-sa-yan, believed to have been built in the 5th century BC by king Thuriya-Canda Duttabaung, enshrining four teeth of Gotama Buddha. But inasmuch as an earlier school of architecture and sculpture was active since the fifth century, there is no doubt about the existence of as art in Myanmar in pre-bagan times. Time and climate have destroyed whatever remained of the ancient architecture, which used wood as its material and with those religious edifices would have perished the first native representations in colour and sculpture of Buddhist legends. The paintings as Bagan are executed on the walls of masonry temples and just as different types of religious architecture extend beyond the historic epoch of the Bagan dynasty. So, also the remains of Buddhist paintings represent a long period of more than seven centuries, thus offering to us the various aspects of the history of art of the well-known Buddhist centre, Bagan, which virtually is the history of art in Myanmar. The earlier structure - the stage began to be set for that remarkable display of religious buildings in Middle Myanmar, which has been referred to as Classical Period of Architecture of the country. The sacred structures of the great group of the Buddhists of monuments are situated at Bagan, which flourished as a royal city, the heart of a great Kingdom. Tradition has it that Thamoddarit founded Bagan in the early 2nd century. But perhaps it would be better to date the Bagan of the 1 - Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. Ill, (1977), p

3 monuments from its establishment as a walled city with twelve gates and a moat, by King Pyinbya in 849. The chronicle give a list of kings who reigned at Bagan from Thamoddarit onwards, with Pyinbya s the 34 king. But legend is inextricably mingled with history and sometimes overshadows it, in the accounts of the kings in the chronicles and it is only with the 42nd king in the list, King Anawrahta that Bagan emerges into the clear light of history1. 2 The end of the 13th century marks the end of the grand classical style of the building art of Myanmar, a style that was never revived. From the 15th century, therefor, there developed the more important distinctive feature commonly referred to as the Pagoda element which was predominant. The principal examples of the phase are the famous Shwe Dagon Pagoda, the imperial city, palace of Mandalay and the Monasteries of Mandalay - as for instance the Queen s Golden monastery. During the reign of king Anawrahta unprecedented cultural and religious development took place. As a large number of monuments which were built and with the large quantity of high quality sculptures and painting which survived, the Bagan period is regarded as the greatest in the history of Myanmarese art. Theravada Buddhism also intended to rise in power and influence but in absence of the canonical texts, the religion was thinly spread and still maintain balance between the Mahayana of East Bengal and Arakan and the Theravada of DvaravatT and Old Prome (now Pyay). Pyu influence was strong in architecture but after the siege of Thaton. Mon s beauty of edour, ornament and design combining with that of Pala King of Bengal gathered strength produce the typical art-forms of Early Bagan. 1 - Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, University of Yangon s History Department ( 1986), P.VII. 2 -John Lowery, Burmese Art, P. IV-V. 174

4 At the reign of King Sawlu, and Kyanzittha, there are splendid series of Mon temple they have all similar plans with many features comment to the older periods. There are countless themes of sculpture and painting and wide wall-spaces. The architect is still of master artist, sculpture remains conventional and painting mainly decorative. The first masterpiece is Pa-hto-tha-mya temple and the Ananda temple. The Paintings at Bagan are executed on the walls of masomy temples and just as different types of religious of the Bagan dynasty. So, also the remains of Buddhist paintings represent a long period of more than seven centuries, thus offering to us the various aspects of the history of art of the well-known Buddhist centre, Bagan, which virtually is the history of art in Myanmar. Among the thousands of monuments in different stages of decay are squares hollow temples, the interiors of all of which have originally been decorated with paintings. Today, we find fairly preserved a good number of the mural paintings sufficient to enable us to form an accurate idea of their scope and capacity and also the method of their execution. Contemporary lithe inscriptions also contain many allusions to the art of painting which afford us ample evidence of the technique and the extent to which this popular practice was promoted during the Bagan period. Technically speaking, these mural paintings are not frescoes in the strict sense of the term. As the plaster of the walls is allowed to dry before applying the background of white lime wash, preparing the outlines and filling in the colours, the method is actually that of tempera painting as is still practiced in the present day. Very few of the early painting s therefore, survives to day in their original charm of colour. 175

5 A characteristic feature of these mural paintings is the outlining of all forms with a clear black line and rarely with red, and the absence of perspective and shading in the earlier period is discernible. Yet, most of them are of absorbing interest, as they fulfil the primary object of telling edifying stories in as attractive way and producing works of art which are epic in character, rather than artistic in the modem sense. The style of the Bagan paintings shows strong south. Indian influences in the earlier stages and the technique of the Varendra School of Bengal can be traced in the paintings of the 12th-13th century. But, Myanmarese art was inspired to a great extent by Myanmarese nature and religious teachings, so that the fully developed paintings at Bagan, in particular, and in the whole country, in general, indicate no traces of foreign elements1. A unique example of a series of paintings reflecting the influences from three sources, namely, Theravada Buddhism, Mahayanism and Brahmanism may be noticed at the Abeyadana temple at Myinkaba Bagan2. Among them, the oldest wall painting is found in the Pa-tho-tha-mya which is perhaps the most beautiful of all the early temples of Bagan. It was built by Man Lu Lin (King Sawlu) or during his reign3. Its paintings of Jataka are based on the Sri Lanka text that probably reached Bagan in about the third quarter of the 11th century AD. Professor Luce suggests AD 1080 as the date of the temple4. Formerly, various images and decorations around them in painting 1 - Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. Ill, ( 1977),P Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. Ill, ( 1977).P Tradition speaks of the Ta-hto-tha-mya Temple as one of the five temples built by King Sawrahan in the and interpret its name Temple of Great Fruitfulness. 4 - Luce, History of Burma, P

