THE WISDOM ACADEMY FOR CIVIL SERVICES YOUR SUCCESS,YOUR WAY,TO BUILD A NATION

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2 Page2 Contents CHANGES IN TERMINOLOGY... 4 NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS... 7 THE DELHI SULTANS The Mughal Empire The Mughals RULERS AND BUILDINGS TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES... 40

3 Page3 Dear students, DIRECTOR S MESSAGE NCERT forms an important base for preparation of civil services. Aspirants need to understand these books which are basic in nature. Student should be thorough with this books conceptually and well versed with the facts. There are number of subject like HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, and POLITY. whose NCERT needs to be covered. Timely revision and re-reading becomes a challenging task for aspirant. Wisdom academy has come up with a solution by proving aspirant for comprehensive GIST with solved questions below the chapter. The purpose of providing these short summary notes is to travel with the aspirant in achieving their dream in competitive exam. ALL THE BEST!!!!

4 Page4 CHANGES IN TERMINOLOGY The information that we have about our history has gone through a lot of revisions to take on its current form.the 1154 A.D. world map by Arab cartographer Al Idrisi was oriented with the South Pole at the top as a result the view of India and Sri Lanka is upside down.as the science of cartography evolved, more accurate versions of the map were made. When historian study records they need to be sensitive about the context in which the information was penned down The archaeological and literary sources of information help historians trace history. Archaeological sources include monuments, temples, inscriptions, coins and weapons. Literary sources include manuscripts, folk tales, poems and biographies of different rulers.a manuscript is any document that is written by hand. Manuscripts were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples. The manuscripts provide detailed information to historians but they are also difficult to use. Manuscripts were copied by hand in India as there was no printing press in medieval India. The nastaliq style of writing Persian and Arabic is easy to read. However the shikaste style of writing is difficult to decipher. Historians face problems gathering information from various textual sources as a copy of the manuscript was never the same as the original. Region and Empire The medieval period saw rise and fall of many great empires. By 700 AD, the Indian subcontinent was divided into many separate regions with distinct language and culture. This is evident from the writings of Amir Khusrau, a notable musician and poet in the court of Delhi Sultanate. He also noted that Sanskrit was studied by the Brahmins alone. Regions were also associated with specific ruling dynasties like the Rajputs in Rajasthan, Palas in Bengal and Bihar, Pratiharas in Avanti and Gujarat, and Rashtrakutas over north Deccan. This was the period when rulers of dynasties like the Cholas, Khaljis, the Tughluqs and the Mughals extended their empires. However, all the dynasties were not equally stable and successful to rule over large kingdoms and control people of different regions. After the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, regional states such as Malwa, Bengal, Gujarat and Mewar re-emerged. Between 700 and 1750 AD, many regions grew, and successfully retained their identity. Q1: Who was considered a foreigner in the past? Answer: In past (medieval period), foreigner is referred to any person who was not a part of the same society or culture. For example, a city-dweller might regard a forest-dweller as foreigner. But two peasants living in the same village were not foreigners to each other even though they belong to different caste or religious backgrounds. Q2: State whether true or false: (a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after 700. (b) The Marathas asserted their political importance during this period. (c) Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out of their lands with the spread of agricultural settlements. (d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam, Manipur and Kashmir. Answer: (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False Q3: Fill in the blanks: (a) Archives are places where are kept. (b) was a fourteenth-century chronicler. (c),,, and were some of the new crops introduced into the subcontinent during this period.

5 Page5 Answer: (a) Archives are places where manuscripts are kept. (b) Ziyauddin Barani was a fourteenth-century chronicler. (c) Potatoes, corn, chillies, and coffee were some of the new crops introduced into the subcontinent during this period. Q4: List some technological changes associated with this period. Answer: In the thousand years between 700 to 1750, there occurred large variety of technological changes impacting social, economical, political and cultural changes. Prominent technological developments were: Persian wheel in irrigation. Spinning wheel in weaving Firearms in combat. New food and beverages like potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and coffee. Q5: What were the some of the major religious developments during this period? Answer: In the thousand years history, it witnessed major developments in religious traditions. The religious belief in supernatural agency was collective among people and it was often connected with the social and economic organization of local communities. In Hinduism, it lead to worshiping new deities, construction of new temples by the kings. Brhamins gained importance and became dominant group in the society because of their knowledge of Sanskrit language and role playing as priests in religious activities. Later one of the major development was the emergence of the idea of Bhakti or Sufism i.e. devotees can pray their personal deities by sermons without the aid of priests or elaborate rituals. In this period, new religions also appeared in the subcontinent. E.g. during seventh century merchants and migrants brought the teachings of Islam. Later many rulers (Sultanate of Delhi and Mughals) became patrons of Islam. Like Hinduism, Islam was interpreted by in variety of ways by its followers. Q6: In what ways has the meaning of the term ''Hindustan" changed over the centuries? Answer: The time the meaning of the term ''Hindustan" changed number of times over the centuries: Presently, the term ''Hindustan" is understood by ''India", the modern nation state. During 13th century writer Minhaj-i-Siraj, used the term ''Hindustan" in political context to denote kingdom areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between Ganga and Yamuna (Uttar Pradesh). In 16th century, Babur and Amir Khusro used the term "Hindustan'' to describe the geography, the fauna (animals) and the culture of the inhabitants of the sub-continent. Q7: How were the affairs of jatis regulated? Answer: Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to manage the conduct of their members. These regulations were enforced by an assembly of elders( called jati panchayat in some areas). Several villages were governed by a chieftain. Together they were only one small unit of a state. Q8: What does the term pan-regional empire mean? Answer:The empire which spreads across many regions of diverse culture, religion and geography is called pan-regional empire. Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs and Mughals were pan-regional empires.

6 Page6 Concept Map about Medieval Period Indian History Q9: What are the difficulties historians face in using manuscripts? Answer: Following difficulties generally historians face while using manuscripts: Poor Handwriting: Manuscripts were mostly hand written. Illegible handwriting introduce errors while copying these scripts. Different Interpretations: illegible writings force historians to take guess which may not be accurate. Copying Errors: Scribes while copying introduce small errors which grew over the centuries. Different versions of Manuscripts may lead to confusion. It becomes a challenge to decide the chronological order of their releases. Q10: Give examples of forts built during Medieval period. Lal Quila (Red Fort at Delhi) Red Fort at Agra Gwaliar Fort Amer Fort (Jaipur) Q11: Name any two mosques built during Medieval period. Answer: Jama Masjid (Delhi) Moti Masjid (Agra) Q12: List the name of temples built during Medieval period. Answer: Meenakshi Temple (Madurai) Khujrao Temples Dilwara Temples (Mt. Abu) Q13: List any two pillars built during Medieval period. Answer: Qutub Minar (Delhi) Charminar (Hyderabad) Vijay Pillar (Chittorgarh) Q 14: List names of tombs built during Medieval period. Answer: Taj Mahal (Agra), Humanyun Tomb (Delhi)

7 Page7 NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS New Dynasties After the 7th century, many new dynasties emerged in the Indian sub-continent like the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas and Chahamanas (Chauhans). The Samantas were big landlords or warrior chiefs and were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present at the courts and provide them with military support. As the Samantas gained power they declared independence from their overlords. In the mid-8th century, Rashtrakuta chief, Dantidurga overthrew his overlord Chalukyas and performed a ritual called Hiranya-garbha, or the golden womb. This event was significant as it set a precedent that a person need not be born as a Kshatriya to become a ruler. Mayurasharman and Harichandra, two Brahmins gave up their profession and established their dynasties Kadamba in Karnataka and Gurjara-Pratihara in Rajasthan, respectively. Though the new rulers gave themselves power titles, but were dependent on their Samantas for money and army. They would give land grants, which were recorded on copper plates, and would ask people to collect taxes for the administration and for building temples and fight wars. In the hierarchy of land grants, along with secular officials, even the Brahmins who performed religious ceremonies and imparted education were the grantees. Taxes were collected from all including the kings and the new landlords. Tax had to be paid for trading, creating artefacts, building homes and wells, and using roads. Tax was also collected in the form of manual labor or an artist s artwork and kadamai, or land revenue. Kings often rewarded Brahmins with grants of not just land, but many more revenue earning facilities. Historical information on these new dynasties is obtained from the inscriptions and Prashastis noted down on the order of these kings and their Samantas. Increasing Wealth through Warfare As new dynasties came up, each ruler tried to increase his wealth and power by taking over another s region. For centuries, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties waged wars, called the tripartite struggle,' to control Kanauj s wealth. Every new ruler built temples in his region to showcase his wealth. Thus, the temples being rich enough were the main targets in the battle for control. Sultan Mahmud, the ruler of Ghazni in Afghanistan ruled from 997 to 1030 and attacked 17 times in India from 1000 to 1025 AD. He was the first foreign invader of India and plundered rich temples like Somnath in Gujarat to build his capital city, Ghazni. By 1030 AD, he had extended his reign to the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. He appointed a scholar named al-biruni to write an account about the Indian subcontinent. Al-Biruni s book called 'Kitab-al Hind, is considered to be an important source of Indian history. Many kings were engaged in warfare like the Chahamanas, later known as Chauhans. In 1168, Prithviraja Chauhan the third of the Chahamana dynasty, at the age of 19, became the king of the north-western region bordering Punjab. In 1191, Muhammad Ghori, the ruler of Ghor in Afghanistan, invaded India in an attempt to establish his reign. He was defeated in the first battle of Tarain by Prithviraja Chauhan. However when he attacked again, in the second battle of Tarain defeated and killed Prithviraja the very next year in 1192.

