REFLECTIONS ON A PARADIGM SHIFT

Transcription

1 REFLECIONS ON A PARADIGM SHIF by PIEER GABRiel VAN ZYL SPIES submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASER OF ARS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (MENAL HEALH) at the UNIVERSIY OF SOUH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: MS H 0 GROBLER NOVEMBER 1999

2 i SUMMARY his study sets out to report on the refletions of a therapist-in-[post-graduate] training on his experienes when endeavouring to shift from [between] a positivisti to [and] a onstrutivisti paradigm. Refletions on some experienes assoiated with the positivisti epistemology that were relinquished were desribed; refletions on experienes assoiated with the onstrutivisti epistemology that were gained were desribed as well as refletions on experienes of both paradigms, that were added. hese refletions were based on researh data aquired during the researher's first year of post-graduate training and exposure to the new' onstrutivisti paradigm. ransriptions from audio-taped sessions with a lient from the researhers private pratie, during this period served as the researh data for this study. A literature study attempting to distinguish between the positivisti and onstrutivisti paradigms is presented. Arising out of this, the impliations of a paradigm shift of this nature, is outlined. KEY ERMS Construtivisim, Positivism, Refletion, Paradigm, Paradigm shift, Epistemology and Epistemologial hange, Stability and hange omplementarity, Seond order ybernetis.

3 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENS I would like to thank the following persons for their unique part in the o-onstrution of this study: Ms Hanka Grobler, my supervisor, for enabling me to allow her to trik me into relinquishing my 'rummy ontrol'. Leone, for walking this road with me; being fearful and brave enough never to stop perturbing; being distant and lose enough never to lose faith. All our hildren and their spouses [three of whom have voyaged this 'master's - road' before their dad] for respeting my unabating uriosity, enabling me never to stop appreiating them. os and Joan, for putting me up by putting up with me. 'essa' [pseudonym for my lient] for allowing me to 'open up' some parts of our opening up to eah other and to ourselves. SOLI DEO GLORIA

4 iii ABLE OF CONENS CHAPER 1 : BACKGROUND, SCOPE, OBJECIVES AND MEHOD OF HE SUDY 1 Introdution Bakground of the researh he purpose of the study he objetives of the study Subjet matter of the study Researh design Researh method Impliations of the study Shortomings of the study erms and onepts Chapter review CHAPER 2 : A CONCEPUAL FRAME WORK FOR HE SUDY 18 Introdution 18 he onepts 'refletion', 'paradigm' and 'paradigm shift', 'epistemology' and 'epistemologial hange' Distintions between the positivisti and onstrutivisti paradigms 19 25

5 CHAPER 3 : WHA WAS HE PAIN... WHA WAS HE GAIN? 39 iv Introdution 39 Experienes whih were relinquished 40 Experienes whih were added to 43 Experienes whih were gained 44 CHAPER 4: WHA WAS FOUND?... REFLECIONS ON HE SUDY 50 Introdution 50 Refletion on the pain of losing experienes 51 Refletion on the gains of new' experienes 54 Conluding remarks 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY 60 ADDENDUM A : Basi information about the lient 65 ADDENDUM B :ransriptions of the sessions with essa 69

6 1 CHAPER 1 BACKGROUND, SCOPE, OBJECIVES AND MEHOD OF HE SUDY "We are, therefore, aught in a state of transition... aught between two 'realities' wandering between two worlds..." Keeney ( 1983: 16) INRODUCION In family therapy, as well as in other linial ontexts, therapists in general and post-graduate therapists-in-training in partiular, have aess to ample examples of literature delineating differenes and similarities between positivisti and onstrutivisti paradigms, as for instane desribed by Neimeyer (1993: ) and others. Information about these paradigms may, espeially during training, failitate trainee-therapists to prepare for and evaluate their knowledge of and identifiation with the speifi paradigms. Possible outomes from suh awareness of different modes of thinking about the world of therapy and the world of the lient with a problem, ould eventually influene trainees' abilities to find an ontologial and epistemologial fit with either or both, and even none of these paradigms.

7 2 Post-graduate training based on the same philosophial onepts as advoated in the preeding under-graduate preparation, implies in itself a substantial aademi hallenge. When post-graduate training, however, is supported by a different paradigm illustrating a hange in the under-graduate way of thinking about, for example, therapy and lients' problems, the possibility that the student may experiene the influene of suh a shift in paradigm as either perturbing or gratifying/informing or even both, is not overstating the issue. Not many desriptions in literature, however, seem to be available from therapists-in-training who do reflet on their experienes while making a shift from a positivisti to a onstrutivisti paradigm. An example of one suh statement by Efran & Fauber (in Neimeyer & Mahoney 1995:275) suggests that suh a speifi shift may even oneal a problemati and onfusing experiene:... a onspiuous number of pratitioners who have 'bumped' into onstrutivist thinking have found the experiene jarring rather than helpful. hey have heard that oneptual treasure is buried somewhere deep in onstrutivist territory, but they are at a loss how to dig it out or how to make pratial use of it. Some pratitioners have onluded, perhaps too hastily, that onstrutivism is just another of those abstrat, aademi exerises - muh ado about very little of pragmati importane. As one therapist put it, 'It shook my onfidene in my old beliefs and methods, without replaing them with anything onrete or workable'.