6 were for devotion. From this temple onward we find the change from devotion to instruction. The tendency was to tell the miseries of life and the way to stop them. The eight scenes from the Life of Gotama, viz. the Nativity, the enlightenment, the first sermon, the twin miracles, the taming of Nalagrri, etc., found in that Temple. Next there are the pictures explains where the Buddha met whom and what he said to that person. In side the Niches of Pa-hto-tha-mya Temple, hold stone images of the Buddha and mural paintings with legends in Mon depict scenes of the Jataka and the final life of Gotama Buddha. Such as the foretelling of Prince Siddhattha by Rishi Kaladevila and the twin miracles performed by the Buddha. The next temple is Nagayon, which built by the Thiluin Rhan in about AD It is taken as the prototype of Ananda temple. This is supposed to be a Theravada temple though in the archway between Hall and Corridor on the west wall, there is a standing figure that looks like Tara flanked by two Crowned Bodhisattavas. On the inner wall of the Corridor, there are painted figures of dancers male and female, drummers, symbolists, players on percussion instruments, etc. There are also some illustrations on a few Suttas, especially those useful for Paritta against the power of darkness. Jataka as well as the life of the Buddha are also painted on the walls1. Within the temple itself, the central shrine contains a huge standing image of the Buddha protected by the hood of a Naga serpent. Two smaller images flank the main one. A corridor also paved with green glazed stones, runs around the central shrine. Dim light comes in through the perforated windows of the outer walls. The walls of the corridor have niches holding stone 1 - Dr. Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture with special reference to Myanmar, P

7 sculptures depicting the Buddhas previous to Gotama, as well as painting showing scenes from the Jatakas with legends in Mon and Pali1. 2Among the noteworthy pieces of art executed on the walls are scenes showing a deva beseeching the Buddha to preach the Mangala Sutta, Dipankar s prophecy regarding Sumedhapandita, the preaching of the Metta Sutta, the Twin Miracles of the Buddha, Devadatta s attempts to kill the Buddha, the Kusa Jataka, the Chaddanta Jataka, the Mahasutasoma Jataka, etc. Another famous paintings existed in the Abeyadana temple, which are perhaps the best in Bagan. Complete sets of Jatakas were found on the North, East and West walls. The legend was written under each picture in Pali. There were eighteen tondoes of Hindu gods and goddesses, each riding his or her vihana, drawn on this west wall, come with offerings to the Buddha. There are no glosses to identify them. The historical development of he building art in Myanmar can be divided into three periods, the first of which may be referred to the Early Phase, beginning from approximately the 2nd century and continuing until the 8th or 9th century. This was followed by a period, when the architecture of the country assumed such a character and impressiveness that it earned entitle to the designation of the Classical Phase and which flourished from the 9th century to 13th century. From the end of this period to the present day the country has reverted to a more intimate form of architectural expression which may be suitably defined as the Pagoda Period Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, University of Yangon s History Department, ( 1986), P Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Volume (HI), (1977), P Percy Brown, The Pagoda of Burma, P

8 We found that the early phases of art in Thaton1, which existed at the historical, centre of Myanmar and at Pyay (then Prome), the capital of another tribe, the Pyu. It is possible that the Pyu were one of their early religious preceptors. Gold leaf manuscripts2 unearthed at or near the site of Sriksetra (now Tharekkhettara) strongly suggest that the Pyu s knowledge of Buddhism was by no means slight3. Some of ancient Pyu site is located near Taung dwin gyi, a small town 82km southeast of Magwe Division. Beikthano (Vishnu) was originally founded as Vishanuloka under the Pyu King Pyinbya, who may have been part Indian. Excavations here have uncovered beads, terracotta votives, stone and metal art objects, skeletal remains, stucco-relief fragments, silver coins, potsherds, and burial urns. The design of these items and their Pyu inscriptions indicate links with the Pyu principalities of Thayekhittaya and Hanlin, but little else is known about the city-state. Some of the artifacts are displayed in a museum in Taungdwingyi. With their wheel and swastika-shaped bases, the building plans of some of the structures bear a strong resemblance to Buddhist monuments, which found at Nagaijunakonda in South India. Other Buddhist symbols were found here, one theory is that Nagaijunakonda missionaries may have started the settlement. If true, this would indicate that Beikthano had 3rd century origins, a period when Buddhists didn t permit the sculpture or worship of Buddha images. Most scholars agree that Beikthano predates Thayekhittaya by about four centuries and that it was destroyed by fire in the 4th and 5th century. 1 - According to the Sasanavamsa of Masami written in 1861, it was lower Burma known as Ramafina which received the Religion first. Perhaps it dated back to the very lifetime of the Buddha in AB Dr. Than Tun, Religion in Burma, AD , P Ep. Ind. V.101-2; ASB , p N.Ray, Theravada Buddhism in Burma, p

