Gifts!in!Motion:!Ottoman"Safavid!Cultural!Exchange,!1501"1618!!

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1 GiftsinMotion:Ottoman"SafavidCulturalExchange,1501"1618 ADISSERTATION SUBMITTEDTOTHEFACULTYOFTHEGRADUATESCHOOL OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFMINNESOTA BY SinemArcak INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS FORTHEDEGREEOF DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY CatherineB.Asher August2012

2 SinemArcak2012

3 Acknowledgements ItiswithgreatpleasureandappreciationthatIacknowledgeherethesupportof numerousindividualsandinstitutionsforthisproject.theresearchandwritingforthe dissertationwassupportedbythedepartmentofarthistoryattheuniversityof Minnesota,theSocialScienceResearchCouncil,theAmericanResearchInstitutein TurkeyandtheKressFoundation,theCenterforAdvancedStudyintheVisualArtsof thenationalgalleryofartinwashingtond.c.,andtheamericalcounciloflearned Societies.Iamtrulygratefultotheseinstitutionsformakingresearchandwritingin variouspartsoftheworldpossible. Iowethegreatestdebtofgratitutetomyadvisor,CathyAsher.Shesetsan exampleforallofherstudentsasanexcellentscholarandasanexcellentadvisor,who alwayshastimeandadvicetoshare.iwillbeforeverindebtedtorickandcathyasher inawaythatchildrenareindebtedtotheirparentsfortheirunconditionalloveand selflesscareandsupport.ifeeltrulyhonoredtohavebeentheirstudent.thesamegoes forourchairstevenostrow,whoalwaysbelievedinme.hiscriticaladviseand exceptionalsupportinallwayshasnurturedmyacademicgrowthimmensely.iamalso verygratefultogülrunecipo#luforherinterestinmyprojectfromitsinitialstages.she generouslysharedherideaswithme,andhersuggestionsandquestionshaveshapedthis projectinaremarkableway.thelastmemberofthecommittee,rosemarystanfield" Johnson,kindlystartedhelpingme,providingreferencesandcommentingonmy translationsfrompersian,evenbeforewemet,forwhichicannotthankherenough. i

4 IfeeltrulyluckytohavebeenamemberoftheDepartmentofArtHistory.Icould notwishforabettergroupoffellowstudentsandfacultymembers.ishouldalsomention thegeneroussharingofproposalsandessaysamongfellowstudents,andthedissertation writinggroup,ledbyjaneblocker,wherewereadanddiscussedeachothers chapters.i thankmyfriendssusanswanson,melissageppert,cerimyers,melissaheer,aditi Chandra,VenugopalMaddipatti,PaulWilson,AtreyeeGupta,andSugataRay. ThankstoaDissertationProposalDevelopmentFellowship,Iwasabletoattenda workshopledbyannehigonnetandvanessaschwartzasiwaswritingmyproposal.i amgratefultoalloftheworkshopparticipantsfortheirquestions,commentsand feedback. Duringmyyearofresearch,Ihaveconsultedmaterialsatvariousarchives, librariesandmuseums.invenice,thestaffatthearchiviodistatosharedmyenthusiasm whenevericameacrossdocumentsongifts,andtheirgoodhumorliftedmyspirits duringthecoldanddarkwinterdaysispentthere.ialsothankthestaffsatthebiblioteca delmuseocorrerandthebibliotecamarciana.invenice,giampierobellingeriandvera CostantiniwereextremelygenerouswiththeirtimeandIappreciatedtheirfriendship greatly.mariapiapedanikindlyansweredmyquestionsandsuggestedvaluablesources. Elvin,Özgür,Eva,andTommasoweremycompanionsatthearchive,andGianlucaand ArcibaldoathomeinPadova.IespeciallythankMassimoandThaisfortakingcareofme inpadova,andformanyjoyfuleveningsofspritzandgreatfoodthere. InTehran,IthankthestaffsoftheKitabkhana"iMilli,theRezaAbbasiMuseum, andthetehranuniversitylibrary.duringmystaythere,thetorshizi/oskouifamily ii

5 verykindlyopenedtheirhometome.iespeciallythankkhalenasrinforreadingpersian poetrywithmeandforthemanydeliciousmealsshecookedforus. InIstanbul,Ithankthecuratorsofvariousdepartmentsfortheirassistanceatthe TopkapıPalace.ImentionespeciallyZeynepÇelikandSevgiA#ca,fortheyoffereda helpinghandwhilethematerialsundertheircarewerenotavailabletothepublicfor researchwheniwasthere.inistanbul,ialsothankthestaffsofthetürkveislam EserleriMüzesi,SüleymaniyeKütuphanesi,BabakanlıkArivi,andIstanbulUniversity Library srarebooksdivision.inlondon,ithankthestaffofthebritishlibrary,andthe staffattheösterreichischenationalbibliothekinvienna. Numerousscholars,colleaguesandfriendshavediscussedwithmedifferent aspectsoftheprojectbysharingtheirideasandbysuggestingorsharingwithme sources.ithankeachandeveryoneofthemformakingmeseeordiscoverthingsthat wouldhavetakenmeagestofindonmyown.bigthankstozerentanındı,filiz Ça#man,LaleUluç,TülayArtan,SerpilBa#cı,ZeynepTarımErtu#,IdrisBostan, LucienneThys""enocak,EmineFetvacı,ChristianeGruber,andMariannaShreve Simpson.IalsothankthefellowsattheRCACofKoçUniversityduringmyyearof research,andscottredfordforincludingmeintheactivitiesofthecenter. DuringmyyearatCASVA,Ihadanexcellentcohortoffellowswhosefriendship wascrucial.thatyearwasalsomademostmemorablebymassumehfarhad;ithankher forherenthusiasmformyprojectandthemanyhoursshespentwithme. Duringthepastyear,Iattendedtheinformalanthropologywritingworkshop.I thankespeciallyhoonsong,stuartmclean,andursuladalinghaus,whoreadpartsof iii

6 thedissertationandprovidedvaluablefeedback.iamalsogratefultomyfriendsima Sajjadian,whopatientlyreadPersianwithmehourafterhour. Last,IthankthoseclosesttomeforbelievingthatIcouldandwouldcomplete thisprojectsuccessfullyevenatthosetimeswhenihadlostallhope.myfriendahu Gemici,whohasbeenbymysidesincehighschool,witnessedmyintellectualgrowth throughtheyearsandneverceasedtosupportmeineveryway.mymotherhasalways setthebaratthehighestlevelforbothofherchildren,somakingherfeelproudmeans theworldtome.idedicatethisdissertationtomydearsister,whosegenuineinterestin whatidogivesmestrength,andwhoseconstantstreamofloveandsupporthumblesme. Comingfromafamilyofthree,Ifeelblessedtohavenowalargeextendedfamilywhose membersareequallyproudtohaveyetanotherph.d.amongthem.myhusband GiancarloCasalewaswithmeateverystageoftheproject,forwhichIaminfinitely grateful.withouthislove,patience,kindnessandhisabilitytocheermeupunderall circumstances,iwouldbeaverydifferentpersonandscholarnow.ithankhimmost especiallyforhelpingmeputthingsinperspective,andforgenerouslysharinghis eloquenceandintellectualbrilliancewithme.ialsoneedtothanklittleminaluisaeven thoughshecouldnotcarelessaboutanygift,letalonethoseexchangedbetweentwo royalcourtscenturiesago.theanticipationofherarrivalmademethinkharderandwrite fasterduringthelastfewmonths. iv