8 Page8 The Cholas The Chola dynasty was in power from the latter half of the 9th century to the beginning of the 13th century. It was at its peak during the medieval period. Vijayalaya an ancient chiefly family of the Cholas captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyars. He built a temple devoted to goddess Nishumbhasudini at Thanjavur and made it his capital. Gradually, the kingdom grew in size with conquering the neighbouring regions of Pandyan and Pallava. In 985, Rajaraja I came to power and expanded the empire even more. He defeated the Cheras to acquire the Malwar coast, Madurai and other territories in the south-east. Rajaraja I, and his son, Rajendra I, succeeded in making the Chola dynasty a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. Both of them together, continued to expand the kingdom by raiding the Ganga valley. The bronze statues and temples of the Chola empire bear testimony to its art and architecture. The temples that time were built not only as places of worship, but also as centres of learning, and economic, social and cultural activity. Agriculture was the main source of revenue. It was supported by well-developed irrigation facilities like wells, canals and water tanks. For large-scale agricultural production, people started clearing forests, and embankments were constructed to control floods. Administration of the Chola Empire The Chola Empire was divided into nine provinces, called Mandalams which was further divided into a number of districts, or zillas, known as Valanadus. Each Valanadu was divided into a number of villages, called Nadus. Larger towns were known as Taniyurs. The Nadu shouldered administrative activities like collection of taxes, dispensing justice, settling disputes, keeping land records, etc. A Sabha had separate committees looking after functions like irrigation, gardens, temples, etc. Under the supervision of the Chola government, rich peasants of the Vellala caste controlled the affairs of the Nadus. The Chola kings often gave land grants or Brahmadeya to Brahmins. An assembly or Sabha of prominent Brahmin landholders looked after each Brahmadeya, while associations of traders, known as Nagarams, looked after the administration in towns. The decisions taken by these Sabhas were recorded on the walls of the temples by way of inscriptions. The Uttaramerur inscriptions, state the details and the basis on which a person could become a member of a Sabha. The Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land. Land was named according to the purpose for which it was donated by the Chola kings. Q1. Who were Rashtrakutas? How did they come to power? They were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. Q2. What are Prashastis? Who composed them? Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration. Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land.

9 Page9 Q3. Who was Kalhana? What sources did he use to write his accounts? Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. It was composed by an author named Kalhana. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies Q4. What was Tripartite Struggle? For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. Because there were three parties in this long drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the tripartite struggle. Q5. Why were temples built by the kings? The rulers tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. So, when they attacked one another s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich. Q6. Who built the city of Thanjuvur and how? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there. Q7. How the successors of Vijayalaya expanded their kingdom? a) The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power. b) yan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom. 1. Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. 2. He also reorganised the administration of the empire. Rajaraja s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions. Q8. What was Brahmadeya? How were these administered? Brahmanas often received land grants or Brahmadeya. As a result, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Each Brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or Sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. 3. The decisions of the assemblies were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. 4. The Sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. 5. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf and kept in an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets, one by one for each committee. Q9. Name some of the methods used for irrigation during Chola Empire. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. In delta region, embankments were made to prevent flooding and canals were built to carry water to the fields Q10 What are Nagarams? Associations of traders were known as Nagarams. They also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns. Q11 Who were Samantas? What were their functions? By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or Samantas. 1. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support.

10 Page10 2. As Samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be Maha- Samanta, Mahamandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region) and so on. Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords. Q12 Write few lines on Chahamanas. Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III ( ), defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192 Q13 How did Chola temples become the nuclei of settlements? Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went to maintain all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well. Q14 How did agriculture developed in the Chola Empire? Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Forests had to be cleared in some regions; land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year. In many cases it was necessary to water crops artificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Q15. Write a note on Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan ruled from 997 to 1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year his targets were wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat. Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. He was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and entrusted a scholar named al-biruni to write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic work, known as the Kitab-al Hind, remains an important source for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account. Q16 How were the Sabhas organised? All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be owners of land from which land revenue is collected. They should have their own homes. They should be between 35 and 70 years of age. They should have knowledge of the Vedas. They should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest. If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member of another committee. Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

11 Page11 Q17 Explain the system of administration adopted by the kingdoms ruling during 7th century. Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as as maharaja- adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on and they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas. In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Revenue was also collected from traders. These resources were used to finance the king s establishment, for the construction of temples and forts and to fight wars, which were in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions. Q18 Explain the administration of the Chola Empire? Settlements of peasants were made with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu had several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre. Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns

12 Page12 THE DELHI SULTANS Sultans of Delhi Delhi became the capital city after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. From 1206 to 1526, Delhi was ruled by many rulers of different Muslim dynasties. They all preferred the title of Sultan, and so this period of history came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate. It started with the Mamluk Dynasty, and was followed by the Khilji, Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties. The Rajput Dynasties ruled Delhi from the early 12th century to 1165 AD. After Qutbuddin Aybak, his son-in-law Shamsuddin Iltutmish took over the throne of Delhi. Raziyya was the only woman ruler from the Delhi Sultanate to rule Delhi. Delhi went under the control of the Khilji Dynasty in The first ruler from the Khilji Dynasty was Jalaluddin Khilji. In 1316, the death of Alauddin Khilji brought the end of the Khilji Dynasty. The Khilji dynasty ruled over Delhi from 1290 to 1320 AD. The Tughluqs came next. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq was the first emperor of the Tughluq Dynasty. The Tughluq dynasty ruled over Delhi from 1320 to Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid dynasty, which ruled over Delhi from 1414 to 1451 AD. Bahlul Lodi established the Lodi Dynasty in The Lodi dynasty ruled over Delhi from 1451 to Sources of Information The most important source of history is the historical accounts written in the administrative language Persian, and known as tawarikh. The authors wrote about events and gave administrative advices to the Sultan. However, it was mainly written to please the rulers and gain rewards, so it gives only a partial picture of the period. The authors lived in the cities and were quite unaware of the realities of rural areas. Sometimes, the authors also penned down their displeasure about certain decisions. From Garrison Town to Empire The Muslim rule in India started with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in Their control was limited to the fortified towns which depended on the areas beyond for supplies. When the areas on the outskirts refused to trade supplies, the rulers often plundered their own regions to obtain supplies for the fortified towns. Under the reign of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Mohammed bin Tughluq the control was expanded over all the fortified towns and the areas surrounding them. During 1296 to 1351, the Sultans conquered the external frontiers. The control of the Sultans had reached South India where they added elephants, horses to their armies, captured slaves and collected precious metal from the conquered regions. Hunters-gatherers and nomadic herders were expelled from the forest. This land was cleared for farming and distributed amongst the peasants and agriculture. Regional trade was promoted alongside and new trade routes were built with new fortresses and towns along the way. As people converting to Islam had different backgrounds, so the rulers built many prayer areas, called mosques.

13 Page13 Administration and Consolidation Between 1206 and 1526, the Delhi Sultanate fought many battles to expand its region. The administration and integration of such a vast kingdom required reliable administrators. Earlier rulers appointed their heirs, chieftains and aristocrats as governors, but Sultan Iltutmish started appointing special slaves called bandagan for administration and military services. The Khaljis and Tughluqs along with using the slaves raised ordinary people to high positions like governors and generals. The loyalty of these administrators to their masters led to political instability in the region. The rulers assigned military commanders the job of regional governors. Each region was called iqta, and the governor was called iqtadar or muqti. The muqti were appointed for a period of time and were responsible for maintaining law and order in their region, leading military campaigns, and collecting tax. Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq brought the hinterland of the cities under their control, and imposed their authority on the local chieftains and rich landlords called samanthas. The land was reassessed and collection of land revenue was brought under the control of the state. Now, the local chieftains could not impose tax on the subjects, and were themselves forced to pay tax. The rights of the local chieftains to impose tax were revoked, and they were forced to pay tax. As per the state law taxes were imposed on cultivation, known as Kharaj, cattle and houses. However, the region under the Sultan was continuously increasing, but many areas faced instability as the newly conquered regions would soon gain independence after being conquered. Administration Styles of Delhi Sultans The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 and controlled Asia and Europe. He attacked the Delhi Sultanate under the rule of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and later under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq. Both the rulers had different strategies to overcome the Mongol threat. If Alauddin Khalji used a defensive strategy, Muhammad bin Tughluq used an offensive strategy. Alauddin, as per his defensive strategy constructed a new garrison town called Siri for his troops. Muhammad bin Tughluq, shifted his capital, including the residents, from Delhi to Daulatabad rather than establishing a new garrison town for soldiers. While Alauddin collected tax in the form of farm produce to feed his army, Muhammad bin Tughluq introduced the first token currency of India. Alauddin, one of the best administrators, also prescribed rates at which goods could be sold, and controlled the market price so that people could buy their supplies at a reasonable rate. He hence sustained the morale of his army and his people, and gain more support from them while defeating the Mongols. Alauddin proved to be a successful administrator, while Muhammad Tughluq was a failure at it. However, it was Muhammad bin Tughluq who decided to attack the Mongol Empire. After the Tughluqs, the Sayyids and Lodis ruled the Delhi Empire. However, by their time many new independent kingdoms emerged like Malwa, Bengal, Gondawana, Gujrat, Rajputs and Vijaynagar. One such ruler was Sher Shah Suri, who defeated Humayun and established the Suri Dynasty in Delhi. Though Sher Shah s rule lasted for just 6 years, he built a strong administrative foundation which was later even adopted by Emperor Akbar.

14 Page14 SOLVED QUESTIONS Q1 Who made Delhi their capital for the first time? Ans: Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomar Rajputs. Q2 Who defeated Tomar Rajputs in the middle of the 12th century? Ans: Chauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer defeated the Tomar Rajputs in the middle of 12th century. Q3 What were the coins minted under the Tomars and the Chauhans called? Ans : The coins were called Dehliwal and they were widely circulated. Q4 What was Tawarikh? Give details about the authors of Tawarikh. Ans: Tawarikh were the histories of Delhi Sultans, written in Persian. The authors of Tawarikh were the learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, who both recounted the events and advised rulers on governance. The authors of Tawarikh lived in cities and hardly in villages. They often wrote the histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an ideal social order based on Birthright and Gender Distinctions. Q5 Who was Raziyya Sultan? Ans : Raziyya Sultan was Sultan Iltutmish s daughter. Q6 What were the views of the chronicler Minhaj-i-Siraj, about Raziyya Sultan? Ans : The chronicler, Minhaj-i-Siraj, recognized that Raziyya Sultan was more able and qualified than her brothers. But he was not comfortable having a queen as a ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at her attempts to rule independently. She was removed from the throne in Q7 What were the hinterlands? Ans : These were the lands adjacent to a city that supply it with goods and services. Q8 What were Garrison towns? Ans: These were the fortified settlements with soldiers. Q9 What difficulties were faced by Delhi Sultans in controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sindh? Ans: Rebellion wars and bad weather was snapping the fragile communication routes. Delhi s authority was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan. Q10 What was Bandagan? Ans: Rather than appointing aristocrats and landed chieftains as governors, the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish favoured their special slaves purchased for military services, called Bandagan in Persian. Q11 What problem was associated with the system of Bandagan? Ans: It was observed that the clients and slaves were loyal to their masters and patrons but not to their heirs. New sultans often had their own servants. As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old and new nobility. Q12 Explain the 1st set of campaigns of the Delhi Sultans to expand and consolidate the sultanate. Ans: The 1st set of campaigns took place along the internal frontiers. It aimed to consolidate the hinterlands of the garrison towns. During these campaigns the forests were cleared in the Ganga Yamuna doab and hunter gatherers were expelled from their natural habitat. These lands were given to the peasants and agriculture was encouraged. New forts and town were constructed to protect trade routes and promote regional trade.