8 3.. Radial onstrutivism has indeed perturbed many, espeially beause it hallenges the objetivist world view in whih most people have grown up and that grounds their daily living. Other examples of therapists-in-training ative in the field of family therapy, reporting on their paradigm shift experienes will be examined below. It appears from these aounts that only the impliations of the various paradigms are mentioned and/or a speifi aspet of a partiular paradigm is seleted and researhed without referring to the en route' experienes of the therapist taking on this journey. Conradie (1993) for example, researhed the eosystemi hange proess in praxis and juxtaposed the positivisti and eosystemi approahes to therapy as starting point of her study. She showed no need to report on the experienes she might have had in terms of behaviours, pereptions, needs and aompanying emotions while learning to live with the new eosystemi proess she proposes. In the introdution to his edited olletion of papers inquiring into the journeys therapists undertook from being [paradigmatially speaking] linear thinkers to beoming strategi-systemi thinkers, Efron ( 1986:xi) suggests that in the beginning years of developing and pratising the onstrutivist-influened field of the Strategi-Systemi models of therapy, suh a paradigm shift also indiated struggles and harsh onflits with the pratitioners of other therapeuti models, whih only abated when the new' models were no longer onsidered revolutionary.

9 4 Anderson, Goolishian, Pulliam & Winderman (in Efron 1986: ) reported that their paradigm shifting journeys were diffiult and very hallenging seeing that it seemed to fore them to relinquish the use of traditionally aepted psyhologial and soial mehanisms, strutures and proesses as explanatory onepts for their therapeuti work. Consequently it even seemed to ut right into the eonomi and politial areas of their universities and professional organisations. Zagnoev ( 1996) narrated the way her therapeuti self evolved from the dilemma of being aught between the theoretial mixed 'realities', ranging from psyhoanalysis to soial onstrutionism and bak during her training as linial psyhologist. She fittingly titled her researh "owards 'both - and' land: a journey from answers to questions about the therapeuti self'. With this title she implied that her journey took her from the safe and stable 'internal dialogue-islands' towards vast ontinents where she experiened the perturbing and hanging omplementarities of the new world view. Zagnoev andidly expresses her feelings of onfusion and of being disempowered and left voieless, as she wandered through, what at times, appeared to her a no-man's land (Zanoev 1996:28-29,42). It appears to me that the four-year period that Zagnoev spent wandering from a positivist psyho-analytial [under graduate] homeland to Strategi-, Strutural -, Systemi -, Milanese and Construtivisti ontinents, was imperative to her believing and knowing what she 'knew'. his extended period of experiene was

10 5 ruial to her ability, not only to speak Batesonish, Watzlawikish or Selvinish, but to "speak with my own voie". It seems as if this period of meandering enabled her to arrive at the port leading to a never ending spae journey where she ould keep enjoying the liberating omplementarity of the... both - and...' eternity (Zagnoev 1996: ). Nel (1992) researhed psyhotherapy training from a systemi and onstrutivisti point of view. herefore he has had, seen from the perspetive of this study, no atual interest or need to inorporate a ontext providing for irumstanes where the trainee was, for example born and bred within a positivisti epistemology, before moving on to another paradigm. He nevertheless highlighted the seond-order view of training, whih omplements and extends the positivisti training ontext in whih trainers try diretly to. influene people:... it [a seond-order view of training] is the provision of a ontext where a learning ontext an unfold. hus, trainers annot diretly influene trainees, they an only influene the training ontext. hey annot speify hange, they ean only set a ontext for hange. hey an also not exlude themselves from what must hange. And, finally, they annot predit or unilaterally ontrol the behaviour of the training system, they an only provide perturbations, whih may or may not be ritial to the system's organization (Nel 1992:90-91 ). I find Nel's researh signifiant in trying to understand the omplex tutor I student

11 6 relationship whih an be likened to the omplex therapist I lient relationship where the only differene seems to be that in the former, hange taking plae in the student [and the tutor] would imply the hange from one philosophi paradigm to an additional [buuand useful] paradigm, while the latter would imply a hange in the lient [and the therapist] from one symptomati way of living to another [less] symptomati way of living. From the preeding aounts it seems that little has been written about the possibility of experiening the omplementary outome of suh a paradigm shift. herapists-in-training might readily benefit from information like this and therefore a need for researh substantiating the possibility of both disturbing and enhaning experienes following, or during a paradigm hange or expansion, may be indiated. BACKGROUND OF HE RESEARCH At the lose of the first year of the researher's post-graduate study, when a deision was to be made about a researh theme in part fulfilment of the requirements for the tutored MA(SS) MENAL HEALH degree at UNISA, a marked u r i o s i t y was evolving in my mind about the possible hanges taking plae on aount of my wandering between two paradigmati worlds. hese hanges were taking plae, inter alia, in terms of my behaviours, needs, pereptions and emotions during the proess of familiarisation with the onstrutivisti paradigm on both theoretial as well as pratial therapeuti levels.

12 7 he UNISA ourse [Curriulum A: Work with individuals, ouples and families] onsists of, inter alia, advaned level study of person-entred theory, systems theory, onstrutivism and ybernetis as well as the appliation of various models of family therapy in working with ouples and families. In the years before undertaking this UNISA ourse, I have read for the BA, 8 Ed and BA(SW) degrees. he philosophial bases in eah of these instanes represented a positivisti and linear epistemology. Within this paradigmati ontext, I had been taught that all areas pertaining to, for instane, the worlds of therapy and of lients with problems, ould be sientifially researhed and its realities fully and objetively known. I was therefore well versed in thinking, feeling and pereiving as if I was fully omprehending the ultimate reality and absolute truth of the whole proess of doing therapy as well as of the whole world of the lient with problems. In this way my uriosity about the possibility of refleting on both losses and gains during my own experiene of having a new paradigm added to an existing one, failitated the evolving of the eventual title and purpose of this study. HE PURPOSE OF HE SUDY o reflet on my experiene of a paradigm shift.