9 Regarding this, we got knowledge from donation of inscriptions that princes and princesses, sometimes turned their own residences into monasteries, and presented them to religion. It shows that Buddhist buildings of the Myanmar were already Buddhists before the said conquest of Thaton. From the inscriptions of Thiluin Man s reign1 we known the extent to which Buddhism was modified to fulfil the requirements or the time and how tolerant it was of the existence of other beliefs and practices. Frescoes and bas-reliefs show such palaces, made of wood, elaborately carved, and gilded. The new donors modified these building and gave a new shape meant for the monk and so just as the Chinese had noticed among the Pyu, monasteries and palaces looked much alike, which explains the paradox that the monks, though committed to a life of poverty, lived in splendid premises2. 3 But definite traces of the mode that then prevailed have disappeared partly on account of the destructive nature of the climate and partly owing to the continuance of devastation wars. Tha actual architectural remains of his period, which covered the earlier centuries of the first millennium, are so scanty as to be treated as negligible. The ordinary houses made of bamboo strips with elegant patterns of brown and citron disappeared long age, like the palaces, which were made of wood. It is the only old piece of secular architecture that remains. The earlier structure- the stage began to be set for that remarkable display of religious buildings in Middle Myanmar which has been referred to as Classical Period of Architecture of the country. The sacred structures of the great group of the Buddhists of the 1 - It was in AD A. B. Griswold, Chewon Kim, Peter H.Poff, Art of the World, Burma, Korea, Tibet, P Percy Brown, The Pagoda of Burma, p

10 Theravada School and all are situated at Bagan, the capital of ancient Myanmar which was founded at 819 AD and it fell in 1286 AD. Classifying the ancient monuments of Bagan by style and age is made difficult by the vast number of archaeological sites. The official count by the end of the 13th century is said to have been By 1901 surveys found 2157 monuments still standing and identifiable. According to Myanmarese archaeologists, the last count was taken in 1978, when archaeologists found 2230 identifiable sites. However, the most contemporary references on the subject quote a figure of These figures do not include brick mounds, which would give a total of nearly 4000 separate visible sites1. For the most past, the proliferation of temples, Stupas and monasteries are constructed of fired brick covered with plaster and decorated with stucco relief, polychromatic murals and glazed tiles. Sculpture materials included bronze, teak, brick and stucco, sandstone and lacquer. The most delicate do these media, the mural paintings, are endangered by the peeling of the plaster behind them, droppings left by bats and soot from cooking fires lit during WWII. Such a prodigality of building construction as that maintained at Bagan over so long a period during the early mediaeval period was largely the outcome of a flood of religious favour but not entirely so. The political circumstances were also favourable. The political and religious initiation was put into effect by King Anawratha in the middle of the 11th century. The architectural records of Myanmar s mediaeval greatness are mainly responsible for all this. 1 - Stevent Martin, Myanmar, p

11 The end of the 13th century marks the end of the grand classical style of the building art of Myanmar, a style that was never revived. Myanmar appeared to have turned away from India and to have been directed more to the Far East for inspiration. Its builders that came under the influence of Chinese ideals had their orientation changed as exemplified by the late architecture of the country. Decedent forms of it appear in some of the subsequent capital cities, as it Mekkhaya, Ava (now Inwa), Sagaing and Amarapura but on account of inferior construction most of these structure are crumbling to ruin. From the 18th century, therefore, there developed the more important distinctive feature commonly referred to as the Pagoda element which was predominant. The principal examples of the phase are the famous Shwe Dagon Pagoda,1 the imperial city, palace of Mandalay and the Monasteries of Mandalay as for instance the Queen s Golden monasteiy, Shwe-In-Bin monastery, Atu-ma-shi monastery and Shwe-Nan-daw monastery etc. Among them, Shwenandaw monastery (Golden Palace Monastery) is a fine example of a traditional Myanmarese wooden monastery, but as a fragile reminder of the old Mandalay Fort. At one time, this building was part of the palace complex and was used as an apartment by King Mindon and his chief queen, and it was in this building that he died. After King Mindon s death, King Thibaw had the building dismantled and reassembled on its present site in 1880 as a monastery. It is said that King Thibaw, the last king of Myanmar 1 - The Shwe Dagon pagoda is the essence of Myanmar, and a place that never fails to enchant. For the Myanmarese Buddhists, it is the most sacred of all Buddhist sites in the country, one which all Myanmarese hope to visit at least once in their lifetime. The great golden dome rises 98m above its base. According to legends, this stupaa is 2500 years old, but archaeologists suggest the original stupaa was built by the Mon, sometime between the 6* and 10* centuries. In common with many other ancient Zedi in earthquake -prone Myanmar, it has been rebuilt many times and its current form dates back only to

12 used the building for meditation, and the couch on which he sat can still is seen. The monastery is covered inside and out with carved panels, but unfortunately many of the exterior panels have weathered badly and some have been removed. At one time, the building was gilded and decorated with glass mosaics. The carved panels inside are still in excellent condition; particularly there are ten Jataka stories that were past -life stories of the Buddha. Another wood monastery is Atu-ma-shi kyaung, which was built by King Mindon in This monastery was of traditional Myanmarese monastic construction - a masonry base topped by a wooden building but instead of the usual multi-roofed design it consisted of graduated rectangular terraces. By all accounts, it was one of the most magnificent temples in all South-East-Asia. Inside was a famous Buddha image, clothed in the king s silk clothing and with a huge diamond set on the forehead. The image was stolen ini885, during the British takeover of the city. In 1890 the monastery caught fire and together with its contents, which included four complete sets of the Tipitaka in teak boxes, was completely gutted. Today only a huge quadrangle of colonnaded and arched walls, the main stairway and a few fine stucco relief survive. Although it s now only a pale shadow of its ruined building is still impressive. Inside there are the stumps of the teak pillars that once supported the roof. During the reign of King Anawratha unprecedented cultural and religious development took place. As a large number of monuments which were built and with the large quantity of high quality sculptures and painting which survived, the Bagan period is regarded as the 183

