FROM FAITH TO COMPASSION?

Transcription

1 7 FROM FAITH TO COMPASSION? Reiproal Inflenes of Spiritality, Religios Commitment, and Prosoial Development Dring College jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman The development of aring, altristi, and responsible itizens is a salient soial onern, and one that ontines to animate varios lines of researh in the soial sienes. Given that most religions promote ompassion or aring, religios and spirital inflenes are never far from the disssion. Yet as Kohn (199) points ot, the relation between religios orientation and prosoial engagements is omplex. Religios faith may prompt are and work for jstie, yet differenes aross religions-heightened in part by the events of September 11th in the United States-ontine to yield pbli onflits from the loal to the international. Fostering skills and abilities to negotiate sh tensions is an important hallenge for instittions of higher edation, b?th selar and faith-based. The traditional ollege years are an espeially relevant time for exploring the meaning of faith ommitments (Parks, 1986) and for the development of moral reasoning (King & Mayhew, 24) and ivi and soial responsibility (Brandenberger, 25). Althogh yoth may beome-by some indiators-less religios dring their ndergradate years (Regners & Ueker, 27}, stdents express signifiant spirital interest (Lindholm, 27}, and reent researh indiates that ollege may best be desribed as a period of re-examination (Pasarella & Terenzini, 25) or a means to prevent religios deline (Ueker, Regners, & Vaaler, 27). Conrrently, most olleges and niversities over the last few deades have alled for renewed emphasis on servie and ivi responsibility among ollege stdents (see Sllivan, 2). A grondswell of initiatives-inorporating servie-learning, ommnity engagement, and ivi ation-hav<: reognized, at least impliitly, that stdents atively seek meaning and prpose dring the ollege years. Yet theoretial gronding for sh initiatives is limited (Brandenberger, 1998), and we know little abot lzozv stdents' sense of meaning and spirital prpose develops over the ollege years.

2 122 Jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman From Faith to Compassion? 123 The Spiritality in Higher dation stdy failitated by the Higher dation Researh Institte (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 211a) provides an nparalleled opportnity to examine the inflene of religion and spiritality on prosoial development in higher edation. Do religios ommitment and spirital identifiation dring ollege predit inreased prosoial orientation or behavior? Reiproally, does prosoial involvement prompt religios or spirital growth? We address sh qestions in the rrent stdy, tilizing data from 136 olleges and niversities. literatre Review Prosoial Development Theorists and researhers define prosoial to inlde ognitive and/or behavioral elements in whih individals fos on or volntarily ommit to ations that benefit others (isenberg, Cmberland, Gthrie, Mrphy, & Shepard, 25). Researh on prosoial development has fosed on both personality fators and ontextal inflenes. In a thorogh review, Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, and Shroeder (25) emphasized that prosoial development may best be stdied throgh mltilevel analyses ranging from the miro (e.g., brain fntioning) to the maro level (examination of grop behavior sh as ooperation or volnteering). Berman (1997) presented a developmental view of a related onstrt, soial responsibility, bilt on an array of ognitive and soial elements, inlding a sense of are, jstie, effiay, and integrity (for a frther disssion of responsibility, se Damon & Bronk, 27). Nany isenberg and assoiates demonstrated age-related hanges in prosoial reasoning: as individals matre, they are able to move beyond hedonisti motivations to onsiderations of reiproity (isenberg, Carlo, Mrphy, & Van Cort, 1995) and develop perspetive-taking abilities that ndergird prosoial responding (isenbrget a/., 25). isnberget a/. (25) also smmarized researh that indiates while some age-related hanges exist, individals demonstrate relative ontinity aross the lifespan in their propensity toward prosoial reasoning. Researh on prosoial development dring ollege is limited, bt there are indiations that higher edation has the potential to foster meaningfl attention to prosoial onerns. For example, researh at the Higher dation Researh Institte (HRI) by Astin (1993) showed a signifiant rise in stdents' sores on a measre of soial ativism over for years, whih was the largest gain among six personality types identified at the sta.rt of ollege. In addition, researh on moral development (King & Mayhew, 22; Pasarella & Terenzini, 25) demonstrated a signifiant relationship between partiipation in higher edation on moral reasoning (as indiated by the Defining Isses Test or similar measres). In fat, prosoial prpose orientations dring the ollege years predit both prosoial prpose and psyhologial well-being in yong adlthood (Bowman, Brandenberger, Lapsley, Hill, & Qaranto, 21; Hill, Brrow, Brandenberger, Lapsley, & Qaranto, 21). Religios Commitment and Prosoial Behavior The relation between religion and prosoial orientation is a longstanding qestion, and one that has prompted varios stdies in the soial sienes and beyond (for example, see Batson, 1983, for a review from the perspetive of soiobiology). In an extensive stdy of altrism ondted by Oliner and Oliner (1988}, 15 perent of those who resed Jews dring the Holoast ited religion, God, or Christianity as one of