13 8 HE OBJECIVES OF HE SUDY Choosing the researh theme Refletions on a Paradigm Shift implied suh a wide and extensive goal that speifi steps or objetives were evolved to narrow the sope of this study and thus guide and diret its purposeful ahievement. he first objetive is to reflet on the experiene [at the time of the sessions taking plae in 1996} of losing or giving up ertain behaviours, needs, pereptions and emotions, that were formerly part and parel of my positivisti therapeuti paradigm. he seond objetive is subsequently to reflet on the experiene [at the time the sessions were held in 1996} of not only stopping, but of also of adding different behaviours [ations], needs, pereptions and emotions assoiated with the onstrutivisti paradigm, to my existing therapeuti paradigm. hese refletions are self-referential and are therefore my desriptions shaped by my perspetives and thus serve as only one out of many possible desriptions of a paradigm hange experiene. As suh, this study failitates the reader's understanding of my personal onstrutions of, or refletions on experienes limited to a speifi ontext [an existing positivisti paradigm being exposed to a new onstrutivisti paradigm}, speifi period of time [during the first year of post-graduate training as family therapist at UNISA] and speifi data [as based on and evolving from the

14 9 transriptions of sessions with my lient 'essa' during this period]. As suh this study neither has the objetive of proving or disovering the 'truth' about a paradigm shift, nor of leading the reader to deide on the preferability of one paradigm above the other. It is not my intent as author to, suggest how suh 'truths' ould be applied to the pratial therapeuti benefit of other therapists-intraining or of lients. No attempt will further be made in this researh to reflet on the therapeuti outomes of the sessions with the lient in terms of the paradigm hange. SUBJEC MAER OF HE SUDY he researh data, whih formed the ore for my refletions, was the transribed version of audio-taped individual therapy sessions with one lient from my private pratie ase load. hese sessions took plae during the time of my exposure to the onstrutivisti or yberneti epistemology, that is, during my first year of Masters' degree study in Basi information about my lient 'essa': She is the middle hild of three hildren, 33 years old with brother 35 and sister 30 years respetively. She was referred by her family dotor on aount of depression after her mother's tragi death, two years prior to admission as lient. Additional symptom: bulimia of 17 years standing for whih she has reeived treatement over the years in and out of treatment entres. Her father, 65 years of

15 10 age, remarried in the same year his wife passed away. [Extended information about the lient: Addendum A on page 65]. RESEARCH DESIGN he very nature of this study, that is, the re-thinking [refleting on] about a hange in the way of thinking: implying that a 'new' and different [onstrutivisti] way of thinking about the world of therapy, was added to a prior [positivisti and lineal] way of thinking, demonstrates two points: firstly, that an epistemology is implied, that is, that a speifi epistemology had had to be used in desribing the ats of thinking and rethinking [researh goal] beause I, as the refleting person, ould not not have a frame of referene; seondly, that it was the onstrutivisti epistemology that was hosen in onstruting the researher's personal observation and view of the data, with other words, part of the outomes of that, that was refleted on, [onstrutivisti thought-about ways of thinking] was being applied in this researh proess. I as the researher was thus enquiring from a seond-order epistemology. he term seond-order simply means: "... taking a position that is a step removed from the operation itself so that you an pereive it reflexively [and reursively} (Hoffman 1990:4). Dell and Goolishian ( 1981: 180) qualify this reursive relationship as:

16 " the observer's reations to the system's 'hanging' [that] will selfreursively partiipate in the system's ongoing evolution". 11 Bearing in mind that one's epistemology leads to a partiular way of arranging observed data (Keeney 1979: 118) and that the omplexities of reursiveness and irularity annot effetively be explained in quantitative terms or "timeless logi" (Bateson 1979:70) a diretion, pointing towards a speifi researh design for this study, was aquired. he way I hose to approah the onepts, researh goal and personally experiened refletions as have been stated in this study, was to ondut the researh in a qualitative manner (Mouton & Marais, 1988: ). Aording to Collins (1991) the qualitative researh approah is more appropriate than quantitative researh in instanes where subjetive experienes in soial ontext and interpretations in therapeuti ontexts, [as exemplified in this study] make up part of the researh. Collins says further, that qualitative researh is "the observation of behaviour as they our, so that the phenomenon as it exists should reveal itself and the researher will register it" (1991 :304). Aording to her, qualitative researh suggests that the researher and his desriptions will beome part of the researh proess, and therefore he will not stand on the outside and look inwards as is the ase in quantitative researh (Collins 1991:304). hus, the seletion of a qualitative researh design for this study was determined by the nature and the subjet matter of the study, as well as the epistemologial

17 12 stane of the researher. RESEARCH MEHOD he method applied to obtain information from the researh data about the status of ertain experienes assoiated with both the positivisti and the onstrutivisti paradigms, was firstly to define theoretially what praties, needs, pereptions and emotions were assoiated with both these paradigms. his was done in terms of the distintions that were drawn with regard to both the positivisti and onstrutivisti paradigms. Consequently the presene or absene of suh experienes were explored in the transriptions while also refleting on the outomes of suh losses and gains. he method applied to obtain information of the outome of the first reading of the transripts in terms of the validation or not of my therapeuti self, was to relate the experienes while reading these transripts for the first time, and onsequently to reflet on these desriptions in the onluding hapter. Seletions from these interviews were transribed and are in my possession together with the rest of the un-transribed tapes. I assumed that these transriptions ould best provide the researh ontext from whih the purpose and objetives of the study ould be ahieved.