13 greatest in the history of Myanmarese art1. But there is inscriptions proof that at least one early king, Saw Rahan2, set up religious building in or near Bagan. Of the five pagodas3 attributed to King Saw-Rahan in the chronicle, only one can now be recognised that is the Pahto-tha-mya temple, one of the early masterpieces of Mon architecture at Bagan. During the reign of King Anawratha, Theravada Buddhism intended to rise in power and influence but in absence of the canonical texts, the religion was thinly spread and still maintaining balance between the Mahayana of East Bengal and Arakan and the Theravada of Dvaravatl (now Dawai) and Old Prome (now Pyay). Pyu influence was strong in architecture but after the siege of Thaton, Mon s beauty of edour, ornament an design combining with that of Pala king of Bengal4 gathered strength produce the typical art-forms of Early Bagan. At the reign of King Sawlu, Kyanzittha, there are splendid series of Mon temple, they have all similar plans with many features common to the older periods. There are countless themes of sculpture and painting and wide wall-spaces. The architect is still of master artist, sculpture remains conventional and painting mainly decorative. The transitional period ( AD) witnessed the gradual passage from Old Mon dominance to Old Myanmarese. With the 1 -John Lowery, Burmese Art, P.IV-V. 2 - Modem chronicles represent him as a heretic, a worshipper of Naga and spirits and follower of Ari. The original inscription on the other hand, shows him as the eminent orthodox work of merit, the first necessity of ran active his building that lasted from date till 1212 over 200 years, was probably of brick or stone. If so, the age of Myanmrese temple builders did not begin with Anawratha. Gorden H. Luce, Old Burma Early Pagan, p Five pagodas are Pa-hto-gyi, Pa-hto-nge, Pa-hto-tha-mya, Thinli-pa-hto and Seithi-pa-hto. 4 - From 800 AD to 1200 AD was period, during this period, Buddhist sculpture flourished both in stone and in metal, especially in copper and bronze, the centers of this art were mostly in Bihar and Bengal. 184

14 capture of Bagan by Parakkamagahu (I) in 1165 AD., Sinhalese influence tends to supersede Mon at the capital, but this soon leads to blooming of Myanmarese culture under Cansu I and his successors. At Bagan, stone was very rarely used for whole the buildings except in Kyaukse on the edge of the hills and only in the older monuments of the Mon period. The King Kyanzittha s library that was perhaps the only known building east of the Arakan Yoma wholly built of stone, especially at comers and in arches. Stone was used also for small images and lotus-thrones for model stupas placed in relic chamber, for stair ramps, bell pillars, large votive alms-bowls and umbrellas for door-sills, pavements, for top of parapets, for boundary pillars and inscriptions and stone pillar1. Brick was also used in Bagan. But Bagan brick large or thin is not usually as big as Pyu brick of Sriksetra (now Therikkhettara). The size varies a good deal, the average may be about (14x7x2) it varies also in quality, sometimes sandy and crumbling, sometime excellent. The average quality of brick must have been high to bear the enormous dead weight of many of these temples and pagodas, 150 to 200 feet in height. The use of brick originally came perhaps from Buddhism of India. Brick does not lend itself easily to carving, but both Mon and Myanmar had used it long enough possibly, overlaid with stucco, both for architectural detail and rarely for figure sculpture. In the Nat-hlaung-gyaung, the standing Viigius of the inner corridor are curved in brick. Actually Myanmarese native architecture and curving have always chiefly been in wood. At Bagan inscriptions show that there was once the palaces, schools, monasteries all a wealth of wood. The 185

15 brick monuments themselves were then less lumpish than they are now. The square set brick monasteries and walls have not changed much. In Myanmar evolution is seen, well beyond the Bagan period. When the great development of Myanmarese architecture commenced as from the 11th century, the great size with decorative bands round, and raised on a series of three stages with boldly projecting mouldings with square panels between. Thus the pagodas in Myanmar can be basically two kinds: one is the solid, bell-shaped Zedi or Stupa or Paya and the hollow square or rectangular Pahto. The Zedi or Stupa is usually thought to contain relics - either objects taken from the Buddha himself especially pieces of bone, teeth or hair or certain holy materials such as Buddha images and other religious objects blessed by a famous Sayadaws. Both Zedi and Pahto are often associated with Buddhist monasteries. Zedi or Paya function basically as a focus for meditation or contemplation. In the case of solid Paya or Zedi, if there is a need for some sheltered gathering place or a place to house images or other paraphernalia, then this will be small shrines, pavilions, covered walkways or other such places all around a major Zedi or Paya. These are often more heavily ornamented than the Zedi themselves. According to Myanmarese architecture, we can divide pagodas into four distinct portions, originally springing from their counterparts in the ancient Indian stupa. 1 - Stone pillars for demarcation chapter houses or Ordination Hall (Pali Sima) were particularly important. Ibid, P The word of Zedi derived from Cetiya in Pali. Cetiya gradually change Ceti or Zedi in Myanmarese language. 3 - Paya is a Myanmarese word, means stupa, or pagoda, zedi. 186