15 Page15 Q13 Explain the 2nd round of campaigns of the Delhi Sultans to expand and consolidate the sultanate. Ans : The second round of expansion occurred along the external frontier.military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq. Sultanate armies captured horses, elephants and slaves and carried away precious metals. Q14 What were the 3 type of taxes imposed by the Delhi Sultans? Ans: The three type of taxes imposed by the Delhi Sultans were: 1. Tax on cultivation called Kharaj and amounting to about 50% of the peasant s produce. 2. Tax on cattle 3. Tax on houses Q15 Who were Iqtadars and how were they controlled by Delhi Sultans? Ans: The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governers of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called Iqtas and there holders were called Iqtadars or Muqtis. The duty of Muqtis was:- 1. To lead military campaigns. 2. Maintain law and order in their Iqtas. 3. Pay salaries to the soldiers. 4. Collect revenue. Control over Muqtis was most effective if their offices were not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas for a short period of time. Q16 Why was Muhammad Tughlaq known as the wisest fool? Ans: He was known as the wisest fool because his administrative policies were a failure. His campaign into Kashmir was a disaster.he disbanded his large standing army. Rather than constructing a new garrison town, the oldest of the four cities of Delhi was emptied of its residents and the soldiers were garrisoned there. The residents of the old city were sent to the new capital of Daulatabad in the South. Raising taxes in order to meet the expense of maintaining such a large army of soldiers and coincidence of famine in this area led to widespread rebellion. To pay cash salaries to his soldiers, he used token currency made out of cheap metals. People did not trust these points and this cheap currency could be easily counterfeited. Q17 Explain the administrative policies of Alauddin Khalji. Against the Mongol attacks under Genghis Khan he raised a large standing army. He constructed a new garrison town named Siri for his soldiers. He was paying salaries to his soldiers in cash and not by giving iqtas. He controlled the prices of goods in Delhi. Prices were carefully surveyed by officers, and merchants who were not selling the goods at the prescribed rates were punished.

16 Page16 THE MUGHAL EMPIRE The Mughals The foundation of Mughal Empire in India was laid in the early 1500s when Babur gained control over parts of Sindh. In 1526, when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat he laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire. The Mughal rulers proved that they were good administrators as from the latter half of the 16th century, their kingdom extended from present-day Bangladesh in the east to Baluchistan in the west and Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. Babur s mother was a descendant of Genghis Khan, who invaded India during the rule of Illtutmish, and his father was a descendant of Timur, the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. The Mughals did not like the association with Genghis Khan but were very proud to have Timur as their ancestor. First is Emperor Babur who established the Mughal rule in India, then comes his son Humayun, then the most influential and successful emperor of all, 13 year old Emperor Akbar, then his son Jahangir followed by the Shah Jahan, patron of fine arts and last Emperor Aurangzeb. Three major military campaigns were fought by Emperor Babur. These include: 1526 defeat of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat and establishment of Mughal empire in India defeat of Mewar king Rana Sanga and his allies at Khanua 1528 defeat of Rajputs at Chanderi In 1530, Humayun came to power but in 1540 lost his empire to Sher Shah Suri. In 1555, with the help of Safavid Shah, he recaptured Delhi. Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire during his reign from Mewar s rulers surrendered during Jahangir s, who ruled from 1605 to In 1605, Jehangir came to power. Shah Jahan came to power in However he lost Kandahar to the Persians in Shah Jahan reigned from 1627 to In 1658, Aurangzeb, the last of great Mughal kings came to power. Aurangzeb faced several rebellions during his reign from 1658 to Administration of Mughal Empire The Mughals followed the custom of co-parcenary inheritance, where parental property was divided equally among all the sons. As the Mughals became powerful, several rulers voluntarily submitted to their authority. Many Rajput rulers married their daughters into Mughal families to gain position in the Mughal courts. To manage the vast empire and organize the army, Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system. Every officer was given a mansab or a rank, and was called a mansabdar. They were graded according to their rank, salary and military responsibilities which depended upon a numerical value, known as zat. The higher the zat, the higher was the rank and the salary of the mansabdar. A mansabdar maintained a particular number of cavalrymen or sawars under him as a part of his military responsibilities. They received jagirs or land for their service, and the revenue collected from the jagirs was their salary. The increase in the number of mansabdars led to an increase in the waiting period for jagirs, along with a shortage of jagirs. Tax from peasants was one of the main sources of income for the Mughals. Taxes were collected by intermediaries called zamindars. The revenue system in Akbar s reign was called zabt. Akbar also reformed Mughal currency, his aim to establish uniform coinage throughout his empire.

17 Page17 Akbar's Policies Abul Fazl,wrote a manuscript on the history of Akbar s reign called as Akbar Nama. It consisted of three volumes which give detail information about Akbar s ancestors, the important events during Akbar s reign, and a record of his administrative system called Ain-i Akbari respectively. Akbar s empire was divided into provinces called subas each of which was governed by a subadar who took care of the political and military functions. He was supported by a diwan or financial officer, bakshi or military paymasters, sadr or religious leaders, faujdar or military commanders and kotwals or town police in its administration. Ain-i-Akbari also tells us about Akbar s views on religion which say, he believed that all religions preached the same message. He invited religious heads for discussions in his Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri during which the disloyalty by nobles affecting the smooth functioning of the empire. Inspired by these discussions, in 1581, a new doctrine, called Din-i ilahi was introduced that preached peace, tolerance and unity. However, Din-i ilahi faded out after the demise of Akbar. Mughal Empire after 16th Century The 17th century saw extension of the Mughal Empire from Qandahar in the west to Bengal in the east and from Kashmir in the north to Mysore in the south. The efficient military and administration systems of the Mughals made their empire a great economic success. However, the unequal distribution of income and wealth made the mansabdasr rich and the artisans and peasants poor. During Shah Jahan s reign, among the mansabdars only 445 out of the 8,000 had the highest ranking, meaning 5.6% of mansabdars received 61.5% of the total revenue as salaries. However, the income of the other artisans and peasants was just enough for their daily expenditure. After the demise of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire came under the rule of weak successors. Taking advantage of this weakness many individual kings established their own independent kingdoms. All these factors finally led to the decline of the Mughal Empire in 1857, when the British took over. SLOVED QUESTIONS Q1.Who was the first Mughal Emperor? Babur Q2. Explain the term Bigot? An individual who is intolerant of another person s religious believes or culture. Q3 What are Dogma? A statement or an interpretation declared as authoritative with the expectation that it would be followed without question. Q4. Name the Deccan Sultanates? Berar, Malwa, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda were the Deccan Sultanates Q5. Who was Abul Fazl? Abul Fazl was one of Akbar s close friends and courtiers wrote a three volume history of Akbar s reign titled, Akbar Nama. Q6. What was the main source of income for the Mughal rulers? The main source of income to Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry.

18 Page18 Q7. How did the Mughal Empire establish itself in India? In 1526 Babur defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra. Q8. What was the Mughal tradition of succession? They did not believe in the rule of Primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited the father s estate. In fact they followed a custom of coparcener inheritance or a division of inheritance amongst all the sons. Q9. What was Zabt? Where was it prevalent? Akbar s revenue minister Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields prices and areas cultivated for a 10 year period. On the basis of this data tax was fixed on each crop in cash. Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system is known as Zabt. It was prevalent in areas where Mughal administration could survey the land and could very careful accounts. This was not possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal. Q10. Trace the lineage of the Mughals? The Mughals were the descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother s side, they were the descendents of Genghis Khan, ruler of Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia. From their father s side they were the successors of Timur, ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern day Turkey. However the Mughals did not like to be called Mughals or Mongols. This was because Genghis Khan s memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people. Q11. How was Mughal relations with other rulers? When Mughals became powerful many rulers joined them voluntarily. Rajputs are a good example of this. Many of them got their daughters married into Mughal families and received high positions. But many resisted as well. Mughals campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to accept the mughal authority. e.g. Sisodiya Rajputs Once defeated, however, they were honourably treated by the Mughals, given their lands back as their assignments. They were maintaining a careful balance defeating but not humiliating their opponents. Q12. Explain Sulh-i-kul and its advantages. It means Universal Peace. This is the idea of tolerance which did not discriminate between the people of different religions in his realm. Instead it focused on a system of ethics- honesty, peace and justice. This principle of governance was also followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well. Q13 What is Akbar Nama? Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign. Abul Fazl wrote a three volume history of Akbar s reign titled, Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar s ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of Akbar s reign. The third volume is the Ain-I Akbari which deals with Akbar s administration, household, army, the revenues and geography of his empire. Q14. How is Ain-i-Akbari a useful document for the historians? The broad features of the administration were laid by Abul Fazl in his book, the Akbar name in particular its last volume the Ain-i-Akbari deals with Akbar s administration, household, army, the revenues and the geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions and the cultures of the people living in India. It also provides details about crops, yields, prices, wages etc. Q15. Write a note on Akbar s provincial administration. a) The empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military functions. b) Each province also had a financial officer or diwan.

19 Page19 c) For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other officers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal). Q16. Describe Akbar s administration with reference to Mansabdars and Jagirdars? Mansabdars Those who joined Mughal services were called Mansabdars. The term Mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or a rank. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix: 1. Rank 2. Salary 1.Military responsibilities Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called Zat. The higher the zat the more prestigious was the noble s position in the court and larger his salary. Jagirdars The mansabdars got their salaries as revenue assignments called Jagirs which were somewhat like Iqtas. But unlike iqtadars, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their Jagirs. They only had the right to the revenue of their assignments which were collected for them by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other parts of the country. In Akbar s reign these Jagirs were carefully assessed so that revenues were roughly equal to the salaries of mansabdars. Q17 What were the military responsibilities of Mansabdars? The mansabdar s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specific number of sawars or cavalrymen. The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses branded and then received the money to pay them as salaries. Q18 What was the relationship between mansabdar and jagir? Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs. But most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country. In Akbar s reign these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues were roughly equal to the salary of the mansadar. Q19. Who were Zamindars? What was their function? The main source of income available to Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry. In most places, peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is, the headman or the local chieftain. The Mughals used one term zamindars to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains. Q20.What was the plight of peasantry during Aurangzeb s reign? During the Aurangzeb s reign there was a huge increase in the number of mansabdars. This meant that there was a long wait before they received a Jagir. This and other factors created a shortage in the number of jagirs. As a result, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir. Aurangzeb was unable to control these developments in the last years of his reign and peasantry therefore suffered tremendously.