the reasons they deided to risk involvement. Interestingly, a larger portion (26 perent) of those who were resed projeted that religion was among the reasons prompting the ations of the resers. Indeed, most assme that religion is a entral fore in prompting moral ation, so mh so that Hnter (2) arged that delining religios partiipation aross Western ltres portends the "death of harater," bease ha.rater is fndamentally bilt on the "reeds, the onvitions, the 'god-terms'... sared to s and inviolable within s" (p. xiii). In a review of the literatre, Saroglo, Pihon, Thomptte, Vrsheren, and Dernelle (25) sggested that "the theoretial evidene in favor of a possibleprobably limited-effet of religion on prosoiality is... strong and systemati" (p. 324). The ad1rs noted that the effet of religion is more robst in relation to lose "targets" (persons known to the individal) than for otgrop members or niversal prosoial themes (e.g., onern for all hmanity}. In a related stdy (Pihon & Saroglo, 29}, ativation of religios assoiations among partiipants prompted more freqent helping responses (for lose targets) than selar priming, and partiipants' jst-world beliefs played a mediating role in their prosoial responding. Frther, a meta-analysis by Saroglo, Dlpirre, and Dmell (24) fond that the degree of individals' religios orientation and ommitment (among Christians, Mslims, and Jews) predited the saliene of key vales, sh as a higher valing of serity and benevolene and a lower valing of niversalism. Sh stdies all for frther researh to examine the impat ofvarios types of religiosity (e.g., intrinsi vs. extrinsi) and the diretion of inflene between religios omminnent and prosoial orientation. Religios interest among ollege stdents varies signifiantly by instittion, bt the majority demonstrates some religios interest and behavior (Astin eta/., 211a). Higher edation is a primary ontext for thosands of yoth to enonter the reeds and insights of the world and to fae the hallenge of examining personal onvitions in light of those they enonter. For those of traditional ollege age, sh enonters ar espeially salient bease stdents' ognitive abilities ar sffiiently (thogh not flly) matred, prompting for many an ative (and often ritial) exploration (Parks, 2). Detailed overviews of the religios attitdes of Amerian adolesents and emerging adlts are provided in Smith (29) and Smith, Faris, Lndqist Denton, and Rgners (23).

3 124 jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman From Faith to Compassion? 125 Spiritality Spiritality is often defined more broadly than religiosity, with a fos on seeking the sared or ltimate trth withot the instittional bondaries of organized religion (Newberg & Newberg, 28). While some may oneptalize spiritality first as private and individal, it often entails a qality of onnetedness (Love & Talbot, 1999). Faith is a similar onept that an develop in a religios ontext or beyond. Parks (1986) arged "that the seeking and defending of meaning pervades all of hman life" (p. 14); that is, all individals mst develop a sense of oherent nderstanding of the world and their plae in it. It is this ative sense of meaning making-whih an be assoiated with spiritality- that Parks labeled jaitl1 (whih she desribed as a verb). For some individals, faith flows from religios fondations; for others, it is bilt on more selar, personal worldviews. In a similar vein, Fowler (1995) otlined stages of general faith development, proeeding from egoentri assmptions throgh more niversal onsiderations. Newberg and Newberg (28) presented nerobiologial evidene for a "developmental spiritality," noting orrespondenes between spirital experienes and brain developments ommon at varios ages within Fowler's framework. Spiritality may also prompt prosoial responding. lndeed, the Dalai Lama laims that ompassion and servie are neessary omponents of any definition of spiritality (Dalai XIV; 1999). While there is limited researh in this arenamost stdies fos on the link between religion and prosoial responding-a stdy by Saroglo et a/. (25) fond links between spiritality and helping, empathy, and altrism. The athors also noted that those identifying as spirital were more likely to extend their prosoial attention to otgrop or niversal targets than those ategorized as religios. Sh differenes may be mediated by individals' belief strtres and oneptions of jstie (Pihon & Saroglo, 29), and warrant frther exploration. The Role of Higher dation Religion has a long-standing role in higher edation (Kh & Gonyea, 26; Stamm, 26). Harvard and similar olleges were for religios training and formation. Over deades, many sh instittions beame modem selar niversities that find enonters with religios isses more problemati than essential. Still, there are hndreds of faith-based olleges in the United States, and inreases in enrollment on sh ampses have otpaed enrollment in selar instittions sine 199 (Galarza, 26). Moreover, stdents arrive on amps with signifiant religios and spirital interest: In srveys by the Higher dation Researh Institte (24), 79 perent indiate they believe in God, 69 perent note that "religios beliefs provide strength, spport and gidane," and 47 perent say that it is "very important" or "essential" to "seek ot opportnities to help me grow spiritally." While attention to the spirital and religios life of stdents has reeived limited or onflited attention over the last few deades, olleges and niversities have inreasingly fosed on promoting servie-learning and ivi engagement {Spek & Hoppe, 24). Some have