18 13 I as researher seleted ertain setions from these transriptions as being useful and representative in terms of the objetives; these setions have been inluded in the text as an addendum. he lient, 'essa', provided written permission for the aademi use of extrats from the sessions. he reader needs to take note that the home language used by the lient is Afrikaans; the transriptions will neessarily be in aordane with that. I will make speial effort to paraphrase all referenes to the researh data for the benefit of the English reader. I subjeted the ontent of the data olleted in this way, as well as the proess of re-reading the transripts to refletion. he refletions on the researh data were done from a onstrutivisti perspetive, whih was the frame of referene that was superimposed on my former lineal perspetive. he paradigm shift was in other words used to look at the paradigm shift. As a whole, these refletions on a paradigm shift beome interpretations in terms of losses, gains and experienes of the proess of hanging a paradigm. In suh an instane myself as the researher is not the respondent but the refletor - observer, looking at different ways of looking, at the world of therapy and lients with problems. IMPLICAIONS OF HE SUDY Although it is true that any endeavour by an individual to stop and hange his or her way of thinking about him or her self and the world around them may be

19 14 diffiult and painful and I or gratifying, I believe that the objetive of this study was not about its appliability or the need to alleviate any hardship or diffiulties for students embarking on the same venture as the researher. It ould be argued, on aount of the reported outomes of this study, that it might be possible and profitable for the therapist-in-training [and the trainer] both emotionally and finanially, to hypothesise and evaluate their envisaged preparedness and ompatibility to aommodate a new and extending paradigm. he hoie and freedom to stik to austomed or more ompatible paradigms is part and parel of every person's autonomy. he outomes of this study ould also serve the purpose of timeously familiarising the prospetive therapist-in-training with: not only the existene of radially different theoretial therapeuti approahes, but also with the impliations of having the hoie of learning to add or not to add to his/her existing paradigms and also with the impliations of entering into or resigning from the proess of learning to apply these different and unommon paradigms to the very ore of one's own life and therapeuti pratie. SHORCOMINGS OF HE SUDY he subjetive harater of its text shows the shortomings of this researh. My responses in the onversations as well as the responses to these responses,

20 15 while transribing and analyzing the transripts, and further while writing this dissertation about the responses to the responses of the responses, are my subjetive puntuations [onstrutions}. As suh, the subjetive nature of the researh may limit [or perhaps may even enhane] the possibilities for the generalisation and appliation of the text by trainers and/or trainees. Eah reader's self-referential nature will determine his own onstrution, as just another one, along with mine, amongst many along the line (Nel 1992:97). My puntuations as the researher in this study, may then fit with one reader, and ome to show a 'new' understanding of the way a 'different' paradigmati road may, or may not be travelled. On the other hand, these onstrutions may not fit that muh with another reader's view, and thus be of no or little use or value. ERMS AND CONCEPS he onstrutivisti paradigm, introdued in the frame of seond order yberneti theory, forms the organisational pattern for this study. Although the whole of hapter 2 is devoted to the theoretial ontextualisations of the researh, the main onepts used in this researh are briefly outlined below. Construtivism. he main assumption of onstrutivism is that an expliit orrespondene between our desriptions and total understanding of the world is not possible. Construtivism fouses on the development of persons' realities.

21 16 his philosophy's point of departure is that every person onstruts his own reality on aount of experienes and then behaves aordingly. Knowledge therefore does not reflet an objetive reality, but a personal experiene of a speifi ontext (Von Glaserfeld 1984: 19). Seond order ybernetis onerns itself with reursive onnetions between systems, and the omplexity of layers of yberneti proesses. From a seond order perspetive the observer is seen as part of that whih is being observed, and also as ruially assoiated with o-onstruting that whih is being observed (Jones 1993:21 ). Epistemology. his term an be defined as "the neessary limits and other harateristis of the proesses of knowing, thinking and deiding" (Bateson 1979:242) or how we know about our knowing (Jones 1993:213). Stability/Change omplementarity. Change and stability represent a omplementary gestalt in ybernetis. A yberneti system is seen as onstituting a reursive omplementary relation between proesses of hange and proesses of stability (Cheadle 1998:7). Positivisti approah in therapy. his approah denotes that the therapist reeives ontrol of hange and is able to evaluate hange objetively. his implies that the evaluation of hange an be measured by predetermined parameters (Conradie 1993:3).

22 Puntuation is used to symbolise in language one's unique and subjetive experiene with the purpose of making it known to others. 17 CHAPER REVIEW Chapter 1. he purpose of this introdutory hapter was to reate a formal ontext within whih the outomes of this study, that is, refletions on a paradigm shift ould be presented. Chapter 2. his hapter will onsist of a literature researh defining onepts that are relevant to the understanding of the theory pertaining to the two paradigms under srutiny, as well as a revue of some researhers reporting on their experienes of a similar paradigm shift. Chapter 3. In this hapter I will endeavour to share with the reader what was found [or not found] in the transriptions in terms of experienes related to the distintions between the positivisti and onstrutivisti paradigms as stated as objetives of the study. Chapter 4. In hapter four the onlusions and findings of the study will be interpreted and refleted on as the puntuations of the author. Addendum. he addendum ontains [A] basi information about the lient and her problem as well as [B] extrats from the transribed sessions with the lient.