20 Page20 Q21. The inequalities during the Shah Jahan s reign were glaring. Comment International visitors described India as the fabled land of wealth. But these same visitors were also appalled the state of poverty that existed side by side with the great opulence. Documents from the 20th year of Shah Jahan s inform us that the highest ranking mansabdars were merely 5.6% of total number the mansabdars but they received 61.5% of the total estimated revenue of the empire as salaries for themselves and their troopers. The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their income on salaries and goods. This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce. But the scale of revenue collection left very little for the investment in the hands of primary producers- the peasants and the artisans. The poorest amongst them lived from hand to mouth and they could hardly consider investing in additional resources- tools and supplies- to increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and the bankers profited in this economic world

21 Page21 RULERS AND BUILDINGS Engineering Skills and Construction The Qutub Minar was built in an era when other than manual labour, very few engineering tools were available for construction. The first storey of Qutub Minar was constructed in 1199 by India s first Muslim ruler Qutubuddin Aibak, while the rest were built by Iltutmish in Between the 8th and the 18th centuries, kings and their officers usually built two kinds of structures: the first were forts, palaces and tombs, and the second were structures meant for public use. Several rooms, doors and windows were built in mosques, tombs, temples and buildings attached to large stepped-wells or baolis. This was done by using the trabeate or corbelled style of architecture. In the corbelled technique, roofs, doors and windows are made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns. This technique is also used to construct an arch. The structure above the ground is called a superstructure. The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows were supported by arches. This style of architecture is called arcuate. From the beginning of the 12th century, the arcuate style of architecture came into being, and limestone cement was used in construction. Two stylistic developments took place in the twelfth century, i.e. the arcuate style of architecture and the usage of limestone cement. An example of this is the Kandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho built by King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty in 999 for Lord Shiva. The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur, one of tallest shikharas, or pinnacles, has a stone weighing 90 tonnes at the top of the shikhara. Constructing Temples and Mosques In the medieval period, kings constructed places of worship for two reasons, 1. to showcase their wealth, power and devotion to god and 2. To earn the gratitude of their subjects by building for them areas of use, comfort and need. A temple complex represented the real world order about how the ruler controlled the allies and the subordinates. Muslims didn t believe in idolization and strongly believe that God is the greatest architect. Mosques were symmetrical structures showcasing their ability to bring about order and symmetry from chaos. As each new ruler wished to prove his worth, he would build bigger and grander temples and mosques. As these structures were a symbol of a king s power and wealth, they were the first places to be attacked by an enemy. Some temples and mosques had tanks in their premises, such as the Golden Temple and the Jami Masjid. Kings attacking places of worship used to send a message to the subjects that if the old ruler could not protect his own god, he was fit to rule them no more. Constructing Gardens, Tombs and Forts As mentioned in Baburnama, Babur s autobiography, Babur enjoyed planning the layout of gardens called as chahar baghs, which means four gardens, as they were symmetrically divided into four smaller parts. Mughal kings like Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan built beautiful chahar baghs in Kashmir, Delhi and Agra. Humayun s tomb in Delhi, built during Akbar s reign, was placed between huge formal chahar baghs. Humayun s tomb was built in the tradition known as the eight paradises or Hasht Bihisht, meaning a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. A central dome and a tall gateway called Pishtaq, a Persian influence became a part of Mughal Architecture. The reign of Shah Jahan is considered to be the golden age of Mughal architecture. The river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal in Agra is recognized as the grandest masterpiece of Shah Jahan s reign. The nobles in Agra constructed their garden palaces on the river banks of the Yamuna.

22 Page22 Shah Jahan also built the walled city of Shahjahanabad in Delhi, with the Red Fort as its centre. The audience halls resembled a mosque, and were placed within a large courtyard, known as Chihil Sutun, or forty-pillared halls. The pedestal on which Shah Jahan s throne was placed was referred to as the qiblah, the direction that the Muslims face at the time of prayer. This was an architectural reminder to indicate that the king was a representative of God on earth. Behind the emperor s throne, there are a series of pietra dura inlays in the audience hall. Pietra dura is an art of coloured hardstone which are exquisitely cut to create beautiful, ornate patterns. Adopting New Ideas for Construction During the medieval period, there was an increase in construction activity. The intermingling of cultures influenced the art and architecture of the time. For instance, the elephant stables of the rulers of Vijaynagara, resembles the structure of the monuments of the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates. Similarly, the temples in Vrindavan, near Mathura, seem to be inspired by the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri. When large empires were created, several small regions came under a single rule. This brought about a confluence of art forms and styles of architectures of various regions. Some regional architectural styles even impacted the Mughal architecture from Gujarat and Malwa like some palaces in Fatehpur Sikri. After the decline of Mughal Empire too, some rulers adapted their architectural style, but couldn t keep up the finesse and consistency of Mughal architecture. Q1. Define the following: 1. Superstructure: The part of a building above the ground floor. 2. Trabeate / Corbelled: When roofs, windows and doors were made by placing a horizontal beam of wood or stone slabs across two vertical columns, the style of architecture is called Trabeate / Corbelled. 3. Arcuate: The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by the arches. This architectural form was called Arcuate. 4. Chahar Bagh: These were the layouts placed between the rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. 5. Pietra Dura: Coloured, hard stones placed in depressions carved into marble or sandstone creating beautiful ornate patterns. Q2. What kind of construction activities were taken up between 8th and 18th centuries? Ans. Kings and officers built two kinds of structures: 1. The first were forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs-safe, protected and grandiose places. 2. The second were structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells and bazaars. Q3. Why were kings getting the structures constructed for their people? Ans. Kings were expected to take care of their subjects and by making structures for their use and comfort, rulers hoped to win their praise. Q4. Which technological developments took place in the contruction activities from the 12th century? 1. The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by the arches. This architectural style was called Arcuate. 2. Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction. Q5. Why was limestone increasingly used in the construction activities? Ans. This was very high quality cement, which when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made the construction of large structures easier and faster. Q6. Why were temples and mosques constructed? Ans. Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship. These were also meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.

23 Page23 Q7. Why were the kings of past adopting the names of Gods? Ans. The kings of past were adopting the names of Gods because it was auspicious and they wanted to appear like Gods. Q8. How did Persian court chronicles describe Sultan? Ans. Muslim Sultans did not claim to be incarnations of God but Persian court chronicles describe Sultan as the shadow of God. Q9. Why were rulers interested in transforming their capitals to cultural centers? Ans. Rulers offered patronage to the learned and pious and tried to transfer their capitals and cities into great cultural centers that brought fame to their rule. Q10. Who constructed Hauz-i-Sultani and why? Ans. Sultan Iltutmish constructed Hauz-i-sultani or the Kings reservoir for winning universal respect by making the precious water available to the people. Q11. Why were temples and mosques attacked and destroyed by other kings? Ans. Temples were built by the kings to demonstrate their power, wealth and devotion to God. So, it is not surprising that when they attacked one another s kingdoms they often targeted these buildings. In middle ages most rulers displayed their political abilities and military success by attacking and looting the places of worship of defeated rulers. Q12. Which Mughal rulers were interested in architecture? Ans. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Q13. Which were the areas of interest of Shah Jahan? Ans. Shah Jahan was personally interested in Literature, Art and Architecture. Q14. Why were Chahar Baghs given this name? Ans. The formal gardens that were placed with rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels were called Chahr Baghs. They were so called because of their symmetrical division into quarters. Q15. Which architectural developments took place during the Akbar s reign? Ans. There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar s reign like construction of tombs, central towering domes and the tall gateways. Q16. Write a short note on the architectural development and construction activities that took place during Shah Jahan s reign? Ans. Following were the activities that took place during Shah Jahan s reign: 1. It was during his reign that the different elements of Mughal architecture were fused together. His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi. 2. The ceremonial halls of public and private audience were carefully planned. 3. His audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in session. 4. He also constructed Red Fort in Delhi in which behind the emperor s throne there was a series of pietra dura inlays. 5. He adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.

24 Page24 Q17. How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone the rich or poor, the powerful or the weak- received justice equally from the Emperor? Ans. Shah Jahan s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal in which his throne was placed was frequently described as qibla, the direction faced by muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when the court was in session. The idea of the king as the representative of the God on earth was suggested by these architectural features. The construction of Shah Jahan s audience halls aimed to communicate that king s justice would treat the high and the low as equals where all could live in harmony. Q18. What led to the cross fertilization of artistic forms and architectural styles in between the 8th and 18th century? Ans. The creation of large empires that brought different regions under one rule helped in the cross fertilization and sharing of artistic forms and architectural styles.

25 Page25 TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS Important Trading Cities of India The city of Hampi was once the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire founded in 1336 and located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin. Its walls were constructed using wedging or interlocking rocks while its markets were thronged by the Moors, Chettis and agents of Portuguese traders. Hampi fell into ruin after the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans like the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar and Bidar. Surat acted as a gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz and was known as the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period. The city was famous for its cotton textiles with gold lace borders, known as zari, which had great demand in West Asia, Africa and Europe. The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking houses at Surat. Their hundis were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium. However, the city started declining after the decline of Mughal Empire and when lost control of sea trade to the Portuguese. Masulipatanam, or Machlipatnam, meaning a fish port town, which lay on the delta of the Krishna River, had a flourishing sea trade with the French, British and Dutch. It boasted of various trading groups such as the Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis and European traders, which made the city populous and prosperous. Mir Jumla, the Governor of Golconda began playing the Dutch and the English against each other, causing the European Companies to look for alternatives. Emergence of Trading Towns Around the 8th century, trading towns began to emerge across the Indian subcontinent. Trade was conducted in village markets called mandapikas or mandis, in hattas or haats, and also in special streets for various artisans. Traders undertook dangerous journeys across towns to carry out their business. They sold articles such as salt, camphor, saffron and betel nut, and spices like pepper. Some even traded horses. Trading towns became wealthy places, therefore, to protect these towns, a samanta or, a zamindar would fortify them by building walls. Along with protecting these towns, the zamindars also levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade. Traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests to conduct their trade. They formed guilds in order to protect their interests. There were several such guilds in South India from the 8th century onwards, the most famous being the Manigramam and the Nanadesi. The Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal went on to become the principal trading groups of the country. In Gujarat, Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, East Africa, south-east Asia and China. Traders sold textiles and spices to European traders at sea ports. The demand for spices and cotton cloth eventually drew European traders to India. While the big traders carried out trade across the country or even with foreigners, there were small traders, who continued to trade in their towns. These small traders were quite famous for their crafts and their work was greatly valued.