sggested that servie-learning and related pedagogis may be important means to prompt moral and religios refletion, even or espeially at pbli niversities, for sh pedagogis may avoid the hallenges assoiated with entangling the religios and the selar (Dalton, 26). Reently, higher edation has shown renewed interest in holisti edation (Kronman, 27; Lewis, 26) and spiritality on amps (Chikering, Dalton, & Stamm, 26; Lindholm, 27; Spek & Hoppe, 27). Researh on the impats of higher edation on prosoial development, as mediated by religion and spiritality, is an importal'lt next step. Refletion on Researh In Context Or work as researhers does not take root in netral ontexts. The athors are part of a larger enterprise of major niversities---one faith-based and one pbli-that are abot prosoial development among their stdents, yet need to negotiate the bondaries of pbli good and private freedom that ome into play in edational ontexts. We sense that onern for others gets stirred p by athenti spirital and religios enonter, yet annot be implemented homogeneosly or throgh involntary programs. Reiproally, we have witnessed that engagement in prosoial efforts an sometimes prompt spirital and religios interest where little previosly existed. Ths, we have developed researh qestions that revolve arond the potential reiproal relationships between spiritality, religios ommitment, and prosoial behavior. When we trned to the researh literatre to address sh qestions, we fond little that examines the role of higher edation diretly. We are exited to address this gap, bt we realize 'that we need to do so with breadth and depth, going beyond the reah of or own instittions. We are also aware that or researh framing and onlsions will be inflened by or own personal jorneys and instittional ontexts. We hope to draw on the best of soial siene researh methods while seeing orselves and respetive onlsions in the ontext of higher edation as a diverse and omplex enterprise. Researh Qestions This stdy examines prosoial development in relation to spirital identifiation and. religios ommitment dring the ollege years. Or primary fos is on prosoial development as an otome or dependent variable, bt we are also interested in the potential impat ofprosoial orientation on religios and spirital otomes. While sh topis have reeived reent attention in higher edation pratie, very little researh has systematially examined sh onstrts or the relationship

4 126 Jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman From Faith to Compassion? 127 Freshman year Paths of theoretlallntorest are In solid lines. Jnior year FIGUR 7.1 Coneptal model of relationship between religiosity, spiritality, and prosoial attitdes/behaviors between them in the ontext of ollege. Prosoial orientation, spiritality, and religion are broad onstrts that warrant arefl definition of terms and measrement, bt they are not "ineffable" (Chikering & Mentkowski, 26). The present researh improves on existing stdies by sing well-domented, mlti-item sales. and nationwide data throgh the UCLA Spiritality in Higher dation projet. Figre 7.1 presents a oneptal model that ndergirds or stdy. The diret paths signify potential asal inflenes, whereas the rved lines with bidiretional arrows represent onstrts that are likely orrelated. Importantly, mltiple indiators of prosoial development were sed to onvey relevant behaviors, vales, and self-pereptions. Three primary researh qestions were addressed: 1) To what extent are spiritality and religiosity assoiated with hanges in prosoial 2) To what extent are prosoial behaviors, vales, and self-pereptions assoiated with hanges in spirital and religios development? 3) To what extent is religiosity assoiated with hanges in spirital development, and vie versa? Method Data Sore and Measres This stdy analyzed longitdinal data olleted by HRI from over 14, stdents dring stdents' first and jnior years of ollege. For dependent variables, we sed the existing HRI onstrts of spirital idetrtifration, religios ommitmetrt, religios strggle, etlli of aring, l1aritable involvement, and ompassionate self-onept. Of the three prosoial indiators, ethi of aring is attitdinal, haritable involvement is behavioral, and ompassionate self-onept is based on self-pereptions. Detailed information abot the items and sales sed here is provided in Chapter 2 of this book and in Astin, Astin, and Lindholm (211b). Stdents' levels of spirital identifiation, religios ommitment, religios strggle, ethi of aring, haritable involvement, and ompassionate self-onept pon entering ollege were inlded as independent variables. Other preollege variables inlded gender ( = male, 1 = female), age (1 = 16 or yonger, to 1 = 55 or older), and parental edation (mean of mother's and father's edation; 1 = grammar shool or less, to 8 = gradate degree). Several dihotomos variables indiated rae/ethniity: Mrian Amerian/Blak; Amerian Indian/Alaska Native; Asian Amerian/Asian and Native Hawaiian/Paifi Islander (a ombination of two ategories from the CIRP srvey); Mexian Amerian/Chiano, Perto Rian, and Other Latino (a ombination of three CIRP ategories); and Other. White/Caasian served as the referent grop. Bease high shool grade point average (HSGPA) was strongly skewed, dmmy-oded variables were reated for stdents who re ported a "B" average (B- to B+) and a "C" average or less (C+ or lower); stdents with an "A" average (A- to A+) served as the referent grop. The dependent variables and ontinos independent variables were then standardized with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one