23 18 CHAPER2 A CONCEPUAL FRAME WORK FOR HE SUDY INRODUCION he first objetive of this hapter evolving from a literature researh, is to survey the onepts that define the title of this study, suh as: 'refletions','paradigm', 'paradigm shift', 'epistemology' and 'epistemologial hange'. Another objetive is to draw some distintions enabling the reader to aquire theoretial information onerning the two epistemologies between whih I journeyed. In my endeavour to ahieve these objetives, it should be born in mind that what I will be writing, will be my own partiular desriptions of the surveyed literature in ways that I find useful. It should be remembered simultaneously, that what I share with the reader about my experienes and observations, ould also have been told in so many equally useful, but different ways by other observers. herefore what is told is not an effort to advane as losely as possible to the 'truth' of the matter, but is an effort to share, what has been found useful, in the hope that the reader will eventually deide to o-evolve or not, with these ideas.

24 HE CONCEPS 'REFLECION'; 'PARADIGM' AND 'PARADIGM SHIF'; 'EPISEMOLOGY' AND 'EPISEMOLOGICAL CHANGE' 19 'Refletion' in the ontext of the title of this dissertation refers to my personal onsideration or re-thinking of my past experienes of making a paradigm shift, based on onversations with my lient within the first year of reading for this speifi MA degree (Funk & Wagnalls Pratial "Standard Ditionary 1964 sv "refletion"). As suh, my ats of refleting an be viewed as the drawing of distintions or making of puntuations of sequenes of experiene, allowing me [by distinguishing one pattern from another] to ome to know and share my world of experiening this paradigm shift (Keeney 1983:18,24 ). he word 'paradigm' omes from the Greek paradeigma meaning 'pattern' and is assoiated with other related ideas, suh as 'oneptual sheme' and 'frame of referene' ( Gouws 1990: 214 ). Paradigm' thus refers to a oneptual framework within whih reality an be viewed" (Chambers 1988 sv "paradigm"). Shutz (in Shriver 1995:2) suggests that paradigms onstitute ultural patterns of group life. Shriver also onnets the onept 'paradigm', to what we generally think of as both ulture and soiety. He argues that paradigms shape and are shaped by values, knowledge and beliefs about the nature or view of our world (Shriver 1995:2,4 ).

25 20 hus paradigms are seen as world views or philosophies that reursively shape and reflet the diverse institutions and proesses shared by people in the soial environment and whih, as soial onstruts reated by humans, an and have repeatedly also over time, been hanged by humans (Shriver 1995: 12). Capra (1982:xviii & 11) explains the shift to a new pattern or world view, as a hange in thoughts, values and pereptions; as a shift to form a new vision of reality'. Needless to say, these world views, as shaped patterns as well as shaping patterns, would then also seem to be able to influene thoughts, values and pereptions of anyone brave enough to make a transition in his mind from one paradigm to another. his means, that not only ould one be influened to be thinking in one exlusive way about the world, but ould also be influened to extend the way of thinking about the world. Auerswald onnets with this idea of [a set of] rules reursively influening or governing thought [thinking] about 'reality', when he defines the onept 'epistemology'. From the ditionary definition of 'epistemology' as "the study or a theory [rules] of the nature and ground of knowledge" [reality], he evolves another possible way of defining epistemology as "thinking about thinking" [my parenthesis] (Auerswald 1985:1 ). Paradigms as influened and influening thoughts, but espeially paradigm or epistemologial hanges, ould then virtually be thought of as, possibly

26 onfusing or at the most, possibly threatening experienes (Neimeyer & Mahoney 1995:275). 21 Gouws (1990:220) also seems to have sensed this threatening potential and, as if wanting to reassure the prospetive paradigm 'hanger', states that paradigms need not be thought of as mysterious, "monolithi wholes" that are self defining and self-evident units, the one being more relevant, more sientifi or a better way of thinking about human behaviour than the other. He seems to be suggesting that if one does find one self possibly aught between two paradigmati worlds, neither the one nor the other need, but both might be, profitable and useful. Kuhn (in Shriver 1995:11) seems to have been the first of many, to metaphorially onnet, what has up to now been desribed as an epistemologial shift or a paradigm hange, to the experiene of travelling or making a voyage to an, as yet, unknown territory. his metaphor also seems to suggest that prospetive travellers should be able to muster [up] some Columbian drive and ourage before taking on their journey. he metaphor of journeying into the unknown and simultaneously experiening both the familiar and the unfamiliar in a new and different light, was implemented by Shriver himself, in his own journey into other people's worlds' when he researhed the signifiane and influene of paradigm on human behavioural, and soial environmental hange (Shriver 1995:12).