26 Page26 The craftspersons of Bidar were so famous for their inlay work in copper and silver that the work was named after their town and came to be called Bidri. The Panchala or Vishwakarma community was essential to temple building. These craftspersons consisted of goldsmiths, bronze-smiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters. Over time, trade towns came up and shrank throughout India. European Traders In the 15th century, European sailors embarked on new sea routes to obtain Indian spices and cotton. Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered the ocean route from Portugal to India and reached Calicut in 1498 after a year. As the discovery of new sea route increased the demand for spices and cotton the English, Dutch and French businessmen formed their respective East India Companies. The Indian traders thus lost their trading rights as the Europeans were more powerful and had to work as the European agents. The demand for textiles led to a great expansion of the crafts like spinning, weaving, bleaching and dyeing. However, the high demand resulted in artisans losing the liberty of creating their own patterns, and producing designs that would sell in European markets. This led to the rise of commercial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The business of the European traders multiplied many fold due to the discovery of sea routes to India. Towns of Medieval India Various towns in the medieval India performed several functions like artisans specializing in certain arts - Banarasi sarees and the Gwalior Gharana of Hindustani music. Some were famous for temples like Somnath in Gujarat or Mathura and Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh while others were well-known centres of administration like Magadha and Patna. Towns were categorized on the basis of an administrative town, a temple town and a commercial centre. The town that developed as the capital of a kingdom, and physically encompassed the offices and meeting places of the ruler, was called an administrative town while, a town that developed around a temple, was a temple town. Thanjavur was a single town to perform all of these functions. Situated in the Kaveri delta, it was surrounded by rivers and paddy fields and became prominent after being conquered by the Chola rulers. The town is famous for the Rajarajeshvara temple, built by King Rajaraja Chola. The walls of buildings are covered with numerous inscriptions recording the conquests and charitable endowments of King Rajaraja. Thanjavur also boasts of majestic palaces containing mandapas or pavilions, from where the kings issued orders to their subordinates. Its markets always bustled with people, coming to buying and selling grain, spices, jewelry and cloth. These temples soon became important economic centre, giving opportunity to various artisans and craftsmen, like the saliya weavers for fine and rough cloth, and the sthapatis for bronze idols, lamps, bells and other articles. Towards the end of medieval period, samantas or zamindars started building fortified areas to protect the common people. They also laid heavy taxes on traders and artisans using the collected money for administrative purposes. These towns had designated a mandi or mandapika area, where farmers from nearby villages would come to sell their produce. The street market was called hatta or haat and was lined with shops.

27 Page27 QUESTION SOLVED Q1 How were the towns classified in the medieval age? The towns were classified into three categories depending upon the functions they performed. The three types of towns were: a temple town, an administrative centre and a commercial town. In fact, many towns combined several functions they were administrative centres, temple towns, as well as centres of commercial activities and craft production. Q2 What were mandapas? There are palaces with mandapas or pavilions. Kings hold court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. Q3 Write a short note on Thanjavur. 1. Thanjavur was the capital of Cholas. 2. The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. 3. One hears the bells of the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola. 4. Besides the temple, there are palaces with mandapas or pavilions. Kings hold court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. 5. There are also barracks for the army. 6. The town is bustling with markets selling grain, spices, cloth and jewellery. 7. Water supply for the town comes from wells and tanks. 8. At Svamimalai, the sthapatis or sculptors are making exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps. Q4 How do you say that Thanjavur was an example of a temple town? Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town. Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop. Temples were often central to the economy and society. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations. Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking. Gradually a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to cater to its needs and those of the pilgrims. Thus grew temple towns..q5 What functions were performed by the Samantas living in the earlier times? Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindar built a fortified palace in or near these towns. They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and sometimes donated the right to collect these taxes to local temples, which had been built by themselves or by rich merchants.. Q6 Name few of the products that the traders of small towns were generally dealing in. Salt, camphor, saffron, betel nut and spices like pepper. Q7 What kind of trade took place on the west coast of India in the earlier times? The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders. Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red Sea ports were purchased by Italian traders and eventually reached European markets, fetching very high profits. Spices grown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger, etc.) became an important part of European cooking, and cotton cloth was very attractive. This eventually drew European traders to India

28 Page28 Q8 Why were the guilds formed by the traders? Since traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests, they usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests. Q9 Name any two famous guilds of the past. Manigramam and Nanadesi. Q10 What was Bidri? The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper and silver that it came to be called Bidri. Q11 What was Vishwakarma community? The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples. They also played an important role in the construction of palaces, big buildings, tanks and reservoirs. Q12 List the characteristics of Hampi. Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the Vijayanagra empire. The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and the technique followed was to wedge them together by interlocking. The architecture of Hampi was distinctive. The buildings in the royal complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls. They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens. Q13 How were the temples of Hampi as Hub of cultural activities? Temples of Hampi were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple dancers) performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple. The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was one of the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi Q14 What lead to ruin of the city of Hampi? Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar. Q15 What was Surat famous for? b) Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period and somewhat later. The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castes and creeds lived there. In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat. c) There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari). d) The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world who came to the city. Q16 What led to the decline of Surat towards the end of the seventeenth century? This was because of many factors: the loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire, control of the sea routes by the Portuguese and competition from Bombay (presentday Mumbai) where the English East India Company shifted its headquarters. Q17 Where was the town of Masulipatnam located? The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (literally, fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river. Q18 Why did the Dutch and the English East India Company want to control Masulipatnam? Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it became the most important port on the Andhra coast. The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.

29 Page29 Q19 Why did the Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the trade? The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and other items to prevent the trade passing completely into the hands of the various East India Companies. Q20 How did the European traders get a control over the trade? European countries were searching for spices and textiles, which had become popular both in Europe and West Asia. The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies in order to expand their commercial activities in the east. The European Companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade and forced Indian traders to work as their agents. Ultimately, the English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in the subcontinent. Q21 How did the production of textiles grew in India during 16th - 17th century? In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, European countries were searching for spices and textiles, which had become popular both in Europe and West Asia. The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies in order to expand their commercial activities in the east. The spurt in demand for goods like textiles led to a great expansion of the crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, etc. with more and more people taking them up. Indian textile designs became increasingly refined. However, this period also saw the decline of the independence of crafts persons. They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European agents. Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving their own patterns. They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company agents. Q22 What were Black Towns? Native merchants and artisans (such as weavers) were moved into the Black Towns established by the European companies within the new cities while the white rulers occupied the superior residencies. Q23 Write the note on Gujarati Traders. Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China. They sold textiles and spices in these ports and, in exchange, brought gold and ivory from Africa; and spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China. Q24 Define the following- Hatta: Hatta was a market street lined with shops Factor: Official merchant of the East India Company. Hundi: Is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of the deposit. Emporium: A place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and sold. Mandapika: (or mandi of later times) was a place to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell. Moors- a name used collectively for Muslim merchants. Q25 What lead to development of towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras? It was a part of the new policy of the English East India Company that it was not enough if a port had connections with the production centres of the hinterland. The new Company trade centres, it was felt, should combine political, administrative and commercial roles. As the Company traders moved to Bombay, (the EIC shifted its headquarters in 1668) Calcutta (present-day Kolkata) and Madras (present-day Chennai).

30 Page30 TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES Tribal Societies Indian civilization consisted of many different societies following different systems. Some people followed the Varna or caste system prescribed by the Brahmins, where people were classified on the basis of their occupation. Under the Mughal Empire, this division became even more prominent. There were some people who did not follow the caste system and rituals prescribed by the Brahmins and were often called tribes. The tribal societies did not have hierarchy or class inequality as the members were tied by family relationships. Some tribes were nomadic and moved from one place to another, while others earned their living from agriculture. They did not keep any written records about their traditions but had a rich history of arts, rituals and customs, which they passed to the next generation through oral communication. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Khokar tribe was very influential in Punjab and was succeeded by the Gakkhars. The Langah and Arghun tribes dominated extensive regions in Multan and Sind before they were subdued by the Mughals. The Balochis were a large and powerful tribe that lived in the north-west region and consisted of smaller clans, which had their own chiefs. The Gaddis were a tribe of shepherds that lived in the western Himalayas while the distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent was entirely dominated by tribes like the Nagas, Ahoms and others. Chero chiefdoms emerged in Bihar and Jharkhand during the 12th century. Other important tribes such as the Mundas and Santals lived in Orissa and Bengal. The Kolis, Berads and others lived in the Maharashtra highlands, Karnataka and also in some parts of Gujarat. Large populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others lived in the south while the Bhils were spread across western and central India. The Gonds could be found in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Nomads The Banjaras were nomadic traders who move from place to place for selling goods. They moved in a tanda or caravan with families, oxen and wares. A tanda would consist of 600 or 700 people and would travel around 8-10 kilometres per day. They bought grains from a cheap place and sold to a place where it was dearer which they transported on their oxens. For food, they would depend on pastoral goods such as milk, ghee and other animal products. They exchanged craft articles either created by them or bought from far off places and pastoral products such as wool, ghee for the grains, cloth and utensils. They were important traders, as kings would often ask them to provide food to their soldiers. Gonds and Ahoms During the Vedic period, two important tribes which interacted with other tribes and rose to power were the Gonds and the Ahoms. The Gonds were a large tribe, living in forested regions called Gondwana or the country inhabited by Gonds. It consisted of smaller clans ruled by individual rajas or rais and practiced shifting cultivation.

31 Page31 During the decline of the Delhi sultanate, the chiefs of large Gond clans started dominating the smaller clans, leading to a gradual centralization of their administrative system. Every kingdom was divided into garhs, which were further divided into village units called chaurasis. A chaurasi was further subdivided into barhots. The Ahoms were another important tribe, predominant in Vedic India. They lived in Myanmar and migrated to the Brahmaputra valley in the early 13th century. The Ahoms did not possess their own kingdoms, but created their state by suppressing the older political system of the landlords, known as Bhuiyans. The economy of this new state was dependent on forced labour called paiks. Their state was divided into clans or khels. The men of the Ahoms built dams, irrigation systems and public works and encouraged art and literature. They also translated Sanskrit works into the local language, and wrote historical works known as buranjis in the Ahom language, and then in Assamese. SOLVED QUESTION Q1 What was varna system of the Indian society? In large parts of the subcontinent, society was divided according to the rules of varna. These rules, as prescribed by the Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms. The difference between the high and low, and between the rich and poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals, this hierarchy between social classes grew further. Q2 Who were tribals? Many societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas. Nor were they divided into numerous unequal classes. Such societies are often called tribes. People of these tribes were called the tribals. Q3 Write a short note on the tribal people. 1) Members of each tribe were united by kinship bonds. 2) Many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders. Most often they combined these activities to make full use of the natural resources of the area in which they lived. 3) Some tribes were nomadic and moved from one place to another. Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach. In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture. Q4 How do the Tribes preserved their cultures? The tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These were passed down to each new generation. Present day historians have started using such oral traditions to write tribal histories. Q5 What was the relationship between castes based society and the tribal society? Sometimes the tribal societies clashed with the more powerful caste- based societies. But the caste based and tribal societies also depended on each other for their diverse needs. This relationship, of conflict and dependence, gradually caused both societies to change. Sometimes, with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes became part of the caste system. But only the leading tribal families could join the ruling class. A large majority joined the lower jatis of caste society Q6 What is a clan? A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. Tribal organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.