7 forsena v

8 Abstract Between the sixteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries, the Shiite Safavids of Iran and the Sunni Ottomans of Turkey two of the greatest Islamic empires in history developed a complex relationship in which tenuous peace alternated with bloody conflict, often with dizzying speed. This dissertation is the first systematic study of this relationship from the perspective of visual culture, and focuses specifically on the objects exchanged, through gifting, by the royal courts of these two empires. These objects ranging from lavishly illustrated books and exquisite silk carpets to richly embroidered tents, chandeliers and even live birds of prey enriched the visual culture of each court, and led to the formulation of two distinctive artistic canons with a lasting legacy in the artistic traditions of each empire. This study aims to deepen our understanding of this cultural exchange and the role it played in the relations between these two rival empires. It argues that the movement of luxurious objects functioned as a primary mechanism for the expression of competitive interaction between the two courts. ThisthesisfocusesprimarilyongiftsreceivedbyOttomansultansfromSafavid shahsfromtheearlysixteenthcenturytotheearlyseventeenthcentury.specifically,the exchangeofgiftsbetweenthetwocourtsisexploredatcertainkeymomentsinthe developmentoftheirrelationship,eachofwhichformsaseparatechapterinthe dissertation.throughanexaminationoftheelaborateceremoniesthattypically accompaniedtheexchangeofobjectsatthesemoments,iinvestigatetheritualuseof materialculturetoprojectbothpoliticalpowerandculturalinfluenceintheearlymodern world. vi

9 Thefourchaptersbelowareorganizedinroughchronologicalorder,witheach onefocusingonaspecificexchangeorasetofceremonialexchangesthatprovidevisual andmaterialcluesabouthowobjectsfunctionedintheearlymodernmuslimworld.each casestudytakesasitsunitofanalysisagroupofroutinelyexchangedobjectsontheone hand,andone"of"a"kindobjectsontheother.iexamineboththeactualgiftsexchanged, aswellasmanuscriptpaintingsdepictinganddescribingtheirritualpresentationand reception.thetextualevidencerangesfromtreasuryrecordsandcourtchroniclesto epistolarysourcesandfirst"handambassadorialaccountsinottomanturkish,persian anditalian.thepurposeofeachchapteristhustounderstandthepotentialandactual movementofobjectsinilluminatingtheconvolutedrelationshipbetweentworival empires. vii

10 TableofContents Acknowledgements i Abstract vi ListofFigures ix Introduction 1 Chapter1. OftheKindOnePrinceSendsAnother : TheGiftsPresentedtoSultanSelimIIbyShahTahmaspin Chapter2.OttomansBearingSafavidGifts 77 Chapter3.APeaceforaPrince: TheReceptionofaSafavidChildHostagePrinceattheOttomanCourt 135 Chapter4.TheNewRulesofShahAbbas: HowtheSafavidShahRe"inventedaTraditionofDiplomacy 187 Figures 257 Bibliography 334 viii

11 ix ListofFigures Figure0.1 Jadecup,TopkapıPalaceMuseum,Hazine,no Figure0.2 Beltandarmband,TopkapıPalaceMuseum,H.1842&H Figure1.1 ShahTahmaspReceivesanOttomanAmbassadorscene,TopkapıPalace MuseumLibrary,H.1517,374a Figure1.2 Receptionscene,TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,550a Figure1.3 SultanSüleymanReceivesaSafavidEnvoy,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,H.1517,600a Figure1.4 SultanSüleymanReceivesaSafavidEnvoy,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,H.1517,603a Figure1.5 SelimIIReceivestheSafavidAmbassadorShahQuliinEdirne,Topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1339,244b..263 Figure1.6 ShahQuliPresentsShahTahmasp sgiftstoselimii,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a Figure1.7 OttomanCeremonialRobeofaPrince,late16 th century,topkapıpalace Museum Figure1.8 SafavidVelvetRobe,1620"30,ClevelandMuseumofArt Figure1.9 Qur anfragment,9 th "10 th century,privatecollection Figure1.10 Rustam sbattlewiththegreatwhitediv,fromthetahmaspshahnama, ClevelandMuseumofArt Figure1.11 ZalSightedbyaCaravan,fromtheTahmaspShahnama,SacklerGallery, Washington,D.C Figure1.12 DedicatoryRosette,TahmaspShahnama Figure1.13 ShipofFaith,fromtheTahmaspShahnama,TheMetropolitanMuseumof Art,NewYork Figure1.14 ProphetMuhammadandtheShipofFaith,fromaShahnamamanuscript, BritishLibrary,Add

12 x Figure1.15 TheMartyrdomofHusain,fromanOttomanbookofMaqtali"Ali"Rasul, late16 th century,baghdad,themetropolitanmuseumofart,newyork..273 Figure1.16 BuffoonsPlayingwithSafavidTurbans,TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary, H.1344,276b"277a Figure1.17 ShahTahmasp senvoykilledonthewaytothehajj,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,A.3595,68a Figure2.1 ReceptionoftheCommanders,TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517, 189b Figure2.2 SultanSüleymanReceivesIbrahimPasha,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,H.1517,260a Figure2.3 SultanSüleymanReceivesShahTahmasp senvoyin1532,topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,332a Figure2.4 ViewoftheentrancetotheChamberofPetitions,TopkapıPalace Museum Figure2.5 SultanSüleymanReceivesFrancisI sambassadors,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,H.1517,346a Figure2.6 SultanSüleymanReceivestheEnvoyoftheSultanofMecca,Topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,503a Figure2.7 SultanSüleymanReceivesDevletGirayKhan,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,H.1517,519a Figure2.8 SultanSüleymanReceivesDevletGirayKhan,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,H.1517,519a Figure2.9 SultanSüleymanReceivesShahTahmasp senvoyin1554,topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,600a Figure2.10 SultanSüleymanReceivesFarrukhzadBeginAmasya,TTopkapıPalace MuseumLibrarySMK,H.1517,603a Figure2.11 SultanSüleymanReceivesaSafavidAmbassador,ChesterBeattyLibrary, T.413,14b

13 xi Figure2.12 ShahQuliPresentsShahTahmasp sgiftstoselimii,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a Figure2.13 SelimIIReceivestheSafavidAmbassadorShahQuliinEdirne,Topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1339,244b Figure2.14 ThePresentationoftheProphet sswordtothesultan,istanbuluniversity Library,F.1404,25a Figure2.15 TheOttomanArmyParadingBeforetheSafavidDelegation,Istanbul UniversityLibrary,F.1404,38b"39a Figure2.16 ShahTahmasp sgiftsdisplayedbeforesultanmuradiiiin1576, IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,41b"42a Figure2.17 ShahTahmasp sgiftofatentinstalledbeforesultanmuradiii,istanbul UniversityLibrary,F.1404,43b Figure2.18 MuradIII saudiencewith"erefkhan,istanbuluniversitylibrary,f. 1404,54a Figure2.19 MuradIII saudiencewiththegeorgianminuchir,istanbuluniversity Library,F.1404,122a Figure2.20 MuradIII saudiencewiththefrenchambassador,istanbuluniversity Library,F.1404,141b Figure2.21 ShahTahmasp senvoykilledonthewaytothehajj,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,A.3595,68a Figure2.22 SeveredheadsofSafavidCommandersArriveattheTopkapıPalace, IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,61b"62a Figure2.23 TheOttomanArmyParadesbeforetheSafavidDelegationin1580, TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,24b"25a Figure2.24 TheOttomanArmyParadesbeforetheSafavidDelegationin1582, TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,33b"34a Figure2.25 MehmedIII sceremonialentryintoistanbul,topkapıpalacemuseum Library,H.1609,68b"69a Figure2.26 MuradIII saudiencewithmaqsudkhanin1580,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,B.200,28b"29a...301