for inlsion in the analyses. As a reslt, nstandardized oeffiients for ontinos independent variables an be interpreted as standardized oeffiients (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 23). Analyses Pearson orrelations were sed to examine the relationships between initial levels of spirital identifiation, religios ommitment, and the three types of prosoial orientation. Fisher r-to-z transformations were ondted to examine whether the orrelations between spirital identifiation and prosoial orientation differed signifiantly from the orrelations between religios ommitment and prosoial orientation. Hierarhial linear modeling (HLM) analyses were sed to e;...l>lore whether spiritality and religiosity are assoiated with hanges in prosoial orientation, and vie versa. The nesting of stdents within instittions violates a key assmption of ordinary least sqares mltiple regression; HLM aonts for this isse by partitioning the variane within and between grops and adjsting standard errors aordingly (Radenbsh & Bryk, 22). HLM analyses prediting eah of the six dependent variables were ondted. Continos variables were grand-mean entered, and dihotomos variables were nentered. All analyses inlded gender, age, rae/ethniity, parental edation, HSGPA, and the pretest for the otome variable as independent variables at the individal level (i.e., at level 1). Spirital identifiation and religios ommitment at time 1 were highly orrelated (r =.79), so models prediting the prosoial otomes were performed separately sing (1) spirital identifiation as an independent variable, (2) the religiosity variables as independent variables (religios ommitment and religios strggle), and (3) all three measres as independent variables. (Note that the orrelations between

5 128 Jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman religios strggle and the other two variables were low: r =.2 with spirital identifiation, and r =.6 with religios ommitment.) HLM models prediting eah form of religios and spirital development were also examined. Bease the three prosoial variables were moderately to strongly orrelated with one another (r =.24 to.47), a separate model was analyzed for eah prosoial measre prediting eah spiritality/religiosity variable. Previos researh has indiated that the effets of some religios variables prediting spiritality, religiosity, and wellbeing otomes differ between selar and religiosly affiliated instittions (Bowman & Small, 21, in press; Small & Bowman, 211). Therefore, preliminary HLM analyses explored whether the slopes of the religiosity, spiritality, and prosoial orientation variables in this stdy might also vary by instittional type. However, these analyses revealed very few differenes between religiosly affiliated and selar ampses, so only the fixedslope analyses are reported. Intralass orrelation oeffiients were allated to indiate the proportion of variane in the dependent variables that orred aross instittions; these were 15 perent for religios ommitment, 13 perent for spirital identifiation, 11 perent for haritable involvement, 5 perent for ethi of aring, 4 perent for religios strggle, and 1 perent for ompassionate self-onept. Althogh the vales for the latter two variables were somewhat low for the se of HLM (Hek & Thomas, 29), signifiant instittional-level differenes exist for all otomes (ps <.1), and the strtres of the data sed violate the assmptions of mltiple regression analyses. Moreover, the se of HLM for all models allows the reslts of varios analyses to be ompared with one another. Limitations Some limitations to this stdy shold be noted. First, all of the measres are based on stdents' self-reports of their own attribtes and behaviors. Althogh the se of stdent self-reports is very ommon in higher edation researh (Gonyea, 25), the se of peer ratings or observations of behavioral otomes wold frther bolster the validity of these reports. Fortnately, the longitdinal administration of mlti-item sales to measre hanges in eah religiosity, spiritality, and prosoial onstrt onstittes a sbstantial improvement over many sh stdies (for relevant reviews, see Hill & Pargament, 23; Koenig, MCllogh, & Larson, 21; Mayrl & Oer, 29). Seond, as noted earlier, the measres of religios ommitment and spirital identifiation are highly orrelated with one another; as a reslt, it an be diffilt to tease apart the niqe effets of religiosity and spiritality. In an effort to alleviate this problem, analyses were ondted separately with spirital identifiation, religiosity variables, and both spiritality and religiosity variables as preditors_of prosoial development. Tbird, the-sample size-was qite large, whih inreases the likelihood of Type I error and/or identifying signifiant effets From Faith to Compassion? 