32 Page32 Q7 Who were Bhils? The large tribe of Bhils was spread across western and central India. By the late sixteenth century, many of them had become settled agriculturists and some even zamindars. Many Bhil clans nevertheless, remained hunter gatherers. Q8 Who were nomadic pastoralists? Nomadic pastoralists were the people who moved over long distances with their animals. They lived on milk and other pastoral products. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products. They bought and sold these goods as they moved from one place to another, transporting them on their animals. Q9 Name some of the occupations of the nomads. 1. Many pastoral tribes reared and sold animals, such as cattle and horses, to the prosperous people. 2. Different castes of petty pedlars also travelled from village to village. They made and sold wares such as ropes, reeds, straw matting and coarse sacks. 3. Sometimes mendicants acted as wandering merchants. There were castes of entertainers who performed in different towns and villages for their livelihood. Q10 What was Tanda? The Banjaras were the most important trader nomads. Their caravan was called tanda. Q11 How were banjaras useful to different emperors and kings? Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets. Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from different areas and sold it in towns. They transported food grain for the Mughal army during military campaigns. Q12 What were jatis? As the economy and the needs of society grew, people with new skills were required. Smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas. On the other hand, many tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis. Specialised artisans smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. Jatis, rather than varna, became the basis for organising society. Q13 What is shifting cultivation? Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt. The crop is sown in the ashes. When this land loses its fertility, another plot of land is cleared and planted in the same way. Q14 Name the tribal groups who did not adopt the caste system. Many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early. They continued to reject the caste system. The unequal social order, prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these areas. Q15 Write a note on origin of Rajputs. Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They belonged to different lineages, such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and others. Some of these, too, had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs. They gradually replaced the older rulers, especially in agricultural areas. Here a developed society was emerging, and rulers used their wealth to create powerful states. Q16 Who were Gonds? What was the system of administration of the Gond society? The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana. They practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai.

33 Page33 The administrative system of Gond kingdoms was becoming centralised. The kingdom was divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan. This was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each. Q17 With the passage of time what changes were introduced in the Gond society? The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society. Their basically equal society gradually got divided into unequal social classes. Brahmanas received land grants from the Gond rajas and became more influential. The Gond chiefs now wished to be recognised as Rajputs. Q18 Who were Ahoms? The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century. They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords). The Ahoms built a large state, and for this they used firearms as early as the 1530s. By the 1660s they could even make highquality gunpowder and cannons. However, the Ahoms faced many invasions from the south-west. In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom. Despite their brave defence, the Ahoms were defeated. But direct Mughal control over the region could not last long Q19 Who were paiks? Ahom state depended on forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were called paiks. A census of the population was taken. Each village had to send a number of paiks by rotation. Q20 How did the Ahom clans break up? People from heavily populated areas were shifted to less populated places. Ahom clans were thus broken up. Q21 What were the different kinds of work that the members of the Ahom society did? Almost all adult males served in the army during war. At other times, they were engaged in building dams, irrigation systems and other public works. The Ahoms also introduced new methods of rice cultivation. Q22 How was the Ahom society organized? Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. There were very few castes of artisans, so artisans in the Ahom areas came from the adjoining kingdoms. A khel often controlled several villages. The peasant was given land by his village community. Even the king could not take it away without the community s consent. Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. During the first half of the seventeenth century, however, the influence of Brahmanas increased. Temples and Brahmanas were granted land by the king. Hinduism became the predominant religion. But the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism. Poets and scholars were given land grants. Theatre was encouraged. Important works of Sanskrit were translated into the local language.

34 Page34 DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE Medieval Indian Ideas of Devotion Religion is an organized approach to belief in a divine power and creates a bond between unrelated people to form cooperative groups. This intermingling led to the development of many new ideas within the Indian subcontinent like social privileges by birth into a certain family or caste and inequality. Some people were against such ideas and hence they started towards the teachings of the Buddha and Jainas. There were some people who accepted the idea of Bhakti or devoting oneself to God. The three main deities were Shiva, Vishnu and Durga while all the other gods and goddesses were their avatars. People started worshiping as per rituals recommended in the Puranas. However, later even the Puranas mentioned that God blessed people on their devotion and irrespective of their caste. This was the beginning of the Bhakti movement which quickly gained popularity and also adopted by the Buddhist and Jain belief system. In South India, this movement was propagated by the Nayanars and the Alvars where the former worshiped Lord Shiva, the latter worshipped Lord Vishnu. The rulers that time built temples for the saints to strengthen the link between the Bhakti tradition and temple worship. The hagiographies and poems compiled by the saints are an invaluable source of information for us today. The Bhakti movement was greatly influenced by philosophers like Shankaracharya and Ramanuja. Shankaracharya, a firm believer of Lord Brahma said Advaita or the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God leads to salvation. While Ramanuja, a loyal devotee of Lord Vishnu said that Vishishtadvaita or the separateness of the individual soul even when merged with the Supreme God leads to its salvation. Their teachings inspired a new way of Bhakti that became popular in North India. In Karnataka, a new Bhakti tradition was started by Basavanna, called the Virashaiva movement. Its followers believed in equality of all humans, and were against all forms of ritual and idol worship. Important Saints of Maharashtra and North India During the medieval period, many saints emerged in the Indian Subcontinent teaching that the power to save people belongs to the "Divine Name". They usually taught using poems and songs written in their regional language. The important saint-poets of Maharashtra, were Jñāneshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram and taught in Marathi. They worshipped Lord Vitthala, an avatar of Lord Vishnu, lived an ordinary life, and rejected the idea of renunciation. Sant Mirabai, a passionate devotee of Lord Krishna, greatly influenced the people of Rajasthan and Gujarat with her bhajans. After the 13th century, new developments took place in the Bhakti movement in North India. In the north, people were greatly influenced by saints like Tulsidas, a devotee of Lord Rama, and Surdas, a devotee of Lord Krishna. To express his devotion, Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas, while Surdas composed the Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari. Another important saint is Sant Kabir who was brought up by a Muslim family of weavers. He is one of the first Indian saints to harmonize the teachings of Hinduism and Islam. His teachings can be found in books like the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak. In the 15th century, another great saint, Shankaradeva was born in Assam and was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. He started the practice of namghars or houses of recitation and prayer that is practiced till date.

35 Page35 The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis religious groups were formed around the same time and did not believe in rituals, but preached that one should sacrifice worldly pleasures. These groups were popular among people from the lower castes due to their different ideas on devotional religion. A common feature among the saints is that their works were written in their regional languages and could be easily sung, one of the reasons for their popularity. The poor like artisans, peasants, laborers and traders were greatly influenced by the saints and helped to spread their teachings. Guru Nanak and the Sikh Movement The Guru Granth Sahib begins with the word Ik Onkar, which means there is only one God. It is composed by Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism and was born in 1469 at Talwandi. He finally settled in Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi. His followers offered prayers by singing his hymns and ate together in langar, a common kitchen. His place of worship was dharmsal, now known as a Gurudwara. Guru Nanak appointed Lehna as his successor; known as Guru Angad. Guru Angad compiled Guru Nanak s and his own compositions in the Gurmukhi script, which is used for writing the Punjabi language. Later, all the teachings of Nanak s successors and other religious people were compiled into the holy book of the Sikhs the Guru Granth Sahib, affirmed by Guru Gobind Singh. His followers were mainly traders and artisans, as Guru Nanak insisted that his followers follow a productive occupation. Guru Nanak s teachings emphasized on three things: nam japna or right belief and worship, kirt karna or honest living, and vand chhakna or helping others. In the 17th century, Harmandar Sahib at Ramdaspur developed into an independent state of the Sikh community, now known as the Golden Temple, Amritsar. Seeing the Sikh community grow, Mughal Emperor Jahangir started considering them a potential threat, and had Guru Arjan executed. This led to the development of the Sikh movement and the creation of the Khalsa Panth by Guru Gobind Singh that later became a political entity. SOLVED QUESTIONS Question 1.You can observe this process of local myths and legends receiving wider acceptance even today Can you find some examples around you. Answer: 1. Hinduism, the religion of the majority of the citizens of India, is a varived faith whose local manifestations are diverse. 2. Folk religion in Hinduism many explain the rationale behind local religious practices,and contain local myths that explain the existence of local religious customs or the location of temples. 3. One such example is as under:india possesses a large body of heoric ballads andepic poetry preserved in oral tradition. One such oral epic, telling of sotry of Pabuji, has been collected by Dr. Johan Smith fom Rajasthan.It is a long poem in the Rajesthani languag, traditionally told by professional storytellers, Known as Bhopas. They deliver it in front of a tapestry the depicts the characters of the story and functions as a portable temple, accompanied by a ravanhattho fiddle. Intext Question 2. How does the poet describe his relationship with the deity? Answer: The poet feels of his lord inside his body. Due to this presence, the poet is set free from sorrow, birth, death and illusion.he believes that nobody can separate him from God. Intext Question Question 3. Try and find out more about the ideas of Shankara or Ramanuja. Answer. Some of the major ideas of Shankara are as under:

36 Page36 1. His teachings aimed at cleansing Vedic philosophy of it obscurities and inconsistencies and thereby making it intelligible and aceptable to the common man. 2. According to him, Brahman was only an existence without any quality by which it could be described. 3. It was pure consciousness, not a subject knowing an object. 4. Maya was neither an existence nor a non-existence and wasa therfore indescribable. 5. His ideas were based on Upanishads and some of them were borrowed from Buddhism. Question 4. What is the temple that Basavanna is offering to God? Answer:Basavanna is offering the temple of his body to his beloved God. According to him, his legs are pillars, his body the shrine, and head a Cupola of gold. Question 5. Discuss the ideas about the social order expressed in these compositions. Answer. The ideas expressed by these composition are as folllow: 1. Lower caste people were a rejected lot of society. 2. They were beaten. 3. They had to eat left-ower food. 4. But there were few people who identified the beaten and battered people.tukaram calls such people as saints. 5. Saints treated a slave as his own son.it can be concluded that the social order had mixed people. Question 6. Why do you think Mirabi left the Rana's place? Answer. Mirabia left the Rana's palace because there she had to face restrictions and Rana's opposition in her devotional activities. Question 7. In what ways are the ideas in this poem similar to or different from those of Basavanna and Jalaiddin Rumi? Answer.The central ideas of Kabir, Basavanna an Jaluddin Rumi emphases that the God resides within one's heart. It cannot be found anywhere else on this earth. Q 8. You are attending a meeting where a siant is discussing the cast system. Relate the conversation. Answer. 1. Siant would critically examine the caste system. 2. He would present its disadvantage and prove them with suitable examples. 3. He would also suggest ways in which the caste system can be reformed. Otherwise he would denounce the caste system ask his followers to breakway from it. 4. He would suggest the path of Bhakti (personal devotion to beloved God) to his followers. 5. He would sing devotional songs (bhajan) to end the meeting. Additional Question. Q 1. What did Buddha teach? Answer. Buddha taught that it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth throw personal effort. Q 2. What was the source of Idea of Bhakti? Answer:The idea of Bhakti (devotion) was advocated in the Bhagavadggita. Q 3. Which Gods were worshipped by Bhaktas. Answer:Bhaktas worsipped Shiva, Vishnu and Durga Q 4. Who were Alvara and Nayanars? Answer: The saints devoted to Shiva and Vishnu were Nayanars and Alvars, respectivily.