14 xii Figure2.27 MuradIII saudiencewithibrahimkhanin1582,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,B.200,36b"37a Figure2.28 IbrahimKhanexpelledfromtheHippodromeinIstanbul1582,Topkapı PalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,75b"76a Figure3.1 OttomanandSafavidArmiesFightinginRevan,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,B.200,108b"109a Figure3.2 ShahAbbas LastAudiencetoHisNephewHaydarMirza,TopkapıPalace MuseumLibrary,R.1296,46a Figure3.3 HaydarMirzaBeingFeastedinErzurum,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,R.1296,48b Figure3.4 HaydarMirza sentryintoistanbul,viennaösterreichische Nationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,128a Figure3.5 HaydarMirza sentryintoistanbul,themetropolitanmuseumofart, NewYork, Figure3.6 BritishLibrary,Add7931,130b"131a Figure3.7 GateofFelicity,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Figure3.8 SultanMuradIIIReceivesHaydarMirza,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,R.1296,52b"53a Figure3.9 SelimIIReceivingShahTahmasp sambassadorin1568,topkapıpalace MuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a Figure3.10 MuradIIIReceivingShahTahmasp sambassadorin1576,istanbul UniversityLibrary,F.1404,41b"42a Figure3.11 MuradIIIReceivingMuhammadKhudabanda sambassadorin1582, TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,36b"37a Figure3.12 SafavidAmbassadorMahdiquliKhanandanOttomanOfficialon Horseback,ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,Codex Vindobonensis8626,125a Figure4.1 MapShowingtheBordersoftheOttomanandSafavidEmpires,16 th Century,fromFarhad,Falnama,

15 xiii Figure4.2 Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld),Isfahan, 1598" Figure4.3 Masjidi"Shah(CongregationalMosque),Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(The SquareoftheImageoftheWorld),Isfahan Figure4.4 AliQapu,Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageofthe World),Isfahan Figure4.5 Privatemosqueforroyaluse(Masjidi"Shaykh"LutfAllah),Maydani" Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld),Isfahan Figure4.6 SüleymaniyeMosqueComplex,Istanbul, Figure4.7 Double"spreadfromacopyoftheTarihi"Fethi"E#ri"(Historyofthe ConquestofE#ri)Arts"of"the"Islamic"World"Including"Fine"Carpets"and" Textiles"London"7"October"2009"Sotheby s,lot58,fols.30" Figure4.8 MuradIIIReceivingtheMoroccanAmbassador,TopkapıPalaceMuseum Library,B.200,142b"143a Figure4.9 MehmedIII smilitaryparadebeforethesafavidenvoyshahin1597, E#ri"Fethnamesi"(Book"of"Victory"at"Egri),1597,TSMK,H.1609,68b" 69a " Figure4.10 ImamRizaComplex,Mashhad " " Figure4.11 PortraitofAnthonySherley,fromRoss,Sir"Anthony"Sherley...326" " Figure4.12 Doge"Marino"Grimani"Receiving"the"Ambassadors"of"Shah"Abbas," GabrieleCaliari,1603,SaladelleQuattroPorte,PalazzoDucale,Venice..327 Figure4.13 SafavidSilkCarpet,TheTreasuryofSanMarcoinVenice(Basilicadi SanMarco,inv.n.26) Figure4.14 Motherandchild,Safavidtextilefragment,firstquarter17 th century, MuseoCorrerinVenice(MuseoCivicoCorrer,inv.no.Cl.XXII,n Figure4.15 SirRobertSherley,PortraitbyanUnknownArtist,Before1628,Berkeley Castle,Gloucestershire...330

16 Figure4.16 Figure4.17 Figure4.18 SafavidAmbassadorMahdiquliKhanandanOttomanOfficialon Horseback,ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,Codex Vindobonensis8626,125a DetailofFigure SafavidEmbassyApproachingtheTopkapıPalaceinIstanbulwithGifts fromshahabbas,1618,ehnamei"nadiri,topkapıpalacemuseum Library,H1124,24b"25a xiv

17 INTRODUCTION InhisRelazionewrittentotheVenetianSenatein1578,theenvoyto Constantinople,bailoGiovanniCorrerrecordedananecdoteinwidecirculationin sixteenth"centuryconstantinopleaboutacopyofthequr anthattheottomansultan SüleymantheMagnificent(r.1520"66)receivedasagiftfromthecontemporarySafavid king,shahtahmasp(r.1524"76): NorshouldIfailtomentionthatwhichisbeingsaidabout SultanSüleyman,whoisgreatlyesteemedandreveredby all.theysaythatonceheopenedaqur an,oneofthe manysenttohimbythekingofpersia,whoalways includesthemamongthegiftshesendstocourt,asthe Persiansprofesstobeeloquentwritersandmastersof beautifulminiatures.withinitspages,[süleyman]founda grainofwheatandimmediatelyputitinhismouth.then, turningtooneofhisattendants,hesaidwithalaugh: I mustbegreatlyobligedtothekingofpersiaforallowing metoeathisgrainfromthecomfortofmyownhome; somethingthatinearliertimesicouldnothavedone withoutagreatdealoftrouble 1 Correr saccountbrilliantlycapturesthestrongandsignificantrolethatdiplomatic giftsplayedwithinottoman"safavidculturalexchangethroughoutthesixteenthand seventeenthcenturies.diplomaticgiftsthatmovedbetweentherivalcourtsofthe OttomansandSafavidsnotonlyilluminatetheculturalandpoliticalconditionsunder 1 NédebbotacerquellochesiraccontainquestopropositodisultanSoliman,l esempio delqualeèmoltostimatoeriveritodaogn uno.diconocheaprendounalcorano statogliportatodipersia,perchéquelrenellipresentichefasemprenemandamolti, facendopersianiprofessionediscriverbeneetdifarbellissimeminiature,vitrovò dentroungranodifrumento,etsubitoseleporseinbocca;poi,voltosiadunocheera presente,disseridendo: Grand obbligodevohaverealredipersiachemifamangiare delsuofrumentostandoacasacommodamente,cheseinaltritempinehovoluto mangiare,nonhopotutofarlosenzamoltotravaglio. ASVe,Collegio,Relazioni,busta 5,publishedinRelazionidiambasciatorivenetialSenato,vol.XIV:Constantinopoli, Relazioniinedite(1512"1789),ed.MariaPiaPedani"Fabris(AldoAusilioEditore" BottegaD Erasmo:Padova,1996),235"6. 1

18 whichtheyweresentandreceived,buttheyactivelyshapedthoserelations, 2 asthisthesis aimstodemonstrate. TheOttomanstate,originallyfoundedintheearlyfourteenthcenturyinwestern Anatolia,hadbythemid"sixteenthcenturygrownintoamajorIslamicempire. Meanwhile,theneighboringSafavidsofIran althoughrisingtopoweronlyintheearly sixteenthcentury quicklyestablishedthemselvesasacompetitivelypowerfulstate whosepoliticalandmilitaryambitionswereindirectconflictwiththoseoftheottomans. Attimes,theseconflictingambitionsresultedinoutrightwarfare.Atothertimes,periods ofrelativepeaceallowedmutuallyprofitableexchangedespiteacontinuingbackground ofrivalryandmistrust.religionprovedsimultaneouslytobeasourceofcommonground (asharedadherencetoislam),andconflict(sunnivs.shi#i).itiswithinthecontextof thishighlychargedconfessional,political,andmilitaryrivalrythatistudythemovement ofobjectsbetweentheottomansandthesafavids. Anecdotesandstoriessimilartotheoneaboveaboundinhistoricalrecordandin contemporarypopularimaginationconcerninggiftsexchangedbetweenottomansultans andsafavidshahs.safavidandottomanhistorians,aswellasforeignobservers,someof 2 Regardingtheagencyofgifts,MarcelMausswrote: thethinggivenisnotinactive. Investedwithlife,oftenpossessingindividuality,itseekstoreturntowhatHertzcalled its placeoforigin ortoproduce,onbehalfoftheclanandthenativesoilfromwhichit sprang,anequivalenttoreplaceit. MarcelMauss,TheGift:TheFormandReasonfor ExchangeinArchaicSocieties,transl.W.D.Halls(NewYorkandLondon:W.W. Norton,2000;reprintLondon:Routledge,1990),13.WhileMaussdiscussestheagency ofobjectsinthecontextofthereceiver sobligationtoreturngifts,othershavefocused onobjectsthemselves.seeforexample,billbrown, ThingTheory, CriticalInquiry28, no.1(autumn2001):1"22;markosteen, Introduction:QuestionsoftheGift, inthe QuestionoftheGift:EssaysacrossDisciplines,ed.MarkOsteen(LondonandNew York:Routledge,2001),1"41;LorraineDaston, Speechless, inthingsthattalk: ObjectLessonsfromArtandScience,ed.LorraineDaston(NewYork:ZoneBooks, 2004),9"24. 2