16 The first one is a square masonry terrace of, which are generally placed small pagodas, which they surrounded to the main stupa. Steps ordinarily lead up to this terrace on the four sides. At the comers are frequently found huge figures of lions or human headed lions called manussflia, which adopted from Hindu-Buddhist mythology. These may appear as freestanding sculpture often placed near gates and doorways of pagodas as well as Sima (ordination hall) or pahto (temples or shrines). Each motif symbolises a particular positive quality associated with the religion. Some of them are described as follow: - Motif Myanmarese Pali Meaning Lion Chinthe Siha Courage Ogre BIlu Yakkha Protection Eagle-like bird Galon Garada Strength Swan Hintha Hamsa Unity Sea serpent Magan Makara Blessing Peacock Daung Mora Sun/ Patriotism Rabbit Youn Sasaka Moon/Peace Sphinx-like, half lion/human Manuthlha Manusslha security Legless dragon Nagah Naga prosperity. 187

17 The second portion is made of receding platforms with bold mouldings, and frequently, projecting angles occur at this stage, especially in the Stupas of Lower Myanmar. The third portion is that bell which is the representative of the hemispherical body of the ancient Stupa. The fourth is the spire, consisting of a number of diminishing rings, and decorative features. Above the ring is a band of lotus leaves pointing downwards and another with the leaves upturned, the two being intercepted by a bead moulding. The next component of the spire is a cone, designated amalaka in India and known in Myanmarese as Khayathee1. The whole structure is finally surmounted by a richly gilt iron Hti or Umbrella. It consists of several rings, minimum seven or nine rising in diminishing stages, and the central iron rod which bears a gilt and bejeweled iron vane, is topped by a diamond-bud, called it as Seinbu in Myanmarese language. It often made of crystal or genuine precious stone. Small bells usually hung to the concentric rings tinkle sweetly with every movement of the air. The Hti or Umbrella is now used in architecture to comprise the whole spire, especially the metal finial. The harmika, with its square fence was a feature of the Asoka Stupa. At Bagan from Cansu II s reign onwards, if not before, the Sinhalese type of pagoda, with harmika is to be found2. But Stupa at Srik etra (now Tharekkhettara), the harmika was sometimes omitted. The Bagan spire just below the finial has normally an up and down turned lotus, implying as always the special sanctity of what rests on it. Just below this, a bulbous collar betokening the original finial - the purifying fruit of the embolic myrobalan, Sanskrit 1 - Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol.HI, (1977), P The Sapada pagoda, Nyaung-u or the Sizana Stupa in the far South. For earlier types with harmika is not necessarily based on Sinhalese. The harmika is also noticeable on several of the Arakan Mrohaung pagoda, Shit-thaung, Dukkauthein etc. Ibid, P

18 amalaoka, and a Varava symbol. But some of the earlier pagodas, both Stupa and temple it is conical figure of six, eight or twelve faces, the comem joined, the faces ribbed horizontally. The modem pagoda, the Bagan spires preserve a strong straight profile, never concave. Here, we focus on the different type of pagodas in Myanmar, which can roughly divide four kinds of types: - Type I, has a bulbous stupa somewhat recalling of the Tibetan chorten for example - Bupaya at Bagan1, was perhaps built by Pyu in the 8 or 9 century. It stands small but solid. The pagoda has a bulbous dome rather similar to that of the Ngakywenadaung paya. The dome is surmounted by a bold, convex band and crowned by a tapering finial and Hti (Umbrella). Only the bulbous part is really old. This bulbous type is not confined to Bagan. It was widespread in Upper and Lower Myanmar. According to chronicles, Pyu refugees from Srikstra settled at Bagan, in the middle of the 8* century, and before the coming of the Mrama, may have built the Bupaya and other stupas like Lawkananda2 pagoda, Ashe Petleik and Anauk Petleik pagodas around the Thiripyitsaya, the old part of Bagan. The Lawkananda pagoda has three receding octagonal terraces, the lower two of which can be ascended by flights of steps. The bellshaped dome, much more elongated than that of later pagodas, rises above the terraces and merges directly into a ringed conical finial. We also found that the two Petleik pagodas - the Ashe (Eastern) and Anauk (Western) which belong to the 11th century and have been assigned to reign of King Anawratha. The name Petleik is that Rolled 1 - Bupaya built by Pyusawhti, the third king of Bagan who reigned in AD. 2 - Lokananda in Pali meaning Joy of the world was built by the king Anawrahta ( ) to enshrine a holy tooth replica. Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, University of Yangon s History Department (1986), P