129 that are atally qite minor in pratie. To minimize these potential problems, a onservative signifiane level (p <.1) was sed for all analyses. Reslts and Disssion Upon entering ollege, both spirital identifiation and religios ommitment are positively orrelated with all three prosoial orientation measres, r =.25 to.42 (see Table 7.1 ). This finding is onsistent with previos researh that indiates a positive assoiation between religiosity, spiritality, and prosoial orientation et a/., 25). Frthermore, Fisher r-to-z transformations indiate that, for eah of the prosoial measres, the orrelation with spirital identifiation is' signifiantly higher than with religios ommitment. That is, spirital identifiation is more strongly related to prosoial orientation than is religios ommitment. Of orse, this orrelational analysis annot determine whether spiritality ontribtes to prosoial orientation, or vie versa. To identify possible diretion(s) of inflene, HLM analyses explored whether entering levels of spirirality and religiosity are assoiated with hanges in prosoial orientation dring the first three years of ollege. As noted earlier,_ bease religios ommitment and spirital identifiation are highly orrelated, three separate HLM models prediting gains in eah prosoial orientation measre were ondted. In Model 1, spirital identifiation is positively assoiated with gains on all three prosoial otomes (see Table 7.2). Model 2 examined only religios strggle and religios ommitment as key preditors; this model sggested that religios ommitment is assoiated with gains in haritable involvement and ompassionate self-onept, bt not ethi of aring. Religios strggle is not assoiated with hanges on any of the prosoial otomes. Model3, whih inlded all spirital and religios variables, showed that identifiation is assoiated with gains in ethi of aring and ompassionate self-onept, whereas religios ommitment and religios strggle are not signifiantly related to growth on any prosoial indiator. Bease. the effets of religios ommitment on prosoial otomes disappear when ontrolling for spirital identifiation, stdents' spiritality seems to TABL 7.1 Correlations among stdents' entering (start of ollege) levels of spirital identifiation, religios ommitment, and prosoial orientation Prosoialmeasre Spirital Religios Z-vale of identifiation ommitment differene thi of aring.415**.275** 12.83** Charitable involvement.331**.272** 5.15** *p <.OI;**p <.1.287**.249** 3.29*

6 From Faith to Compassion? Q. "U ;; g "' e Q. t>ll o =-6 Q. "' -;;.. t>ll ii "8...!1..,... i e,j :: I"'' l!.s i :: d ::... i 5 "'' -.; i.!;.!1 lli - 2 i "''I... - I l/"1 r i t 11 i :.:... Q Ul ::.9 a I 8 -g N.. "U 3., ::> rol "' ID ::....:- :is -a... -r 1l... Ul, a... r--... '" F=:',... (!;!... q 8. to;- <'"1-,...,... voo N.,... "'"' C""') q 8.,...,... q 3... P.. 8 <.!. "',... -a... <'"1 ts r ;.. "5 t;:: g...9 :2 :: -;; J--e- 8 LON (V t r-- 6\ :, (...;. "8. t 8. ib!'-;;:;-, <'"1 ::,...,... a " 8el 1l....;.. f...;.. jj 8i (..._;.. <'"16\ <'"1-... N$ g t'...;. a o ;: -5..: ",...,.. - r-- "' ;g ;g ]> ]! 8... "" 1:<)._;...5 g 8 i 1-5 * a..s v lt. - Vlq!I v Q.. z.. the relationship between religiosity and inreased prosoial orientation. That is, one's religion may promote prosoial attitdes and behaviors to the extent that it bolsters one's spiritality. Sh a view is onsistent with the oneptalization of spiritality as internalized beliefs, as opposed to an orientation to the instittional praties and obligations of religion (e.g., Hill & Pargament, 23). For example, a person may believe strongly in God and the importane of attending hrh, bt sh beliefs may only lead to prosoial orientation insofar as they beome internalized or integral to the nderstanding of si( Among many people, organized religion and individal spiritality are strongly linked, so religion is indeed related (thogh perhaps indiretly) to prosoial development. Moreover, the rrent findings are onsistent with previos researh that sggests religion is assoiated with prosoial behavior primarily among one's ingrop (Saroglo eta/., 25). Of the three prosoial measres sed, ethi of aring is the only sale that inldes several items fosed on a broad target grop (e.g., people throghot the world). In ontrast, haritable involvement does not speify to whom the behaviors are direted, and ompassionate self-onept ontains items that are framed as generalized traits. Ths, people who are prosoial mainly toward their ingrop-regardless of how the ingrop is defined- may be likely to report high levels of haritable involvement and ompassionate bt not ethi of aring. These patterns are borne ot in the reslts for religios ommitment verss spirital identifiation. Speifially, Table 7.1 shows that the assoiation with prosoial orientation is stronger for spirital identifiation than for religios ommitment among all three prosoial indiators, and this pattern is mh more prononed for ethi of aring (i.e., the only indiator with a speifi fos on a broad target grop). Frthermore, as evined in Model 2 of the HLM analyses, religios ommitment is not related to gains in ethi of aring, bt it is related to gains on the other two proso_ial indiators (see Table 7.2). It shold be noted that these reslts are preliminary and warrant frther investigation with measres designed speifially to examine in-grop verss more niversal targets. Additional HLM analyses were ondted to examine fators that predit hanges in religiosity and spiritality. To minimize potential mltiollinearity isses, separate models were ondted with only one of the three prosoial measres pon ollege entry as an independent variable. As shown in the three olmns on the left side oftable 7.3, religios ommitment is positively assoiated with gains in spirital identifiation. This pattern provides frther evidene for the assertion that religion ontribtes to prosoial otomes throgh promoting stdents' spirital development. In ontrast, stdents' initial levels of spirital identifiation are signifiantly assoiated with gains on religios ommitment only in Model 2, bt not in the other two models. The lak of a onsistent effet of spirital identifiation on gains in Ieligios ommitment shold not ome as a srprise, bease stdents who are engaged or not engaged in organized religion an both florish spiritally (e.g., Bowman & Small, 21).