19 whomparticipatedintheofficialceremoniesorganizedforthepresentationandreception ofthesegifts,describeandcommentonthegiftsbycitingcurrenttrendsandtraditionsof gift"givingatbothcourts,andbycomparingthemtopreviousgroupsofgiftsreceivedin termsoftheiramount,rarityandbeauty.thisway,thesegiftswerealwaysin conversationwithpastgiftssentandreceived. Correr saccountalsounderscorestheappropriatenessofconceivingallcontactas aformofexchange. 3 TherewereadisproportionatelylargernumberofSafavidembassies thatarrivedattheottomancourtbearingmanymoregiftsthananyottomansultanhad eversentthesafavidcourtthroughoutthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies. 4 Thismay atfirstsuggestthatsafavidgiftswereinfacttribute,acategoryofobjectsandmoneythat requiresaverydifferentmethodologyforanalysis.however,theideathatsafavidshahs sentgiftsastributefindslittlehistoricalproof. 5 Inthisstudy,Iinsteadturntothevariety ofmeaningsthatgiftsaccrueforthegiverandthereceiver.intheabovecase,thegifting ofthecopyofthesafavidqur anwithsplendidcalligraphy,asobservedbycorrer, 3 GeorgSimmelwrotethat everyinteractionisproperlyviewedasakindofexchange. Thisistrueofeveryconversation,everylove(evenwhenrequitedunfavorably),every game,everyactoflookingoneanotherover. GeorgSimmel,OnIndividualityand SocialForms:SelectedWritings,ed.DonaldE.Levine(ChicagoandLondon:The UniversityofChicagoPress,1971),43"4. 4 ThegiftsdispatchedbyOttomansultanstoSafavidshahswereusuallysentbackwith SafavidambassadorswhocameondiplomaticmissionstotheOttomancourt.Ottoman andsafavidsourcesrefertotheseinpassingandtomyknowledgeneitherhasanyobject beensecurelyidentifiedasanottomangifttothesafavidcourt,norarethereanyextant visualdepictionsofthesegiftsortheirpresentation. 5 ThelargevarietyoftermsusedtorefertogiftsandtributeinPersian,Arabicand Turkishcomplicatesthematterfurther,forinbothOttomanandSafavidsources,theuse ofthesetermsisneverconsistent.moreover,thesewordsareoftenusedinpairs,e.g. tributesandgifts (pikeühed"y"),or raritiesandgifts (tu#fauhad"y").see,for example,annlambton, P#shkash:PresentorTribute?, BulletinoftheSchoolof OrientalandAfricanStudies57,no.1(1994):145"58;FahmidaSuleman, Giftsand Gift"Giving, inmedievalislamiccivilization:anencyclopedia,ed.josephw.meri (NewYork:Routledge,2006),295"6. 3

20 underscoresthesuperiorskillsofartistscommissionedbysafavidshahs.atthesame time,thegiftingofthisparticularobjectbyasafavidshah,declaredahereticbythe Ottomansultan,shouldbeseenasdemandingreligiousrecognition.ButSüleyman completelyignorestheseaspects,andsidestepssuchareading.instead,hefocusesonthe pieceofgrainstuckinthebook.sincecropssuchaswheat insteadofmoney wasthe basicmediumoftaxationintheottomanland"tenuresystem,süleymansuggeststhatthe shahhadwillfullysenthimtaxes,ortributewiththisgift,somethingthatinthepasthe hadtogetfromhimbyforce.oneoftheobjectivesofmycasestudieshereistobringto theforethemultiplicityofmeaningsandassociationsthatgiftsgenerate. ThisthesisfocusesprimarilyongiftsreceivedbyOttomansultansfromSafavid shahsfromtheearlysixteenthcenturytotheearlyseventeenthcentury.specifically,i exploretheexchangeofgiftsbetweenthetwocourtsatcertainkeymomentsinthe developmentoftheirrelationship,eachofwhichformsaseparatechapterinthe dissertation.throughanexaminationoftheelaborateceremoniesthattypically accompaniedtheexchangeofobjectsatthesemoments,iinvestigatetheritualuseof materialculturetoprojectbothpoliticalpowerandculturalinfluenceintheearlymodern world. Withinthelargerfieldofcomparativeearlymodernculturalstudies,recent scholarshiphasplacedagreatdealofemphasisonthecontactbetweenthe East andthe West, stressinginparticularthecontinuousandreciprocalnatureoftheconnections betweeneuropeandtheislamicworld.myprojectshiftsthefocustotheinteraction betweenindividualislamicempires.mostexistingscholarshiponottoman"safavid relationshasfocusedonitspoliticalandmilitarycomponents,typicallyportrayedaslittle 4

21 morethananongoingseriesofconflicts. 6 Withinthisframework,theexchangeof culturalobjectsappearstobearoutine,peripheralpracticethathasnoactualbearingon militaryanddiplomatichistory.iargue,incontrast,thatgiftswereactorsofcentral importanceforthemediationofdiplomaticnegotiations. 7 Furthermore,Itreatthe formationofottomanandsafavidculturalandartistictraditionsasintertwinedrather thanseparateanddiscrete.buildingonexistingscholarshiponbothottomanandsafavid culturalandartistictraditions,iusediplomaticgiftsasalenstounderstandthemannerin whichtwodistinctartisticcanonswereconstructedastheresultofanongoing competitivedialoguebetweentwoimperialpowers.finally,asystematicexaminationof giftexchangebetweenthesecourtsalsopromisestoenrichourunderstanding,inmore generalterms,oftheinteractiveprocessofimperialself"fashioningintheearlymodern period. Modernstudiesofcollecting,gifting,andexchangeinthebroaddisciplinesof anthropology,historyandarthistoryinformmyapproach.itakeobjectsandtheir presentationsasvehiclesformediatingcourtlyrelationsandinteractions.theseminal studyofmarcelmaussonthepracticeofgiftgiving,aswellasmorerecentstudiesand 6 Thistrendalsospeakstodisciplinaryboundaries,forinthedisciplineofhistory,gifts usuallymakeanappearancemarginally,confinedtofootnotes.inarthistory,fewstudies havedealtwithottoman"safavidculturalinteraction,focusingmainlyonworksofart thattravelledbetweenthetwocourts(notnecessarilythroughgifting),orworksofart producedtobesoldtoeitherottomanorsafavidpatrons.manyrecentexhibitions dedicatedtogiftexchangesamongislamiccourtsmakereferencetopossiblesafavid giftstotheottomancourt,bynatureprioritizingobjectsthathavesurvivedtoourtime andneglectingthosethatarenolongerextant. 7 IaminspiredbystudiesongiftexchangewithintherelatedfieldsofByzantineand earlymodernfrenchstudiessuchasnataliezemon"davis,thegiftinsixteenthcentury France(Madison:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress,2000);AnthonyCutler, Giftsand GiftExchangeasAspectsoftheByzantine,ArabandRelatedEconomies, Dumbarton OaksPapers55(2001):247"78;CecilyHilsdale, DiplomacybyDesign:Rhetorical StrategiesoftheByzantineGift (PhDdissertation,UniversityofChicago,2003). 5