19 Leaves, probably derives from the resemblance in shape of the dome and the finial to ear ornaments made of rolled gold leaves. The Westen pagoda is better preserved and has a bell-shaped dome, with rings of moulding at the middle and towards the base. An unusual feature of the dome is the four deep niches at the cardinal points to house images of the Buddha. A damaged bowl-shaped disc rests on the dome in the Western pagoda, while in the eastern pagoda a box-like relic chamber occupies the corresponding position. The finial, which rises above, is in the form of a truncated cone. We found the some of art paintings inside the pagodas. Originally, a vaulted corridor ran around the base of the pagoda, with an entrance chamber towards the east. The probable purpose was to provide protection for the unglazed plaques, portraying scenes of the Jatakas, which decorated the base. Both series of Jataka plaques were originally complete, but many are now missing and some are broken into fragments1. Type II has a bell-shaped Stupa, enclosed in a circle at midheight by shallow moulding. Its top changed gradually into the broad cone, ringed with mouldings, that represents the parasol. The bellshaped stupa was quite unknown in India. Perhaps it was derived from Old Pyu cylindrical type, which had a flange and terraces at the bottom and massive cone on the top. The Myanmarese prided themselves on being the successors of the Pyu and King Kyanzittha and in spite of his partiality for the Mon, claims in an inscription to be the reincarnation of the founder of Srik etra (now Tharekkhettara). For example -Shwezegon Pagoda built by the King Kyanzittha is 1 - Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, University of Yangon s History Department (1986), P

20 considered to be the most national of Myanmar s monuments, a focal point of patriotism. This type of Stupa has three octagonal bases of one or more storeys, furnishing terraces. The Lokananada, built by King Anawratha has two octagonal terraces and three atrophied ones above, all with crenellated parapets. These terraces are wide enough for circumabulation, the rite of honouring the Stupa by moving around it in the direction of the sun. The Stupa on top of the Sikhara (mountain peak) is nearly always of Type II. In the Mon style the transition between Sikhara and Stupa base is masked by four or eight large wedges in the Myanmarese style, the wedges are less conspicuous. Sometimes the whole complex of Stupa and octagonal base is superimposed on a great pyramid with lesser stupas at the comers and the terrace with crenellated parapet at each storey. The Shwezigon pagoda of Bagan has three stories. The Shwesandaw pagoda of Pyay has five and it was made by King Anawratha several temples of Myanmarese style, built in the later half of the 12th century and the 13 th century, have Stupa of type II the national model. For every ten thousand bricks that went into the constmction of the gigantic Sabbannu pagoda, one brick was set aside to keep the count and when the pagoda was finished, these tolly r\ brick were used to erect this temple nearby. Type III also has a bell-shaped Stupa encircled at mid height by mouldings. The moulding at mid-height are bolder than type II but the 1 - Sabbafifiu pagoda takes its name from the Omniscience of the Buddha, Thatbyinnutanyan in Myanmar language, Sabbafinufift in Pali, omniscience is given farther explanation contemporary inscriptions as Knowing thoroughly and seeing widely. It was built by King Alaungsitbu ( ), the Thatbyinnyu is a transitional pagoda between the Early Style and Late Style. Glimpses of Glorious Bagan, pressed in University of Yangon s History Department (1986), P A. B. Griswold, C. Kim, P.H. Poffj Art of the World, Burma, Korea, Tibet, P

21 round and octagonal base provides no usable terraces. There is a harmika with re-entrant angles between the stoup and the parasol. It is made up of separate disks. The Stupa of the Abeyadana and the Patothamya. Abeyadana has a very interesting Stupa. The dome of the Stupa is low and bell-shaped. A bowl-shaped disc then intervenes between the dome and the finial, which has an unusual octagonal shape. A variant of type III, pot -shaped instead of bell-shaped, represents the vase. One of the lesser stupas at the comer of the Seinnyet Nyim takes this form1. Type IV modelled on the medieval Sinhalese dagaba or pagoda has a bell-shaped dome on a circular base, and a box-like relic chamber - the harmika of India Stupa, which interposed between the dome and the finial. The Sapada is an outstanding example of this type. The temples of Bagan are generally square in plan and belong to one of two types: the rather rare hollow square type, which is similar to the square of the Hindu temple, with a single entrance and an image in the back wall or the more usual central pillar type. But the terraces at Old Prome (now Pyay) are generally round and narrow. The steps occur, they are only on one side and lead merely to the platform on which the stupa stand2. At Bagan, the terraces are round without flights of steps, persist, especially at the smaller stupas3. Octagonal pedestal terraces occur Five1 sided terraces also exist. But very soon square terraces became normal. Some 1 -Ibid, P, Baw baw gyi pagoda in Pyay. 3 - Bupaya, at Sapada, Nyaung-U, Nga-kywe-na-daung paya. 192

22 temples at Bagan are built on the hollow square plan, the original Brahmanical plan of the small square cella is respected. The main unit of most of the temple is square in plan, often re-entrants, and projecting bays. Most of the fore-chamber is attached to one face, and sometimes to all four entrances. Compared to Sriksetra pagodas with Bagan terraces greatly increased their spread. The whole shape has changed from cylinder to pyramid. The pyramid usually has three terraces, sometimes five, but over and above them are one or more partly atrophied terraces, octagonal or round. The pyramidal base is characteristically South East Asian, though of course not exclusively so. The Myanmarese has a strong inclination to build Stupas on hilltops. It is in architecture that one sees the strongest evidence of Myanmarese artistic skill and accomplishment. The another part of temple is Sikhara. Sikhara is a sort of building obelisk, square in plan with two or three shallow re-entrants, and two angles. Each face, seen in elevation, is a curvilinear trapezoid broken into numerous horizontal shelves, interrupted by the projection of either one or two similar but progressively narrower trapezoids and finally a smooth lancet in the centre. The Sikhara was introduced in Myanmar in the 8 century, if not before, for example, at Sriksetra and Thaton that have survived. The general concept of the Sikhara at Bagan, particularly its mode of construction unquestionably derives from Bengal or Orissa. 1 - Myinkaba stupa, Loka-nan-da, Nagayon, Paw-daw-mu. In some late period Sula Pagoda at Rangoon (now Yangon), the octagon has even invaded the bell. 2 - Shelves of the Mon style are crisply delineated and the lancet has several arched openings. Later on, in the Myanmrese style, the shelves increase in number and tend to grow vague, while the lancet is liable to have its opening reduced to a mere sketch in stucco or to lose them together. A.B. Griswold, C. Kim, P. H. Poff, Art of the World, Burma, Korea, Tibet, P