37 Page37 Let's Recall Question 1. Match the following: The Buddha Namaghar Nizamuddin Shankaradeve Auliya Nayanars Alvars Worship of Shiva Worship of Vishnu Questioned social differences Suffi Siant Answer: The Buddha Shankaradeve Auliya Nayanars Alvars Questioned social differences Namaghar Nizamuddin Sufi Siant Worship of Shiva Worship of Vishnu Question 2. Fill in the blanks: (a) Shankara was an advocate of. (b) Ramanuja was influenced by the. (c), and were advocates of Virashaivism. (d) was an important centre of the Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra. Answer: (a) Shankara was an advocate of Advaita. (b) Ramanuja was influenced by the Vishistadvaita. (c) Basavanna,Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi were advocates of Virashaivism. (d) Pandharpur was an important centre of the Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra. Question 3. Describe the briefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Sidhas and yogis. Answer: The briefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Sidhas and yogis were as under: 1. The criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional regional and the social order. 2. They used simple and logical arguments to present their thoughts. 3. They advocate renuciation of the world. 4. According to them Salvation could be attained by meditation on the formless ultimate reality and realisation of oneness with it. 5. To achieve Salvation, they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercise and meditation. Question 4. What were the major ideas expressed by kabir? How the express these? Answer: The major ideas of Kabir were follows: 1. He believed in a formless Superme God and preached that the only path to Salvation of through bhakti or devotion. 2. His teachings were based on a complete, ineed vehement, reaction of the major religious traditions. 3. He openly ridiculed al forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hindusthan and Islam. 4. He also ridiculed the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system. 5. To express his ideas, he used a form of spoken hindi.

38 Page38 Let's Understand Question 5. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis? Answer: 1. Sufis rejected oput wards religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings. 2. They often rejected the elborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religous scholars. 3. They sought union with God much as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world. 4. Sufi saints composed poem and prose literature including anecdotes and fables. 5. They believed that the heart can be trained to look at the world in different way. 6. They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a scared formula), contemplation, sama (singing) raqs (dancing). 7. The Sufi Siants held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices. Question 6. Why do you think many teachers rejected pervalent religious beliefs and practices? Answer: It has the following ways: 1. The social order had many unequal social castes.the lower castses were oppressed by the uppercasts. 2. The teachers of Bhakti of Sufisam wanted to free the right of worship God and simplify it by abandonning elaborate rituals to please God. 3. They believed in the power of presonal devotion. 4. The upliftment of lower castes could be attained by rejection of pervalent religious beliefs and practices. Question 7. What were the major teaching of Baba Guru Nanak? Answer. The major teaching of Baba Guru Nanak were as under: 1. He emphasised the importance of the worship of one God. 2. He insisted that caste, creed or gendar was irrelevant for attaining liberation. 3. His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert blis but the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of social commitment. 4. He, himself, used the twerms nam, elan and insan for the essence of his teachings which actually meant right worship, welfare of purity of conduct. 5. He directed to the importance to right belief and worship, honest living and helping others. Let's Discuss Question 8. For either the Virashaivas or the sants of Maharashtra, discuss their attiude towards caste. Answer. The attiude of Virashaivas towards caste wase as follows: 1. They reacted to the temple worship. 2. The towards Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings. 3. The rejected Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. Question 9. Why do you think ordinary people preserved the memory of Mirabai? Answer. Due to ther following resons, the ordinary people preserved the memory of Mirabai: She was a queen and devote of Krishna. She composed innumerable bhajans expressing here intense devotion to his beloved lord. She left her husband's but she did not die. This popularised her as being saved by Lord. Thus, her authenticity as a true devotes was proved. She even drank poison, sent by her husband, but she did not die. this popularised her as being saved by lord. Thus, her authenticity as a true devote. Her songs openly challenged the nomars of the "upper" castes and become popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

39 Page39 Let's do Question 10. Find out weather in your neighbourhood there are any dargahs, gurdwaras or temples associated with saints of the bhakti tradition in your neighourhood. Visit any one of these and describe what you see and hear? Answer. Students, do it yourselves. Question 11.Find any of the saint-poets whose compositions have been included in this chapter, find out more about their works down other poems. find out weather these are sung, how they are sung, and what the poets wrote about. Answer. Students, do it yourselvess. Question 12. There are a several saint-poets whose names have been mentioned but their works have not been includes in the chapter. Find out more about the language in which they composed, whether their compositions were sung, and what their compositions were about? Answer. Students, do it yourselves.

40 Page40 THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES Development of Regional Culture Regions developed due to shared commonalty amongst the people like language, traditional rituals, and food habits. The traditions we follow have evolved through the intermingling of cultures. Language ties people together as a community more strongly than any other factor. Earlier, all texts were written in Sanskrit. In the 9th century, Chera Kingdom of Mahodayapuram, first time, used a regional language, Malayalam, for administrative purposes, giving it the same position of power and respect as Sanskrit. Shared religious traditions bring people together, especially if these traditions have the backing of the region s rulers. The deity at Orissa was originally a local god who later identified as Vishnu. Realizing the important role of Vishnu in culture, King Anantavarman of the Ganga Dynasty constructed a temple for Purushottama Jagannath at Puri. Another factor that brings people together is their shared values like, the Rajputs of Rajasthan speak different languages. However, the factor uniting them is their valour. Development of Regional Art Forms Regional art forms came into existence owing to the need of people to their story. As a result, unique art forms were developed like dance, folktales and paintings to record and retell the past. Kathak, a dance form is derived from the word Katha which means story. Initially, it was performed only in temples; it evolved as being performed in the Mughal courts and today as a classical dance form. Painting was also used to record history and a unique style of painting called miniature was developed. This style also evolved from being a uniform Rajasthani style into the current schools of paintings like Mughal, Kangra, Basohli and Deccan. In Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh, painters depicted themes from mythology and poetry. In Himachal Pradesh, the painters developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting, called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta s Rasamanjari. After Nadir Shah s invasion of Delhi, these artists found patrons in the hills where they founded the Kangra school. The most popular themes in the Kangra school were taken from the Vaishnavite traditions. Development of Bengali Culture The Bengali language is not an original regional language evolved through the intermingling of tribal and Sanskrit languages. It was accepted as a major regional language under the Mughal rule. The rich Bengali literature can be divided into two categories i.e. I. Derived from Sanskrit books like the Mangalakavyas and Bhakti literature like the autobiographies of Chaitanyadeva, and II. Original literature like Maynamati, Gopichandra, Dharma Thakur stories, folktales and fairy tales. Alongside Mughals started building mosques and the leaders of which were called Pirs. The term Pir was used to address saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, daring colonisers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities, and even animistic spirits. Powerful individuals and groups started building temples to display their goodness and the Bengali style of temple architecture went through an evolution like the double roof (dochala) and four-roofed (chauchala) on thatched huts. The temples were built on square platforms and the builders focused on creating exquisite exteriors decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets while the interiors were kept plain. Rice and fishing make the staple

41 Page41 food of the Bengalis. Fish was so popular a chief diet that even the Brahmins consumed it as per the Sanskrit text Brihaddharma Purana. SOLVED QUESTION Q1 How can one trace the developments of regional cultures? What we understand as regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. As we will see, some traditions appear specific to some regions, others seem to be similar across regions, and yet others derive from older practices in a particular area, but take a new form in other regions. Q2 When and where was the Chera kingdom established? The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala. Q3 Which language was spoken in this region? Malayalam Q4 Who introduced this language? The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions. Q5 Which other language did the Cheras follow? Sanskrit Q6 Name the work of literature that is based upon both the languages i.e. Malayalam and Sanskrit. Lilatilakam Q7 Where is Jagannath Temple? In Puri in Orissa Q8 How can you say Jagannath was a local god? qto date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god, who was later identified with Vishnu. Q.9 Who got the Jagannath Temple constructed? One of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Q.10 Who dedicated his kingdom to Lord Vishnu? King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the deputy of the god. Q11 Why did the Mughals, the Maraths and the officials of the East India Company try to control the temple? They felt that this would make their rule acceptable to the local people. Q12 What name was given by the British to the region that constitutes most of present Rajasthan? Rajputana Q13 How did Rajputs influence the culture of Rajasthan? From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families. Prithviraj was one such ruler. These rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.

42 Page42 Q14 What sources have been used to know about the rich and royal traditions of the Rajputs? Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially trained minstrels. These preserved the memories of heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their example. Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories which often depicted dramatic situations, and a range of strong emotions loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc. Q15 How did Kathak evolve as a dance form? The term Kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for the story. The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the Bhakti movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers. Q16 Name the two gharans of Kathak. One was in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Q17 Who was the major patrons of Kathak? Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form. By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly entrenched as a dance form not only in these two regions, but in the adjoining areas of present- day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Emphasis was laid on intricate and rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as on the enactment of stories. Q18 What are miniature paintings? Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Q19 Name a few Mughal Emperors who patronized the miniature paintings. The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronized these paintings. Q20 What led to the spread of the miniature paintings to the different parts of the Indian sub-continent? With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out of the courts of the emerging regional states. As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. Q21 What is Basohli? A bold and intense style of miniature painting is called Basohli. This form of painting developed in the foothills of Himalayas around the present day Himachal Pradesh. Q22 Why do we know much more about the cultural practices of rulers than about those of ordinary people? We know much more about the cultural practices of rulers than about those of ordinary people because ordinary women and men painted as well on pots, walls, floors, cloth works of art that have occasionally survived, unlike the miniatures that were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries. Q23 From which language has Bengali been derived? Bengali been derived from the Sanskrit. Q24 How did Sanskrit reach Bengal? From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit. During the fourth century the Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area. Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-ganga valley became stronger.