27 22 His experiene ould well have served as a possible 'sea map' [or 'spae map', for that matter] for suh future voyagers. He plotted the route of his journey with exemplary positive and empowering uses of the idea that a 'paradigm shift', ould almost serve as a ompass direting and guiding suh a [perilous] journey. Nowhere in his study do endeavouring future travellers or o-explorers, however, reeive a first hand refletion on his experiene of suh a paradigm shift (Shriver 1995:12). Hoffman (in Jones 1993: 19) likened a paradigm shift with a onstant proess of evolution and self-questioning. his ontinual proess of 'beoming' [a therapist] through self-referening, seems very muh to have been part and parel of this researher's wandering between two epistemologial worlds (Keeney 1983: 16) as will be puntuated in hapter three. he researhers referred to in the preeding argumentation seem to infer that the experienes assoiated with a 'paradigm shift' and an 'epistemologial hange' an [only] be thought of as 'onfusing' or 'threatening' (Neimeyer & Mahoney 1995:275; Gouws 1990:220) 'energy and ourage onsuming' (Kuhn in Shiver 1995:220) and as a 'onstant stressful proess of evolution and self-questioning' (Hoffman in Jones 1993: 19). he experienes assoiated with a 'paradigm shift' and an 'epistemologial hange' an however also be puntuated as inluding the opposite poles of these desriptions. Suh experienes an then be onsidered to be onfusing as

28 23 well as enlightening, exhausting as well as onserving, self-questioning as well as self-validating, stressful as well as exiting and maturing. his kind of hange whih sans the omplementary poles of experienes of transforming one's world view, is onsidered by Keeney to be the deepest order of hange human beings are able to demonstrate (Keeney 1983: 7). Von Glaserfeld (in Atkinson & Heath 1987:9) refers to the painfulness of this proess of transforming one's world view, in even more aented terms than Keeney (1983:7): It is not a question of merely adjusting a definition here and there, or of re arranging familiar onepts in a somewhat novel fashion. he hange that is required is of a far more drasti nature. It involves the demolition of our everyday oneption of reality... it shakes the very foundations on whih 19th entury siene and most of 20th entury psyhology has been built.... One possible way of undertaking or experiening suh a omplex proess of transforming one's world view, is to aept the notion that the world I think I see is only a view, my desription of the world. Any other observer or experiener [of the world] will again onstrut another personal view of the same observed world. o aept this idea an seem to be very demanding. he diffiulty appears to lie in the ation of letting go of the pereption that the world I see, is the objetive reality for all observers; that there is only one

29 24 universal and observable world (Castaneda in Keeney 1983:7). he demolition of the austomed and almost aptivating safety of my positivisti puntuation of my world an be very threatening. he thrust of this puntuation seems so ompelling as to let me think, feel and at as if my interpretation must be the only logial experiene of reality - as if I, onsequently, know everything about this world. Castaneda (in Keeney 1983:7-8) refers to this proess of letting go of, or stopping and hanging a partiular world view (epistemology], as "stopping the internal dialogue", and the "relinquishing of ontrol". he dilemma in making a paradigm shift as refleted by the mentioned authors, is resonated in Aarons' story of her own wandering between an intra psyhi and eosystemi epistemology. She observes that the dilemma, for both the therapist-in-training and the trainer, as well as for the therapist and the lient, probably evolves from the situation where 'stopping the internal dialogue' signifies for her, a hange of suh a omplex order, that it is seldomly made in diret or straight forward ways (Aarons 1995:99). One example of an indiret method for bringing about hange is to perturb the way, in whih the lient handles the hanges influening him, while simultaneously onserving the stability of the lient system.

30 25 In this dissertation I intend to reflet, on my experiene of hanging [implying the stopping of, as well as the adding to, and/or extending of] ertain behaviours, needs, pereptions and emotions assoiated with my past positivisti epistemology, as well as with the new onstrutivisti epistemology I was beginning to be exposed to, during the first year of my post-graduate studies. I intend however, in addition to the painful, jarring, demolishing and dilemmati puntuations made by Efran & Fauber (in Neimeyer & Mahoney 1995:275) and Von Glaserfeld (in Atkinson & Heath 1987:9) about experiening a paradigm shift, also to reflet on the opposite, omplementary poles of these distintions. o understand my own experiene of hanging from [between] positivisti to [and] onstrutivisti epistemologies - whih implies the existene of 'hanged paradigms' in itself - it seems feasible to juxtapose these two philosophies, to reate a meaningful differene. DISINCIONS BEWEEN HE POSIIVISIC AND CONSRUCIVISIC PARADIGMS Instead of presenting a summary of eah philosophy and its impliations, I am hoosing to draw some distintions enabling the reader to aquire related theoretial information onerning the two epistemologies between whih I journeyed.

31 26 In drawing these distintions, I assume the relation between the onstrutivisti paradigm and ybernetis; the latter being grounded in the former, as argued by Cheadle (1998:6). he pratial relevane [as I see it] of these theoretial puntuations, on my experiential journey between these epistemologial ontinents, will be told in hapter three. In other words, in hapter three I will onsider the signifiane of these distintions in terms of my experienes, that is, in terms of ations, needs, pereptions and the aompanying emotions, that might be derived from the onversations with my lient. he distintion of sientifi reality andlor invented reality Positivisti epistemology has traditionally been exalted as the sole onveyor of sientifi reasoning, by whih sientifi reality is said to be known and manipulated (Conradie 1993:8; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen 1997:584). herefore it seems as if positivists denote that anyone who has aess to the reality of, for example 'fats', is neessarily right in any debate and vie versa (Maturana as quoted by Portele in Goudsmit 1989:53). In onstrutivisti thinking the researher or observer seems not to reflet or represent knowledge of reality, but to invent reality himself by giving meaning to what is observed. He has to onstrut his own world; there seems to be no