7 From Faith to Compassion? 133 :.. "' II! :::1 "" "'... "' a 't::.. II! bll :i:j.. II! "' bll.5 -.; ""8..: "C l;l, Althogh the reslts indiate that initial spiritality and religiosity lead to inreased prosoial orientation, none of the prosoial indiators is signifiantly assoiated with growth in spirital identifiation and religios ommitment (see Table 7.3). As implied by the fairly modest orrelations between prosoial orientation and religion/ spiritality, stdents who engage in prosoial endeavors are not neessarily religios or spirital. At many olleges and niversities, volnteering and servie opportnities are available largely throgh non-religios organizations, so prosoial behavior-not to mention prosoial attitdes, vales, and self-pereptions--an be qite distint from religios ativities and grops. It is interesting to note, however, that in a stdy by yler and Giles (1999), 46 perent of those engaged in servie learning reported "spirital growth" as an important otome, even thogh the servie e},.-perienes and researh measres were framed in selar terms. In the final set of analyses, initial spirital identifiation is positively related to inreases in religios strggle over time in all three models. It is not obvios why this pattern ors; it may be that the same forms of refletion assoiated with spirital identifiation also ase stdents to onsider (and sometimes qestion) their ore religios beliefs, or the existene of spirital identifiation early in ollege may indiate that stdents are primed to explore or reat to religios e},.'temalities (for more abot sh strggles dring ollege, see Bryant & Astin, 28). In ontrast, all three forms of initial prosoial orientation are assoiated with dereases in religios strggle dring ollege. A tentative explanation for this finding follows: if stdents oneptalize prosoial attitdes and behaviors as part of their religios/spirital belief systems, later performane of prosoial ats may be onstred as living ot the tenets of their religion. These stdents may observe their own prosoial (and, in their mind, religios) ations and feel flfilled. Bease people's attitdes and beliefs are often formed by observing their own behaviors (e.g., agly & Chaiken, 1993), these engaged stdents may be less likely to qestion their existing religios views. Alternatively, diret engagement in prosoial ations dring ollege may prompt religios awareness and interest. Refletions and Impliations ;: 1 ::.g.a tl ll: 'tl 3l I ' 8 } II! Or findings are onsistent with other researh indiating that spiritality and religios ommitment predit prosoial orientation, yet in a omplex manner. That spiritality is espeially preditive of several forms of prosoial orientation is not srprising. Spiritality is often assoiated with nity and transendene (Newberg & N ewberg, 28). Peak experienes, as desribed by Maslow, have been linked with spiritality and haraterized by the breaking down of bondaries and prompting of niversal onern (see Knin & Miles-Watson, 26). Sh findings sggest that for many, spiritality is more than a self-fosed As researhers ommitted to the prosoial missions of or niversitie9, we find the otomes desribed above- based on data from nmeros olleges and thosands

8 134 jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman From Faith to Compassion? 135 of stdents-to be welome news. Sh empirial spport provides important gronding for falty and administrative efforts to attend to stdents' spirital and religios views along with related nderstandings of prosoial responsibility. Promising praties toward this end (see Chikering et al., 26; Colby, hrlih, Beamont, & Stephens, 23; Lindholm, Millora, Shwartz, & Spinosa, 211) shold be enhaned throgh developmentally gronded researh (Brandenberger, 1998, 25). Given that spiritality, not jst religion, is assoiated with prosoial onern, falty and staff at selar olleges and niversities an introde relevant opportnities for disssion and learning with less fear of indotrination. Or findings raise frther researh qestions. How do stdents nderstand spiritality? The onept is flid and an be highly personal and signifiantly inflened by ltre (Katz, 1978; Newberg & Newberg, 28). Ths, measres of spiritality need to be well-defined and onsistent aross stdies. In the rrent stdy, for example, the term "spirital" was sed in the majority of the items that omprised the spirital identifiation variable, yet stdents may not nderstand the term niformly. A seond potential researh qestion involves how spirital onerns may integrate with (or mediate) religios orientation to foster internalized views of soial responsibility. A related qestion is developmental: dring the ollege years, how are stdents predisposed ognitively and behaviorally to qestions of faith and religion? Do.the freedoms of ollege life and pressre to define oneself independently affet the relationships among variables sh as spiritality, religiosity, and prosoial