22 approacheswithinanthropologyhaveprovidedarangeoftheoreticalframeworksforme. Theseincludestudiesontheagencyofobjectsandart,inalienabilityofobjects, reciprocity,thesocialbiographyofthings,andmateriality. 8 Asaresult,Iincorporatea broadarrayoftheoreticalconcernsaboutmaterialculturebyfocusingonaselectgroup ofobjectsexchangedbetweenrivalcourts,andinterpretingboththeinstrumentalityof objectsasgifts,andtheirroleinnegotiatingpower. Thefourchaptersbelowareorganizedinroughchronologicalorder,witheach onefocusingonaspecificexchangeorasetofceremonialexchangesthatprovidevisual andmaterialcluesabouthowobjectsfunctionedintheearlymodernmuslimworld.each casestudytakesasitsunitofanalysisagroupofroutinelyexchangedobjectsontheone hand,andone"of"a"kindobjectsontheother.iexamineboththeactualgiftsexchanged, aswellasmanuscriptpaintingsdepictinganddescribingtheirritualpresentationand reception.thetextualevidencerangesfromtreasuryrecordsandcourtchroniclesto epistolarysourcesandfirst"handambassadorialaccountsinottomanturkish,persian anditalian.thepurposeofeachchapteristhustounderstandthepotentialandactual movementofobjectsinilluminatingtheconvolutedrelationshipbetweentworival 8 AlfredGell,ArtandAgency:AnAnthropologicalTheory(Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1998);PierreBourdieu,OutlineofaTheoryofPractice,transl.RichardNice (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1977);ArjunAppadurai,ed.,TheSocialLife ofthings:commoditiesinculturalperspective(cambridge:cambridgeuniversity Press,1986);NicholasThomas,EntangledObjects:Exchange,MaterialCulture,and ColonialisminthePacific(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991);AnnetteB. Weiner,InalienablePossessions:TheParadoxofKeeping"While"Giving(Berkeleyand LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992);DanielMiller,ed.,Material Cultures:WhySomeThingsMatter(London:UCLPress,1998).Foratechnological approachtomaterialculture,seepeter"paulverbeek,whatthingsdo:philosophical ReflectionsonTechnology,Agency,AndDesign(PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress, 2005). 6

23 empires. Theopeningchapterdiscussestheceremonialpresentationofthemanypriceless giftssentbythesafavidrulershahtahmasptotheottomansultanselimii(r.1566" 1574)ontheoccasionofthelatter senthronementin1566.thepotentialofobjectstoact asactiveagentsindiplomaticnegotiationsisattheheartofthisdiscussion.whilethe shah slettertotheottomansultanhadanexcessivelysubmissivetone,recognizinghim astheleaderofallmuslims,thegiftsthathesenthadamuchdifferentmessage.in particular,themanuscriptoftheshahnama(bookofkings)inhisownname today recognizedbyarthistoriansasthemostluxuriouslyillustratedcopyoftheepicever produced proudlydeclaredtheoriginalowner sstrongshi#iidentityandunderscored himasalearned,ifnotsuperior,patronofthearts. TurningtothemyriadOttomanmanuscriptpaintingsdepictingthepresentationof SafavidgiftstoOttomansultansinthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury,Chaptertwo demonstratesastronglinkbetweenthechangingvisualimageofthesultaninottoman illustratedhistoriesandthemannerinwhichsafavidgiftsweredepictedbeforehimin thesamemanuscripts.paintingscompletedinthe1580s,whentheottomanandsafavid stateswereatwar,showmanymoresafavidgiftsbeforethesultanthanthoseproduced duringthereignofsultansüleyman.inadditiontobeingintegraltothesultan snew image,therepetitivenessofthesepaintingsisdeliberate,iargue,andthattheyrequirethe viewertoreadthemintertextually,demandinghim/hertorecallthesubservientfunction theypreviouslyserved. TheSafavidembassysenttoConstantinoplewithmanygiftsin1590tosigna peacetreatyfollowingmorethanadecadeofactivewarfareprovidesthefocusof 7

24 Chapterthree.Thisembassycamewithasix"year"oldchildprince,HaydarMirza,sentby ShahAbbas(r.1587"1629)tobeheldattheOttomancourtthereafterasaconditionof thepeacetreaty.thiscouldpotentiallycreateadynasticcrisisforthesafavids,forthis princecouldinthefutureclaimrighttothethrone,muchlikeothersafavidorottoman renegadeprinceshaddoneforbothpolitiesaroundmid"sixteenthcentury.inthiscase,i treatthischildprincehimselfasagift,forhewastreatedasanobjecttobesentand received,andoccasionedtheexchangeofmanysubsidiaryobjects.myexaminationof Ottoman,SafavidandVenetianarchivaldocuments,narratives,paintingsandpoemson thegiftingoftheprinceshowsthathisagencywasunderstoodincontrastingwaysbythe twosides.theottomansinparticular,tooktheprincetoembodysafavidcompliance, andtookhimtobeanobjectoftheirsubmission.bycontrast,shahabbasconstantly raisedobjectionsonthedetailsofthepeacetreaty,whichpromptedthearrivalofmany moreembassiesfromhiminthe1590sand1600s. Myfinalchapterassessestheseembassiescollectively.From1590toabout1595, whenhaydarmirzadiedinistanbul,shahabbassenttheottomansultansgiftsthat closelyresembledthosethathisgrandfathershahtahmasphadsentduringhislongrule thatspannedthereignsofthreeottomansultans.theseincludedcopiesofthequr an, lavishlyillustratedcopiesofpersianepics,collectionsofpoetry,preciousjewels,drugs, porcelains,chandeliers,silkcarpets,luxuriousfabricsandlavishtents.thedeathofthe littleprincecoincidedwithatimewhenabbasbegantogainincreasingmilitarypower andhadalreadybeguntoestablishtieswithrulersaroundeurope throughthemediation ofgifts forapromiseofjointactionagainsttheottomans.towardstheveryendofthe sixteenthcentury,shahabbasstoppedsendinganyembassiesatalltotheottoman 8

25 capital,evenontheoccasionofanewenthronement,namelyofmehmediiiin1595.the resultingdiplomaticcrisisatteststothepowerofobjectsandtheiragencyincarrying meaningparticularlyinthecontextofottoman"safavidrelations.iarguethatitwasnot justthewarsfoughtandtreatiessignedthatdefineddiplomacyandpoliticalinteractionin theearlymodernislamicworld,butmaterialobjects particularlythosethathadastrong historicalandculturalidentity activelyparticipatedinthatinteractionbyforming, strengtheningandevenbreakingties. Intheinterestofprovidingahistoricalbackgroundtothechaptersthatfollow,I willfirstgivebelowasummaryoftheaggressivelycompetitive,infact agonistic exchanges betweenthefirstsafavidrulershahismailandhiscontemporaries,sultans BayezidIIandSelimI.TheseexchangesshowthatinOttoman"Safavidrelations,victory wasnotonlymeasuredbyterritorieslostandwon,butalsobysendingandreceiving visuallydazzlingandculturallysignificantobjectsthatcarriedpotentmessagesoftheir own. TheBeginnings:GiftsinthePreludetoConflict CompetitiveexchangesdefinedrelationsbetweenthefounderoftheSafavid dynasty,shahismail(r.1501"1524),andhiscontemporaryottomanruler,selim the Grim (r.1512"1520)priortotheoutbreakofwarbetweenthetwoin1514atchaldiran. Thememoryoftheseexchangescontinuedtosetthetonefor,andwascriticaltothe visualandmaterialdialoguebetweentheottomanandsafavidcourtsfordecadesto come,asthisthesisargues. Ismailhadcometothethroneasateenager,andnewsofhisinvincibilityand 9