32 objetive knowledge (Portele in Goudsmit 1989:52; Efran, Lukens & Lukens 1988). his means that reality an never be known in the sense of any omplete 'knowledge'. James (in Goudsmit 1989:140) larifies this by explaining that if I am, for example, unaware of ertain phenomena at a given point in time, I an however, name any new disovery every time it is made or when it beomes part of my experiene. his at of naming' is, however, not reating objetive knowledge or reality, but is only"... its distinguishing into aspets". Objetive knowledge' is thus to be thought of as objetivity with parenthesis' and entails, inter alia, "... that there are as many domains of truth [ideas] as domains of existene..." (Portele in Goudsmit 1989:53). 27 My onstrution of the onept 'sientifi' refers to the o-onstrution of ideas within an eology of ideas in interation with those obtained from literature study, papers and letures from trainers, as well as from lients and fellow students. Coonstrutions in therapeuti ontext would then neessarily fit with the onsensus of ideas that all partiipants in the speifi system have about themselves, others, the problem as well as about the world in general. he distintion of universality and/or multi-versality Aording to positivism as a philosophi frame of referene, an universal, objetive, sensory pereivable reality exists that an be disovered through

33 28 experiene and reasoning (Conradie 1993:8). Aording to a onstrutivisti way of thinking on the other hand, it is more a ase of thinking as if a multi-versa I diversity of possible meanings is being subjetively reated, influened and interpreted through the partiular reursive perspetive of every observer (Neimeyer 1993:221 ). he distintion of observer systems and/or observing systems Whenever a positivist researher would implement sientifi [quantitative] researh methods and priniples, he or she would supposedly arrive at an absolute, objetive and 'real truth'- outome. In suh an instane objetive observer systems are implied. he meaning that would be attahed to any objet or event by the observer, is therefor being determined by the objet and the event itself. Suffiient and aurate answers are said to be supplied by researhers in this way (Conradie 1993:9; Aarons 1995:55-56). Within the onstrutivist frame of thinking, the view that the observer be part of the observed, and an be thought of as a 'observing system', is aommodated. his seond order yberneti view implies that all observation an be viewed as, or an be onneted to, self-referene and that the observer "brings forth" meaning of observations by drawing distintions of what he laims to know, to see or to experiene as one amongst many other laims (Jones 1993:24; Nel 1992:90).

34 29 In that sense, the observer's desription onveys as muh of himself, if not more, than of what is being desribed (Zagnoev 1996:67) and leaves no possibility of referring to 'objetive' truth or reality in order to hoose between desriptions and distintions. Sine it seems impossible to deide on the final delaration of the 'real truth' where a variety of views and onstruts ome into ontat with eah other, Jones ( 1993:24) makes the following signifiant omment on Maturana's idea (1975) of multiple 'truths': his idea (of multiple realities, of the "multiverse") has proved fruitful in family therapy, as it has freed therapists from the searh for investigation and diagnosis in relation to lients, and - more importantly - has undersored the neessity to approah all versions of reality proffered by lients and by the therapist [Jones's italis] as equally valid. he two ideas that [i] systems need not be qualified as either right or wrong, but at the most, different from eah other, and [ii] that systems may simultaneously be held aountable to the 'riterion of usefulness' have played a major role in my experiene of being 'freed' from the drudgery of adhering only to an 'either\or' paradigm, as in the ase of paying attention to, for example, either 'ontent' or 'proess', as will be elaborated on in hapter three.

35 30 he distintion of sientifi treatment and/or failitation of a ontext for hange It seems almost 'sientifially speaking', easier and more ahievable to 'diagnose' and therapeutially 'treat' a 'patient' aording to the positivistia/ly based medial view point than to reate a ontext for hange, aording to the onstrutivisti view. he medial model refers to an understanding that 'sientifially researhed' and 'universally true' and 'aountable' quantitative riteria ould be implemented in an endeavour to solve the patient's problems and so to ause hange. he positivisti oriented therapist, for example, relies heavily on the outlines in the D S M IV (A P A 1994) for his diagnoses and treatment of the lient. On aount of his expertise in these matters he is able to offer the lient advie, interpretation and instrution during the therapeuti interation to, produe insights' 'ausing' the lient to 'improve' or be 'ured'. he therapist in his expert role is enthusiastially driven by what Kelly (in Kenny 1989: ) termed an "overwhelming apostoli zeal" to almost ompellingly, ause the lient to get well. his positivisti world view would also seem to imply that the therapist as hange-agent, is ausing the hange (Conradie 1993:9-10); furthermore, this approah would assume that there is a real world "out there" and if the therapist is dediated enough in his observations, he will be able to obtain an aurate and objetive framework of the lient's reality (Atkinson & Heath in Aarons 1995:55) and thus ahieve the outome of the sientifi treatment.