23 According to inscription, King Kyanzittha sent a mission to Bihar to repair the Mahabodhi temple and some of his Sikharas look veiy much like those depicted on Indian s bas-relief and votive tablets of the Pala period. But the corridor must have from Mon or Pyu, whether they evolved it themselves from temporary structure of derived it from Guptas temples. King Anawratha follows perhaps the Sriksetra and had transferred the Relics from top to the bottom of his stupas, put them under their centres or comers. He omits the harmika from the first and spread the base of the Chattaravali directly on the top of the bell. King Kyanzittha did the same. In origin the two Hpet-leik pagodas are doubtless older then King Anawratha. Both retain the harmika. At Amaravati and later at Ajanta and Elora, niches for standing or stetted Buddha invaded the dom. Anawratha and Kyanzittha did the same at Bagan Hpet-leik, but on all four point of the compass. The tops of the niches are usually enriched with elaborate Sikhara facings. Their niches restrain the tendency to flare the base of the bell. To hinder the breaking of the Dom, the horizontal band binding it is given prominence by decoration. At last, this new-old type of enriching stupas, spread also to the temples1. The oldest extant monument at Bagan is doubtless the city wall. The area is small, less then a square mile, excluding not only the pagodas of Nyaung-U2, Wet-Kyi-in3, Myin-ka-ba4, Min-nan-thu5, 1 - Gorden H. Luce, Old Burma - Early Pagan, P Nyaung U, about 5km northeast of Old Bagan, is the major population centre in the Bagan area. 3 -Wetkyi-in is a small village, roughly 2km stretch between Werkyi-in and Nyaung U. 4 - Myin-ka-ba is only a kilometer or two south of Bagan, Myin-ka-ba has a number of interesting pahto and stupas from the early Bagan period, including Gugyaukyi paya, which contains the oldest mural paintings in all of Bagan. 5 - More or less directly south of Nyaung U, Min-nan-thu s monuments are of a later period than those in the central Bagan area. 194

24 Pwazaw etc., but also many of Bagan itself. The date of this wall is about 850 AD, the year of the foundation of Bagan. It is still visible, together with the moat, on three sides of the ancient city, the fourth side has disappeared owing to the encroachment of the river, - a few traces of the wall are seen here and there. The art of making votive tablets came to Myanmar in the 7th century from early Pala Bengal. The shapes of votive tablets of early Bagan are usually squared at the base and arch to a point at the top. Sometimes they are oval or fig leaf in shape. But the stamped oval or fig-leaf may also fit into deep squared rim below, arching above, where image to stand upright in its own small shrine. Stone inscriptions of the Bagan kingdom began with King Kyanzittha s first Mon inscription at Prome (now Pyay), on June 1093 AD. But terracotta votive tablets, which with vaulted chapels form a bridge between the cultures of Sriksetra and Bagan, are often inscribed, and are indeed among Myanmar s oldest epigraphic monuments. There are many writing clay tablets found which distinguish them from the stone inscription naturally the writing related to Buddhist creed. The language was Sanskrit but tended to get mixed with Pali and the script Nagari. Several types of Nagari script were employed. The simplest and most widespread Pali tablets are also found at Bagan, Taung-dwin-gyi, Aung lan, and Hpo-win-taung. They are engraved on the back namo Buddhaya - an effective way of introducing villagers to an Indian script to Pali and to Buddhism. The high civil official also used Pali. The high civil official also used Pali at the time. The users of Pali were mostly the monks, theras, Bhikkhus, and acariya. Of these who accompanied Rajakumara in 195

25 AD to his father s1 deathbed the teacher Moggaliputta erected several images of the Buddha with the monk Silapa. The moke Sumedha may be Rajakumara s Sumedha teacher like King Naga in the Milindapahna, takes keen delight in learning. Making with his own hands the thousand Buddha, he prays to win deliverance and become a Buddha. The thera Ananda has left two tablets, one of the 40 Buddhas and the other of the 8 Scenes. There were found in North-East of Upali Sima2 together with bronze cetiya lotus and an andagu slab of the eight scenes - a notable contribution to Bagan religious art. In November 1926, Mr. Duroiselle discovered a hard of terracotta votive tablets nearly a thousand in number. Among them Moggaliputta and Sumedha, whom he took to be two of the monks mentioned in Rajakumara s inscription, signed some tablets. Tablets mainly are small, thin, and rimless, with a faint line of Mon stamped at the squared base of the conventional obverse and a great variety of Myanmarese words incised on the reverses. They mostly record the names of fruits, flowers, woods etc. accompanying the offerings3. j,l From the 8 century onwards the Buddhist art of the Pala dynasty of Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa, must have had a powerful influence on Myanmar. According to Coomarswamy, stylistically the art of the Pala School is high technical accomplishment, elegant and even modish in design. 1 - Rajakumar s father is King Kyanzittha who ruled over Bagan dynasty from 1084 to With the Religion flourishing, there were also many ordination halls, called them in Myanmar language, from the Pali Sima. Name after Upali, a well-known monk, this ordination hall was built in the mid-13th century and stands across the road from the Htilominlo Pahto. The rectangular building has roof battlements imitative of Myanmrese wooden architecture, and a small central spire rising from the rooftop. Most buildings of this type were made of wood and have long since disappeared. Inside, there are some brightly painted frescoes on the walls and ceilings from the late 17th or 18th century. 3 - Offering to religion would be rare, rather than ordinary commodities. Several names in the above list imply contact with the remote part of Myanmar. Some of them have reached Myanmar via India. Gorden H. Luce, Old Burma Early Pagan, P