orientation? Frther, the rrent researh sggests the importane of frther exploration of spirital and religios orientation toward within grop or niversal targets. Given the need for global ollaboration highlighted by broad soial and tehnologial hange, the importane of fostering respet and onern for those beyond one's lose relations is salient within and beyond higher edation. Finally, given the shift in higher edation toward qestions of engagement and prpose, it is essential to examine what elements of the ollege experiene- from ndergradate major to ommnity engagement to the intelletal milie of the ollege-may shape spiritality, religiosity, and prosoial otomes. To examine sh qestions, stdies following ohorts into the adlt years wold present a more omplete and naned pitre of development (see Dillon, Wink, & Fay, 23; Wmk, Ciiolla, Dillon, & 'llay, 27). Or reent researh sggests that prosoial prpose dring ollege may be an espeially salient preditor of engagement and well-being in yong adlthood (Bowman eta/., 21; Hill eta/., 21). Sh otomes may frther enhane adlts' developmental trajetories, providing ongoing opportnities for spirital and prosoial growth. Referenes-- Astin, A. W. (1993). Wlrat matters in ollege: For ritial years revisited. San Franiso: Jossey-Bass. Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm,). A. (21-la). Cltivating the spirit: How ollege an enhane stdents' inner lives. San Franiso: Jossey-Bass. Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm, J. A. (211b). Assessing stdents' spirital and religios qalities. jornal ofcolltge Stdent Development, 52, Batson, C. D. (1983). Soiobiology and the role of religion in promoting prosoial behavior. mal of Personality and Soda/ Psyhology, 45, Berman, S. ( 1997). soial otisciomess and tile development of soial responsibility. Albany: State University of New York Press. Bowman, N. A., & Small, J. L. (21). Do ollege stdents who identify with a privileged religion experiene greater spirital development? xploring individal and instittional dynamis. Researh in Higher 51, Bowman, N. A., & Small,). L. (in press). xploring a hidden form of minority stats: College stdents' religios affiliation and well-being.jornal of College St11dent Development. Bowman, N. A., Brandenberger, ). W., Lapsley, D. K., Hill, P. L., & Qaranto,J. C. (21). Serving in ollege, florishing in adlthood: Does ommnity engagement dring the ollege years predit adlt well-being? Applied Psyllology: Healtlr and Hlell-Being, 2, Brandenberger, J. W. (1998). Developmental psyhology and servie learning: A theoretial framework. In R. G. Bringle,& D. K. Dffy (ds.), Witllservie in mind: Conepts and models for servie-leamitjg (pp ). Washington, D C: Amerian Assoiation for Higher dation. Brandenberger, J. W. (25). College, harater, and soial responsibility: Moral learning throgh experiene. In D. Lapsley & F. C. Power (ds), Charater psyhology and harater edation (pp ). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Bryant, A. N., & Astin, H. S. (28). The orrelates of spirital strggle dring the ollege years.jomal of Higher dation, 79, Chikering, A. W., & Mentkowski, M. (26) Assessing ineffable otomes. In A. W. Chikering, J. C. Dalton, & L. Stamm (ds.), noraging atlrentiity and spiriwality in higl1 ed11atiot1 (pp ). San Franiso: Jossy-Bass. Chikering, A. W., Dalton, J. C., & Stamm, L. (ds.). (26). noraging athentiity and spiritality in lligl1 San Franiso: Jossey-Bass. Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (23). Applied mltiple regression/ornlation analysis for tije behavioral sienes (3rd edn). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrene rlbam. Colby, A., hrlih, T., Beamont,., & Stephens, J. (23). dating itizens: Preparing Ameria's ndergrad11ates for lives of moral and ivi responsibility. San Franiso: Jossey-Bass. Dalai Lama xrv. ( 1999). this for tl1e new nrillenniwn. N ew York: Pengin Ptnam. Dalton,). (26). Commnity servie and spiritality: Integrating faith, servie, and soial jstie at DePal University.]omal of College and Charater, 8(1), 1-9. Damon, W., & Bronk, K. C. (27). Thking ltimate responsibility. In H. Gardner (d.), Responsibility at work: How leading professionals at (or don't ad) responsibly (pp ). San Franiso: Jossey-Bass. Dillon, M., Wink, P., & Fay, K. (23). Is spiritality detrimental to generativity? oftije Sientifi Stdy of Religion, 42, agly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). Tile psyhology of attitdes. Fort Worth, TX: Harort. isenberg, N., Carlo, G., Mrphy, B., & Van Cort, P. (1995). Prosoial development in late adolesene: A longitdinal stdy. Cllild Development, 66, isenberg; N., Cmberland, A., Gthrie, I. K., Mrphy, B. C., & Shepard, S. A. (25). Age hanges in prosoial responding and moral reasoning in adolesene and early adlthood. jomal ofresearrlr on Adolesene, 15, yler,j., & Giles, D.. (1999). tile learning in smtie-leaming? San Franiso: Jossey-Bass.