26 exponentiallygrowingfamehadquicklyspreadfarandwide,raisingmuchhopein Europe,forexample,thathemightfinallybeabletoputastoptoOttomanexpansion. 9 In modernhistoricalliterature,muchemphasishasbeenplacedonthedefinitiveottoman victoryinthebattleofchaldiran,andtheartiststhatwerebroughttoconstantinople fromthesafavidsideinitsaftermath,transformingartisticproductionattheottoman courtforhalfacentury. 10 TheperiodpriortoChaldiran,however,iscrucialforthe establishmentofthereligiousandmilitaryrivalrybetweenthesetwocourts.thisperiod ischaracterizedbyahighlycompetitivedialogue,inwhichpoliticalandmilitarypotency 9 PalmiraBrummettdiscusseshowIsmail sfamequicklyspreadintoeuropebetween 1502and1514.VariousofficialreportsandotheraccountrelatehowIsmail srulershipis divinelyordained,howhispeopletakehimtobeanewprophet,orgodhimself,andthat heisanenemyofsunnimuslims,i.e.theottomans,palmirabrummett, TheMythof ShahIsmailSafavi:PoliticalRhetoricand Divine Kingship, inmedievalchristian PerceptionsofIslam,ed.JohnV.Tolan(NewYork:GarlandPress,1996),331"59.See alsomargaretmeserve,empiresofislaminrenaissancehistoricalthought (Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2008),231"7.Inhispoetry,ShahIsmail emphasizedthathislineagegoesbacktoprophetmuhammad,andevenfashioned himselfas#aliibnabitalib,thecounsinandson"in"lawofmuhammad,andgod himself.forismail spoetryandhismessianicclaims,seevladimirminorsky,"the PoetryofShahIsmailI,"BulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies10,no.4 (1942): ;WheelerThackston, TheDiwanofKh$t$%&:PicturesforthePoetryof ShahIsma%il, AsianArt1,no.4(1988):37"63;A.Karamustafa, Esma#il1.HisPoetry, EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline; KathrynBabayan, TheSafaviSynthesis:FromQizilbashIslamtoImamiteShi'ism," IranianStudies27(1994):135"161.DuringIsmail slifetime,theintroductionofnovel pictorialelementsinpaintingsdepictingtheprophet snightlyjourneytoheaven(mi"r#j), suchasthefacialveilandthedistinctivesafavidheadgear(t#jort#j$ihaydari),is interpretedagainstthebackgroundofismail sboldclaimsinchristianegruber, When NubuvvatEncountersVal#yat:SafavidPaintingsoftheProphetMohammad smi"r#j,c. 1500"50, intheartandmaterialcultureofiranianshi ism:iconographyand ReligiousDevotioninShi iislam,ed.pedramkhosronejad(londonandnewyork:i.b. Tauris,2012),46" ehabettintekinda', Selim"nameler, IstanbulÜniversitesiEdebiyatFakültesiTarih Dergisi1(1970),214;ehabettinTekinda', YeniKaynakveVesikalarınI"ı'ıAltında YavuzSultanSelim iniranseferi, TarihDergisi17,no.22(1968),72;JamesAllan, EarlySafavidMetalwork, inhuntforparadise:courtartsofsafavidiran1501$1576, ed.sheilacanby(milanandlondon:thamesandhudson,2003),203"39. 10

27 wastestedbyofferingopenlyinsultingobjectsasapreludetoconflict.inhisexamination ofthecross"culturalinteractionbetweenromanandsassaniancourts,matthewcanepa wrote: TheRomansandSassaniankingsinteractedwitheachother,exchangedideas andimagesinacompetitiveandviolentlyhostileatmosphere,evenincircumstances wheretheysubstantiallyadoptedandintegratedtheiropponent sculturalmaterial. 11 The culturalexchangesbetweenselimandismailmaybedescribedinstrikinglysimilar terms,andthereforecanepa sterm agonisticexchange isappropriatein conceptualizingthemannerinwhichthesafavidandottomancourtsestablishedtheir materialandvisualdialogue. SultanSelim sfather,bayezidii(r.1481"1512),whowastherulingottoman sultanwhenismailrosetopowerin1501,generallyfollowedapolicyofappeasement towardhim. 12 Inresponse,however,ShahIsmailwasunabashedlyhostile,ashewasto hismamlukanduzbekneighbors.eventhoughismailhadnotdispatchedanenvoyto theottomancourttoannouncehisaccessiontothethrone,in1504/5bayezidsentan envoybearinggifts(tuf"t#i$l"%iq$va$p&shkashh"#yi$muv"fiq)tocongratulatetheshah whennewsofhismilitarysuccessesiniraqandfarscametobeheardinthewest. 13 In hisletter,bayezidwasaskingismailtostoppersecutingsunnimuslimsinacivilized 11 MatthewCanepa,The$Two$Eyes$of$the$Earth:$Art$and$Ritual$of$Kingship$Between$ Rome$and$Sassanian$Iran(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 2009), Ghul#mSarwarwrotethat BayezidIIpursuedadualpolicy:indirectanti"$afaw%,as longassh#hism#&%lwasweak;anddirectpro"$afaw%,themomentsh#hism#&%lbecame strong. Ghul#mSarwar,History$of$Sh"h$Ism"'&l$(afaw&(Aligarh:Publishedbythe authorandaligarhmuslimuniversity,1939),72;adelallouche,the$origins$and$ Development$of$the$Ottoman#Safavid$Conflict$(906#962$/$1500#1555)(Berlin:Klaus SchwarzVerlag,1983),74" 'asanbegr(ml(,a$chronicle$of$the$early$(afaw&s$being$the$asanu t#taw"r&kh$of$ )asan#ı#r*ml*,ed.andtransl.c.n.seddon,2vols.(baroda:orientalinstitute,1934),i: 86"7. 11

28 manner. 14 AccordingtotheSafavidhistorianHasanBegRumlu,Ismailsentbackwith theenvoyrobesofhonorandfavorsasgifts(bikhil"#t$u$ri"#y#t). 15 Otherhistorianshave recordedahostilereactionfromismail:thattheottomanenvoywasmadetowatchthe burningoftwosunnis,whorefusedtofollowtheshah,andthathewasforcedtoeatpork atthesafavidcourt,whichofcourseisforbiddeninislamicpractice. 16 Regardlessof whetherthesereportshaveanyvalidity,othermeasurestakenbyismailpointtohis aggressivelydisaffectedstancetowardstheottomans.forexample,hesoughttosecure themilitarysupportofveniceagainstthesultanbysendinganembassythere, 17 andtried totakeadvantageoftheongoingottomancivilwarcausedbyamajordisputeamong Bayezid ssonsoverthesuccessiontothethrone. 18 AfinalexchangebetweenBayezidandSelimvividlydemonstratesthecontrast betweenthecongenialattitudeofthesultanontheonehand,andtheprovocativeattitude oftheshahontheother,mostforcefullyexpressedbyhisdispatchofahighlyinsulting gift. In1510,followinghisvictoriousbattlewiththeSunniUzbekrulerMuhammad ShaybaniKhan,ShahIsmailhadhisopponent sheadcutoff.hethenorderedtheskullto bestuffedwithhayandsentittobayezidii,whiletheremainingbonesoftheskullwere 14 NasrallahFalsafi, Jang"iCh#ldir#n, Majallai$D#nishkadai$Ababiyy#ti$Tehr#n1 (1953/4):50"127;Allouche,$OttomanSafavid$Conflict,86"7. 15 Bothrobesofhonoraswellasthespecificwordusedheretomean favors indicate giftsgivenfromasuperiortoaninferior.$asanbegr%ml%,a%sanu ttaw#r&kh,i: Sarwar,History$of$Sh#h$Ism#"&l,50"1;Allouche,$OttomanSafavid$Conflict, GuglielmoBerchet,La$Repubblica$di$Venezia$e$la$Persia(Torino:G.B.Paravia,1865), FortheOttomanCivilWaratthebeginningofthefifteenthcentury,seeDimitrisJ. Kastritsis,The$Sons$of$Bayezid:$Empire$Building$and$Representation$in$the$Ottoman$ Civil$War$of$ (Leiden:Brill,2007). 12