26 We found the some famous designs like Mudra1 and other symbols of Buddhist architecture in Myanmar. Images of Buddha in Myanmar are remarkably similar in overall shape and form. This because certain iconographical parameters that specify the hand and body positions the Buddha may assume, as well as the physical characteristics that the sculptor is traditionally bind sculptors required to depict. The way the monastic robes drape over the body, the direction in which the hair curls the proportions for each body part - all are to some degree canonised. The tradition does leave room for innovation, however, allowing the various school of Buddhist art to distinguish themselves over the centuries. here: - Some of Myanmrese Buddhist distinguishes art are described (1) Abhayamudra - meaning that a terrified person is now safe in the presence of the Buddha. In this posture, one or both hands extend forward, with palms out and fingers pointing upward, to symbolise the Buddha s offer of protection or freedom from fear to his followers2. 3 (2) Anjallmudra - adoration, salutation, (3) Bhumi parsmudra - in this classic sitting posture the right -j hand touches die ground while the left rests in the lap. (4) Dhammacakkamudra - (turning the wheel of Dhamma, or exposition), When the thumb and forefinger of one hand or 1 - Mudra means the attitude of Hand of Buddha. 2 - Abhayamudra is most commonly seen in conjunction with standing or walking Buddha, and occasionally with sitting images. 3 - This hand position symbolises the point in the Buddha s life when he sat in meditation beneath the Banyan tree in Buddha Gaya, India. The Bhfparsa mudfi is one of the most common mudras seen in Buddhist sculpture, it s also known as the maravijaya mudra (victory over Mara). 197

27 both hands form a circle with the other fingers curving outward, the mudra evokes the first public discourse on the Buddhist doctrine. A sitting posture is most common with this mudra though it s occasionally seen in standing images. (5) Dhyanamudra or Samadhimudra - Meditation, both hands rest palms-up on the Buddha s lap, with the right hand on top. * (6) Mahakarupikamudra - Compassion with left hand pressed against the right breast. (7) Namaskaramudra - prayer attitude with both hands joined. (8) Dhyanasana - meditative pose with both legs closely locked and there soles visible. (9) Paryahkasana - sitting cross legged with the left leg above the right, it signifies serenity. Remarkably little research has been carried out on Myanmarese religious sculpture other than that from the Bagan and Mandalay eras. A rich Buddhist sculptural tradition in wood, bronze, stone and marble existed among the Shan, Mon and Rakhaing people. Compared with the inhabitants of neighbouring countries, the Myanmarese has had a difficult time preserving historical, non-architectural art. The Buddhist iconography would not have been made prior to the Indian invasion of Alexander the Great in AD BC. When the ideological prohibition to make a human representation of an incomparable person was finally overcome, Gandhara and Mathura started making the images and no image was older then AD 36. The type and style of the images vary with time and place. Nevertheless, all Pyu and Mon as 198

28 well as early Myanmar images show actually traces of Indian influence1. 2 Regarding mudras of Myanmar, some evidence are that the earliest type of terracotta votive tablets from Srik etra is the specimen of the Eight Scenes seen at east Shwegu pagoda and at Lemyet-hna temple. The first fragments at Srik etra showing only half. Two other fragments were later found at Bagan s Shwezegon pagoda. In ' AD, two temples, where other Pyu relics are also found thus completing the picture. The rim tablets was over five in high and four and half in broad at the base. The Pyu have added a ninth scene - the one is an extra earth touching Buddha with alms bowl, offering of Milk Rice with Sujata on the right approaching the Buddha, her hands in Namaskara mudra. At Bagan, the Eight Scenes showed 12 or 15ft in height, on the South wall of Lokahteikpan. That may be condensed on to terracotta plaques barely 3 inches high. The finest are curved on dolomite stone tablets. These tablets are discovered not only in Bagan, but also at Mandalay, Yamethin and debayin in Shwebo district. According to Duroiselle,, there is no doubt of such slabs being imported into Myanmar from India but from which part India cannot yet be stated definitely. Dr. Vogel states these Bagan sculptures may be assigned to the ancient Magadha country i.e. Southern Bihar in about the 11th - 13 th century AD1. At Sriksetra, Sin-daing pagoda they unearthed a small headless figure of the Buddha curved in light porous stone, the Myanmarese 1 - Dr. Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture, P.XI. 2 - Shwegu pagoda exists in Monywa District, about 20km east of town. Dating to the 14th century, the main pagoda of Shweguni rises to 33m and is famous for its wish-fulfilling power. The main antechamber to the shrine hall contains exemplary Jataka paintings and is well decorated with mosaics. 199