43 Page43 In the seventh century the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang observed that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal. Q25 How can we say that the modern day Bengali is a mixed blend of many languages? Although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution. Also, a wide range of non-sanskrit words, derived from a variety of sources including tribal languages, Persian, and European languages, have become part of modern day Bengali. Q26 Into how many categories can the early Bengali be divided into? Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories one indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas and Bhakti literature such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. The second includes Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads. Q27 Who is a Pir? Pir is a Persian word meaning a spiritual guide. Q28 Why were temples built in Bengal? Bengal witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth century, which culminated in the nineteenth century. The temples and other religious structures were often built by individuals or groups who were becoming powerful to both demonstrate their power and proclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built with the support of several low social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). The coming of the European trading companies created new economic opportunities; many families belonging to these social groups availed of these. As their social and economic position improved, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples. Q29 What are the important architectural features of the temples of Bengal? When local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in villages, gained the recognition of the Brahmanas, their images began to be housed in temples. The temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture. In the comparatively more complex four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs placed on the four walls move up to converge on a curved line or a point. Temples were usually built on a square platform. The interior was relatively plain, but the outer walls of many temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets. In some temples, particularly in Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of excellence. Q30 What is Brihaddharma Purana? Brihaddharma Purana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

44 Page44 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS Decline of the Mughals In the 18th century, many political reasons led to the decline of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb s campaigns in the Deccan region decreased his military and financial power. His administrative system also started collapsing, as the governors started consolidating power in their own provinces. Aurangzeb s successors were unable to keep a check on the mansabdars and the subhedars. To recover revenues, the governors started increasing the taxes and kept these with themselves. This led to uncontrollable revolts by the peasants and zamindars. During this time, the empire also faced an attack from Nadir Shah of Iran, in 1739, and Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan five times - between 1748 and 1761 weakening the empire further. The nobles divided into those supporting the Iranian and the Turanis nobles.their power struggle led to the assassination of two Mughal emperors, Farrukh Siyar in 1719 and Alamgir II in 1759, blinding Emperors Ahmad Shah and Shah Alam II as well. The decline of the Mughal authority led to three types of states in the subcontinent old Mughal states, independent states under the Mughals, and states which became independent of the Mughal rule. Emergence of New States With the decline in the Mughal authority, many new states emerged in the Indian subcontinent like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad which were founded by the respective governors under the Mughal Empire. Hyderabad was established by Asaf Jah, Awadh by Sa adat Khan and Bengal by Murshid Quli Khan. There are three main reasons for these states gaining power and becoming prominent were; the modified administrative system, modified tax collection procedure and better relations with the bankers and money lenders of the state. There were many Rajput kings who started serving as watan jagirs. The Rajput kings who had been running an independent state within the Mughal Empire tried to extend their territories, but were thwarted by the kings of the neighboring regions. Some Rajput kings were made subhedars of wealthy provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. In 1713, emperor Jahandar Shah renewed these positions while some Rajput kings also seized other royal territories surrounding their watans. Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded Jaipur and was later made the subhedar of Agra. However, in 1740s, the Marathas prevented the Rajputs kings from expanding their territories. The Sikhs, Marathas and Jats, after a long struggle, did seize independence from the Mughals. Guru Gobind Singh, the founder of Khalsa, fought several battles against the Rajput and Mughal rulers. They declared their independence under the leadership of Banda Bahadur in Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited the various territories and made Lahore its capital in The Jats had established their region in the areas surrounding Delhi and Agra under the leadership of Churaman. It also raised an army to protect itself from the Mughal Empire. In 1739, when Nadir Shah of Iran attacked Delhi, its ruler Suraj Mal gave refuge to the Mughal nobles. Under Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.

45 Page45 The Maratha kingdom was another important state in the Indian subcontinent under the army of Shivaji. The Peshwa later held the administrative power of the Maratha Kingdom and made Poona its capital. Soon, they expanded their territory and began ruling over the entire Deccan peninsula. It was him who implemented policies like the chauth and sardeshmukhi in this region. During the third battle of Panipat in 1761, several Maratha rulers did not support the Marathas fighting the battle. Q1 What crisis were faced by the Mughal Emperors by the end of the 17th century? Mughal Empire reached the height of its success and started facing a variety of crises towards the closing years of the seventeenth century. These were caused by a number of factors. Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan. Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down. It became increasingly difficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful mansabdars. Peasant and Zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India added to these problems. These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressures of mounting taxes. In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth. This invasion was followed by a series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded northern India five times between 1748 and Already under severe pressure from all sides, the empire was further weakened by competition amongst different groups of nobles. They were divided into two major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis (nobles of Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or the other of these two powerful groups. Q2 Explain the groups into which the Mughal Empire fragmented through the 18th century. Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent, regional states. Broadly speaking the states of the eighteenth century can be divided into three overlapping groups: 1. States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Although extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their formal ties with the Mughal emperor. 2. States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput principalities. 3. The last group included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. These were of differing sizes and had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long drawn armed struggle. Q3 Trace the formation of Hyderabad by Asaf Jah. Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state, was one of the most powerful members at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. He was entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later given charge of the Deccan. As the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, Asaf Jah already had full control over its political and financial administration. Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan he gathered power in his hands and became the actual ruler of that region. Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India. He appointed them as mansabdars and granted jagirs. Although he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled quite independently without seeking any direction from Delhi or facing any interference.

46 Page46 Q4 Name the states with which the state of Hyderabad was in struggle. With the states of Marathas and Telugus warrior chiefs (nayakas). Q5 What course of action did Sa adat Khan follow to control Awadh? Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa adat Khan was appointed subadar of Awadh in 1722 and founded a state which was one of the most important to emerge out of the break-up of the Mughal Empire. Awadh was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the main trade route between north India and Bengal. Sa adat Khan was responsible for managing the political, financial and military affairs of the province of Awadh. Sa adat Khan tried to decrease the Mughal influence in the Awadh region by reducing the number of office holders (jagirdars) appointed by the Mughals. He also reduced the size of jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants to vacant positions. The accounts of jagirdars were checked to prevent cheating and the revenues of all districts were reassessed by officials appointed by the Nawab s court. Q6 Who were Ijaradars? How moneylenders and bankers gained importance in the administration of Awadh? The state sold the right to collect taxes to the highest bidders. These revenue farmers (ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. Local bankers guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to the state. In turn, the revenue- farmers were given considerable freedom in the assessment and collection of taxes. These developments allowed new social groups, like moneylenders and bankers, to influence the management of the state s revenue system, something which had not occurred in the past. Q7 Explain the formation of Bengal. Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as the Naib, deputy to the governor of the province. Although never a formal subadar, Murshid Quli Khan very quickly seized all the power that went with that office. Like the rulers of Hyderabad and Awadh he also commanded the revenue administration of the state. In an effort to reduce the Mughal influence in Bengal He transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa. Also, he ordered a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal. Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars. As a result, many zamindars had to borrow money from bankers and moneylenders. Those unable to pay were forced to sell their lands to larger zamindars. Q8 List the common features of Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad. We can detect three common features amongst these states. First, the Mughal nobles they were highly suspicious of some of the administrative systems that they had inherited, in particular the jagirdari system. Second, their method of tax collection differed. Rather than relying upon the officers of the state, all three regimes contracted with revenue-farmers for the collection of revenue. The practice of ijaradari, thoroughly disapproved of by the Mughals, spread all over India in the eighteenth century. The third common feature in all these regional states was their emerging relationship with rich bankers and merchants. These people lent money to revenue farmers, received land as security and collected taxes from these lands through their own agents. Q9 Who was the governor of Gujarat in the 18th century? Raja Ajit Singh Q10 Who was the governor of Malwa? Sawai Raja Jai Singh

47 Page47 Q11 Where did Sawai Raja Jai Singh set up his new capital? At Jaipur Q12 When was Khalsa instituted? In 1699 Q13 How did the state of Punjab come into being? The organization of the Sikhs into a political community during the seventeenth century helped in regional state-building in the Punjab. Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution of the Khalsa in After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur s leadership, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna. Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in Q14 What were Jathas? The Sikhs organized themselves into a number of bands called Jathas. Q15 How were the Sikhs organised in the eighteenth century? Under a number of able leaders in the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a number of bands called jathas, and later on misls. Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa). The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take collective decisions known as resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas). A system called Rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on the payment of a tax of 20 per cent of the produce. Q16 How did Guru Gobind Singh inspire the Khalsa? Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule (Raj Karega Khalsa). Their well-knit organization enabled them to put up a successful resistance to the Mughal governors first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seized the richest province of the Punjab and the Sarkar of Sirhind from the Mughals. The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking their own coin again in Significantly, this coin bore the same inscription as the one on the orders issued by the Khalsa at the time of Banda Bahadur Q17 Who ruled the Maratha kingdom after the death of Shivaji? After Shivaji s death, effective power in the Maratha state was a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji s successors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poona became the capital of the Maratha kingdom. Q18 Who were Deshmukhs and Kunbis? Shivaji ( ) carved out a stable kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs). Groups of highly mobile, peasant pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha army. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the Mughals in the peninsula. Q19 Explain the two types of taxes imposed by the Marathas. Chauth- 25 per cent of the land revenue, claimed by the zamindars. In the Deccan this was collected by the Marathas. Sardeshmukhi per cent of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the Deccan.

48 Page48 Q20 Why did the other rulers become hostile towards Marathas? After raiding Delhi in 1737 the frontiers of Maratha domination expanded rapidly: into Rajasthan and the Punjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in the east; and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu countries in the south. These were not formally included in the Maratha Empire, but were made to pay tribute as a way of accepting Maratha sovereignty. Expansion brought enormous resources, but it came at a price. These military campaigns also made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas. As a result, they were not inclined to support the Marathas during the third battle of Panipat in Q21 Name some of the Maratha Chiefs. Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpur Q22 Who was the leader of Jats in the late 17th century? Churaman Q23 Name the important trading centres that were under the control of Jats. Panipat and Ballabhgarh