29 mountedingoldandmadeintoawinecupfortheshah. 19 Ironically,soonafterthe dispatchofshaybanikhan sskulltobayezid,aletterfromthesultanarrivedatthe shah scourtin1511/12,expressingcongratulationsonhisvictoryovertheuzbekruler. 20 WhenSultanSelimtookoverthethronein1512,thememoryofthese provocationsmusthavebeenalive.thenewsultanquicklymadeitclearthathehadno intentiontomaintainhisfather seasternpolicy.selim sangertowardstheshahwasfed bothbyhisownhot"temperednature,andismail scontinuingattacksandprovocations. Themonthsleadingtothetworulers militaryconfrontationin1514,whenselimfinally succeededininflictingacrushingdefeatagainstthesafavidshah,arecharacterizedbyan exchangeofhighlyinsultingobjectsaccompaniedbyparallelcorrespondence.theseare recordedinthelettersthey veexchangedandarerecalledbycontemporaryandnear" contemporaryaccounts. InApril1514,SultanSelimsentalettertoShahIsmaildeclaringwaronhim. 21 Theletterbeginswithastatementofthesharpcontrastbetweenthetitlesandattributesof eachruler.inthisconstruction,notonlyisselimisdefinedastheleaderofallmuslims, the CaliphofGod, butheisalsoidentifiedwiththebestkingsandheroesintheperso" Islamictradition.Heisfashionedas thesolomonofsplendor,thealexanderof Imminence;haloedinvictory,Far#d$ntriumphant;slayerofthewickedandtheinfidel, 19 %asanbegr$ml$,asanu t"taw#r$kh,i:122;marinosanuto,%#h&ism#'$l&i&nei& «Diarii»&di&Marin&Sanudo,BiancamariaScarciaAmoretti,ed.(Istitutoperl Oriente: Roma,1979),193"4. 20 Sarwar,History&of&Sh#h&Ism#'$l, AfulltextoftheletterisgiveninFeridunAhmedBeg,Müne'#tü s"sel#(in,2vols. (Istanbul,1264"65/1848"49),I:379"81.AnEnglishtranslationcanbefoundinJohn Woods, LettersfromSel#mandIsm&'#l, inthe&islamic&world,eds.williamhardy McNeillandMarilynRobinsonWaldman(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1973), 338"42. 13

30 guardianofthenobleandthepious;thewarriorinthepath,thedefenderofthefaith;the champion,theconquerer;thelion,sonandgrandsonofthelion;standard"bearerof justiceandrighteousness. 22 Selim svictoryisalsodeclaredthiswayasinevitableand approvedbygod.bycontrast,ismailisgiventhetitle prince (amr),whois the possessorofthelandoftyrannyandperversion,thecaptainofthevicious,thechiefofthe malicious,theusurpingdariusofthetime,themalevolentzahhakoftheage,thepeerof Cain. 23 SuchapointedefforttodefineIsmailasatyranthasmoretodowithproving thatismailwasahereticthantopointoutthepureevilinhim.thisway,selimprovesto hisownaudience,theottomanadministrativeandmilitaryestablishment,thatitis legitimatetowagewarontheshah.indeed,selimreferstothefatwas(judicialrulings) 24 issuedbyottomanreligiousscholars,supportinghisclaimsthatismailhaddeviatedfrom therulesofislam,anddisrespectedthereligionbycursingthefirstcaliphsandplacing copiesofthequr anindirtyplaces. 25 Thislastpointisquitesignificantforpatternsof exchangebetweentheottomanandsafavidcourtsfordecadestocome,foraswewill see,ismail ssonandsuccessorshahtahmaspsentottomansultanspricelesscopiesof thequr anasgifts,andpepperedhisownletterswithversesfromthequr anto demonstratehisknowledgeofthereligion. AshemarchedonIran,SelimIwrotethreemoreletterstoIsmail, 26 employing 22 Woods, Sel#mandIsm$%#l, 338"9. 23 Woods, Sel#mandIsm$%#l, BruceMasters, Fatwa(fetva), Encyclopedia"of"the"Ottoman"Empire,eds.Gábor ÁgostonandBruceMasters(NewYork:FactsonFile,2009), Forthesefatwas,seeTekinda&, YeniKaynakveVesikaların ;ElkeEberhard, Osmanische"Polemik"gegen"die"Safawiden"im"16."Jahrhundert"nach"arabischen" Handschriften(Freiburg:KlausSchwarzVerlag,1970). 26 Selim sfirsttwoletterswerewritteninpersian,andtheremainingtwowerewrittenin Turkish.FeridunAhmedBeg,Müne#$tü s%sel$&in,i:382"3,383"4,385"6. 14

31 increasinglydemeaninglanguage,butonlygotoneresponsefromismailbeforetheir actualcombat,accompaniedbyahighlyinsultinggift. 27 Inthisletter,ShahIsmail criticizedthesultan shostiletoneandpointedout,inaverysarcasticmanner,thathis letterscouldonlyhavebeenwrittenbyscribeswhowereundertheinfluenceofdrugs.he therefore dispatched[his]honoredpersonalcompanionandservantsh"hqul#$gh" (Mayhebesustained)withagoldencasketstampedwiththeroyalsealandfilledwitha specialpreparation(huqqa"i#zahab$#maml%#az#kaif$yat"i#kh&''a#makht%m#bi"muhr"i# hum&y%n)fortheiruseshouldtheydeemitnecessary. 28 Selimwassoinfuriatedwith Ismail sgiftandtheaccompanyingletterthatheorderedhismessengertobeexecuted immediately. ThereisanotherexchangeofinsultinggiftsbetweenSelimandIsmailpriorto Chaldiran,whichisrecordedquitedifferentlybyOttomanandSafavidhistorians. AccordingtotheSafavidhistorianHasanBegRumlu,alongsidehislettersfullofthreats andintimidation,ismailsentthesultanafemalehead%dress(ch$z$#chand#misl"i#mi(jar#va# ghaira#ki#mujab"i#fitna#u#fas&d#b%d#b%y#m$frast&d). 29 Thisprovokinggift,meantto challengethereceiver smasculinity,isrecordedbytheottomanhistorianmustafaalias onethatwasinsteadsentfromselimtoismail: Alongwithlettersfullofoffensive wordsandscoldingstatements,[selim]hadsent[ismail]afemalehead%dresshereand handkerchiefswornbywomenthere.toexposehisimpotence,[selim]wrote: Foryou, whoisunworthytobecalledaman,thesearemorefittingthanaturbanandahelmet. 27 FeridunAhmedBeg,Müne(&tü s"sel&)in,i:384%5. 28 FeridunAhmedBeg,Müne(&tü s"sel&)in,i:384%5;woods, Sel#mandIsm"&#l, 343; Idr#s%iBidl#s#,Selim#"ah"n&me,ed.HicabiKırlangıç(Ankara:KültürBakanlı'ı,2001), (asanbegr)ml),a*sanu t"taw&r$kh,i:143%4. 15