36 31 Within the onstrutivisti way of thinking, it seems as if onsiderable ourage may be demanded from a therapist to overome the onsequene of relinquishing the 'safe and sound' sientifi riteria and treatment outlines proposed by the positivisti view and instead failitate a ontext within whih the lient an hange. he hallenge onfronting the therapist is to trust himself within his seond-order yberneti lient-therapist relationship, that is, a relationship in whih the therapist inludes himself as part of what must hange (Hoffman in Zagnoev 1996:99). A system only hanges if its domain of interations hange (Maturana 1980:11-12). Kenny, however, points out that a person annot hange his interations. Unless he alters or hanges his onstrutions of observations he annot have 'new' experienes and internal hange annot our (in Goudsmit 1989: ). A ontext for hange within whih the lient and therapist an o-onstrut alternative and different meanings of observations [in language] an failitate this internal hange. If an internal hange ours in the lient, his domain of interations hange (Maturana 1980: 11-12). Aording to Bateson it is only possible to make observations by observing speial kinds of differenes: that is, differenes whih are labelled by the observer as being different from a preeding observation. "Differenes whih make a differene" (Van rommel1989:158). o o-reate suh a ontext for hange would, inter alia, imply that the lient and therapist would o-evolve different meanings about, for example, the symptom or

37 32 problem, the lient himself, others, the therapist, observations and experienes. Suh alternative meanings an be o-onstruted by using strategies, suh as, positive onnotation, reframes, double desriptions, metaphores, presribing the symptom, presribing no hange and reating onfusion (Keeney 1983). We ome to know our world by r:naking puntuations of our experienes and develop understanding by drawing distintions. Distintions an be patterned in terms of omplete pairs by whih the onnetion between them is holistially desribed and by whih information [that makes a differene] is reated. In this way omplementary desriptions of the patterns that onnet are ensured so that the irular and reursive proesses that are implied, an be viewed as part of the system's omplexity (Bateson 1972; 1979). By o-reating information in this way, instead of providing sientifially 'tested and measured truths' to the lient, the therapist is failitating a ontext within whih the lient an hange. Creating a ontext for hange indiates an understanding of the priniple of the stability/hange omplementarity. he onstrutivisti thinking therapist, instead of expertly diagnosing the lient and transmitting 'the truth' to him, would also rather seem to 'fit' [struturally ouple] with the lient-system to bring forth a ontext for hange through languaging. In explaining 'strutural oupling' Fourie (1996b: ) states that the ations of a living system are determined by the struture of that system itself and not by

38 33 ourrenes outside of the system (Maturana 1975). he term 'struture' would in the above ontext, for example refer to the meanings a lient [and the therapist, for that matter] might attribute to a host of fators suh as his ideas about himself, the therapist, other people or the problem, as if forming a whole eology of ideas. he way the lient would ouple with the therapeuti system is determined by this struture (Fourie 1995:304). herefore living systems an be viewed as self-organised and autonomous, whih also means that, although these systems seem to be organisationally losed for information, their strutures an be perturbed by outside influenes, but the reation of the system to suh perturbation is determined by the struture of that system. When two or more living systems would thus fit or "san" together, they would ouple with eah other aording to their mutual strutures and form yet another system whih in turn is autonomous in determining its own ations, as if from the inside. Strutural oupling between the therapist and lient takes plae by the o-exhange of ideas between them in language (Anderson & Goolishian 1988). If a system would pereive a threat to its autonomy, that means, if it might think that its ations might be determined from the outside and thus jeopardise its existene as a system, it would do everything its struture would allow to onserve its autonomy or stability as a system. Fourie (1996a:56) develops this argumentation further by stating that, if living systems an be onsidered to ouple through languaging [verbal and non-verbal

39 34 ommuniation], symptoms an then be onsidered as the way in whih systems ommuniate about the onservation of their stability when they pereive themselves as being threatened. As was stated above, the onstrutivist therapist would then, through languaging, o-onstrut a ontext for hange instead of 'therapising' the lient. he hallenge to the therapist ould therefore be seen as to ouple with the lient in suh a way that his [lient's] stability [or the way in whih he attributes meaning] is onserved or onfirmed, while simultaneously disonfirming or perturbing the eology of ideas around the problem (Fourie 1995:305) or as Kenny (1989:125) puts it: "... provide an experimental ontext within whih he [the lient] may begin to hange his way of hanging to onserve his stability... " It needs to be added that the outome of the above proess is onsidered by the onstrutivisti thinking therapist as unpreditable (Kenny 1989: 125). he distintion of knowledge through experiene and reasoning and/or knowledge through soial onsensus o-onstruted in language Adhering to the positivisti paradigm, knowledge of reality is thought of as validated by experiene through the senses and through reasoning (Conradie 1993: 8; Neimeyer 1993:223).

40 35 In onstrutivisti ontext, reality is o-onstruted in language, and knowledge is thought of as validated through onsisteny with existing knowledge and through onsensus among observers (Neimeyer 1993:223 ; Anderson & Goolishian 1988). he distintion of redutionism and /or totality in ontext Positivisti thinking has as one of its priniples, an analyti or atomisti redutionism whereby objets or phenomena are redued to their most basi elements to be presented as quantified realities in order to understand the totality in neutral objetivity (Meyer, et al 1997). his view would advoate that the auses of human behaviour an be redued as to be lying within the person alone. he therapist, in the role of an objetive and value free observer, would therefore fous on labelling elements of the lient's behaviour by using the lists of symptoms provided in the DSM IV. In this way the therapist would also strive to predit and ontrol the lient's future behaviour (Aarons 1995: 57). :~ Construti~isti thinking maintains that every part of a system is inter-related to C)_ the rest and should therefore be understood and desribed qualitatively and holistially in its entire relational ontext (Feixas-1-99Q;-7-} It is seems thus that the autonomous harater of systems is fully aknowledged; a perspetive that is extensively subsribed by onstrutivisti thinkers tmeyer 1 et-ai ;6q4) ~~~~~ \q\~~ ~s),