9 136 Jay W. Brandenberger and Niholas A. Bowman From Faith to Compassion? 137 Fowler,). (1995). stages ofaith: 17re psyhology of hman development and the q11estfor meaning. New York: HarperCollins (original edition pblished in 1981). Galarza, C. (26). More stdents hoosing faith-based ollege life. Orlando BriSitressjomal, Marh 17. Retrieved November 3, 29, from stories/2613/2/story8.htrnl. Gonyea, R. M. (25). Self-reported data in instittional researh: Review and reommendations. In P. D. Umbah (d.), Srvey researh: mging isses (New Diretions for Instittional Researh, no. 127, pp ). San Franiso: Jessey-Bass. Hek, R. H., & Thomas, S. L. (29). An introdtion to mltilevel modeling tehniq11es (2nd edn). New York: Rotledge. Higher dation Researh Institte. (24). The spirital life of ollege stderrts: A national stdy of ollege stdetrts' searh for meaning and prpose (Fll report). Los Angeles: Athor. Retrieved November 22, 29, from Hill, P. C., & Pargament, K. I. (23). 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10 i [ l SPIRITUALITY IN COLLG STUDNTS' LIVS Translating Researh into Pratie CONTNTS f dited by Alyssa Bryant Rokenbah and Matthew]. Mayhew Foreword Aknowledgme11ts PART I Introdtion and Methodologial Overview Introdtion MATHIW j. MAYHW AND AlYSSA BRYANT ROCKNllACH Methodologial Overview of the UClA Spiritality in Higher dation Projet 9 jnnifr A. LINDHOLM PART II Stdent Charateristis and Grop Differenes 17 3 The xperienes and Growth of Religiosly Privileged and Religiosly Marginalized College Stdents 19 NICHO LAs A. BowMAN AND j NNY L. SMALL l Rotledge Toylo< &. Grop 4 Rae and Pro-Soial Involvement: Toward a More Complex Understanding of Spirital Development in College 35 SAN j. GHRK

11 viii Contents Co.ntents lx Researher Refletion on Part II Risky Bsiness: Stdying and Spporting Collegians' Spirital Development PTR M. M AGOLDA Pratitioner Refletion on Part II Deliberate Camps Praties to Foster Spiritality, Prpose, and Meaning: Reognizing Stdent C harateristis and Grop Differenes KAT HLN M. GOODMAN PART Ill College Contexts 5 C hristian College Persistene in the Postmodern Trn P. j SS R IN 6 How Instittional Contexts and College xperienes Shape menial Worldview Development ALYSSA B RYANT R OCKNBACH AND MATTHW j. MAYHW Researher Refletion on Part Ill Religios Plralism and Higher dation Instittional Contexts: Impliations for Researh P TR C. HI LL, KITH j. DWAHDS, AND j ONATIIAN P. HILL Stdent- Falty Interation and the Development of an thi of C are j AMS j. f LM ING, j NNI P URNLL, AND Y ANG WANG 1 Informing ffetive Psyhospirital Interventions for College Stdents: Identifying Mediators in the Relationship between Spirital Strggles and Sbstane U se CARO L ANN F AJGIN Researher Refletion on Part IV Advanes in Understanding Pro-soial Development in College: Refletions on Spirital Otomes Researh MIC HAL D. W AGGONR Pratitioner Refletion on Part IV Q estions of Spiritality on College Campses: To ngage or N ot To ngage? DONNA M. T ALBOT AND DIAN K. ANDRSON 11 The Stdy of Spiritality: An piloge-ar We T here Yet? If So, Where?. CARNY S TRANG Contribtors l11dex Pratitioner Refletion on Part III Beoming a Religiosly ngaged Global C itizen S ony M LNNAN 113 PART IV Otomes From Faith to Compassion? Reiproal Inflenes of Spiritality, Religios Commitment, and Prosoial Development Dring College j AY W. BRANDNBRGR AND N ICHOLAS A. B OWMAN Development among Adolesents and Yong Adlts: Longitdinal linkages between Spiritality, Religion, and SoiaiJstie 138 D.wm C HNOT AND HANSUNG KlM