32 AlirecordstoothatSelimalsosentIsmailacloak,woolencloths,ashawl,misvak, 30 and astaff allgarmentsandequipmenttypicallywornorusedbysufis pointingoutthat sincehecomesfromalineofsufis,heshouldweartheseinsteadofroyalregalia,and thathisplaceofdwellingismoreappropriatelyasufiresidenceratherthanathrone. 31 ThememoryoftheseexchangesofhighlyoffensiveobjectsbetweenOttomanand Safavidrulers,meanttochallengeordiscreditthereceiver spoliticalandreligious legitimacy,braveryandmanlihoodwasalastingone.accordingtocaterinozeno,after thebattleofchaldiran,whichshatteredismail simageasanunbeatablemilitaryleader andasthelong"awaitedmessiah, 32 ShahIsmailsentanothersetofdaringgiftstoSelimI weighingthevalueoflandsunderhisruleagainstthevalueofthosegifts,threateningto conquerhiscountry,andhumiliatinghimbyunderscoringhisignoblebackground: Ismail,whowasfullypreparedfortheenterpriseagainst theturks,sentambassadorstoselim,whowasthenin Amasia,withpresents,abatonofmassivegold,asaddle andrichly"mountedsword,withalettertothiseffect: Ismail,greatSovereignofthePersians,sendstoyouSelim thesegifts,quiteequaltoyourgreatness,astheyareworth 30 Asmallstick(thetipofwhichissoftenedbychewingorbeating)usedforcleaning andpolishingteeth HansWehr,ADictionaryofModernWrittenArabic,ed.J.Milton Cowan(Wiesbaden:OttoHarrasowitzGmbH&Co.KG,1979), ta"nutevb#hıv$firveserz#imütek$sirn$melerileg$hnezkebüg$hçenber gönderirlerdi. Seningibin$%merdedest$rumi&feryerinebunlarl$yıkdır diy' muhannesli&initasr#hkılurlardıveg$h Senbirsof#%z$desin.Taht%g$h%ısaltanatal$yık birfür'%m$yeüft$desin.sanamün$sibolanbunlardur diy'hırka,"ab$ve$lvemisv$k ve"as$gönderüb, Sanaz$viye%ni#nolmakmün$sibdir diy'bildirirlerdi.gelibolulu Mustafa#$l%Efendi,KayseriRaidEfendiKütüphanesi ndeki901ve920no.lu NüshalaraGöreKit$bü t%t$ri(%ikünhü l%a(b$r,eds.ahmetu&uretal.,2vols. (Kayseri:ErciyesÜniversitesiYayınları,1997),II: AsHansRoemernoted: ForShahIsm'#%lCh'ldir'ndidnotmeanmerelythelossofa battleandofextensivetractsofland.intheeyesofhisfollowershehadalsolostthe nimbusofinvincibility,evenifthedefeathaddonenothingtoimpairhisreputationof sanctity. H.R.Roemer, TheSafavidPeriod, inthecambridgehistoryofiran,vol.6: TimuridandSafavidPeriods,eds.PeterJacksonandLaurenceLockhart(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),

33 asmuchasyourkingdom;ifyouareabraveman,keep themwell,becauseiwillcomeandtakethemfromyou, togetherwithyourheadandkingdom;whichyoupossess againstallright,asitisnotproperthattheoffspringof peasantsshouldbearruleoversomanyprovinces. This lettersoenragedthehaughtyspiritofselim,thathewished tokilltheambassadors,butrefrained,beingkeptbackby hisbashas(pashas).however,inhisragehecouldnot restrainhimselffromhavingtheirearsandnosescutoff, andsentthembackinthisstatewithaletterwrittento Ismail,saying: Selim,greatSovereignoftheTurks, repliestoadogwithouttakingtheleastnoticeofhis baying;tellinghimthatifhewillshowhimself,hewillfind thatiwilldotohimwhatmypredecessormahometdidto hispredecessorussuncasano. 33 Againstthisbackground,thefamousbootybroughtbacktotheTopkapıPalaceby SelimIin1514afterhisdefeatofIsmail,whichincludedobjectsthatbelongedtothe shahhimselfsuchasajadecup(figure0.1)andabeltandarmband(figure0.2), 34 gain muchmoresignificancewithinthecontextofottoman"safavidculturalexchange. 35 SeveralexamplesinthisstudydemonstratethattheOttomanscontinueddemandingto receivesuchsymbolicallyloadedobjectsasgiftsfromsafavidshahsattimesofpeace 33 GiosafatBarbaroandAmbrogioContarini,TravelstoTanaandPersiaandA NarrativeofItalianTravelsinPersiainthe15thand16thCenturies,ed.LordStanleyof Alderley,transl.WilliamThomasHakluytSoc.,Ser.I,vol.49(London:HakluytSociety, 1873),65.Zenoisreferringtothebattleof1473betweentheOttomansultanMehmedII andtheturkomanruleroftheaqqoyunludynastyuzunhasan.franzbabinger, MehmedtheConquererandHisTime,ed.WilliamC.Hickman,transl.RalphManheim (Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1978),314"5. 34 TopkapıPalaceMuseum,Hazine,no.1844,1842and1843respectively.Allofthese objectsbearthenameofshahismail.forthecupandthearmband,seecengizköseo#lu, TheTopkapıSarayMuseum,TheTreasury,ed.andtransl.J.MichaelRogers(Boston: NewYorkGraphicSociety,1987),196,206.Forthebelt,seeAllan, EarlySafavid Metalwork. 35 ForadiscussionofthebootybroughttotheOttomancourtbySelimIfromTabriz,see J.MichaelRogers, TheGorgeousEast: TradeandTributeintheIslamicEmpires, in Circa1492:ArtintheAgeofExploration,ed.JayA.Levenson(NewHavenand London:YaleUniversityPress,1991),69"74; 17

34 negotiations.therefore,therolethatobjectsplayedinthisdialogue,iargue,hadalasting impactwithintheottoman"safavidinteractionduringthedecadestocome ThememoryofChaldiranwasalsokeptaliveinotherwaysattheOttomancourt.The MarbleKiosk,ashorepavilionbuiltinConstantinoplebySelimIwas paintedwith historicalmuralsinthemannerofpersianpavilions,whichselimicertainlysawwhenhe conqueredtabrizin1514. ThesepaintingswereprobablyexecutedbythePersianartists broughttotheottomancapitalbythesultanfollowingthebattleofchaldiran,andthey were remindersofselimi svictoriesoverthesafavidsin1514andthemamluksin GülruNecipo#lu,Architecture,CeremonialandPower:TheTopkapıPalacein thefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies(newyorkandcambridge,mass.,:architectural HistoryFoundationandMITPress,1991),224.Indeed,inthemid"sixteenthcentury,the HabsburgambassadorOgierGhiselindeBusbecqsawinapavilioninIstanbulanimage depictingthefamousbattlebetweenselimiandshahismail.busbecqsays,he hadthe privilegetobeadmittedintosomeofthepleasure"housesofthegrandseignor.inthe Valvesofoneofthem,IbeheldthefamousFightofSelimuswithIsmaelKingofthe Persians,excellentlydescribedinChecker"Work."A.G.Busbequius,TravelsintoTurkey: ContainingtheMostAccurateAccountoftheTurks,andNeighbouringNations,Their Manners,Customs,Religion,Superstition,Policy,Riches,Coins,etc.(London:J. RobinsonandW.Payne,1774),52. 18

35 CHAPTER1: OftheKindOnePrinceSendsAnother : ThegiftspresentedtoSultanSelimIIbyShahTahmaspin1568 Intheyear1568,theSafavidrulerShahTahmasp(r.1524"76)sentadelegationtothe OttomansultanSelimII(r.1566"74)athiscourtinEdirnewithplentifulgiftsof enormousvalue.thesafavidsandtheottomansweretwoofthemostpowerfulislamic empiresatthistime;thesafavidswerebasediniranandtheottomanswere headquarteredinanatoliaandthebalkans.theceremonysurroundingthepresentation ofthesegifts,aswellasthegifts precisecontentsandtheirsymbolicandrhetorical significancefortheottomans,thesafavids,andtheotherforeignambassadorspresentat thisencounter,constitutethecentralsubjectmatterofthischapter.thispresentationof giftswasextraordinary,becauseamongtheobjectsbroughttotheottomancourtbythe Safavidambassadorwastheworld"famousillustratedmanuscript,theShahnama(Book ofkings)ofshahtahmasp.thischapterarguesthatthepresentationofthis incomparablyvaluablemanuscripthaddualpurposesforthesafavidshah.ontheone hand,itwasdesignedtoincreasehischancesofobtainingspecificdiplomatic concessionsinhisnegotiationswiththemilitarilyandpoliticallymorepowerfulottoman sultan.butontheotherhand,itwasalsointendedasapublicactofsupremegenerosity andmagnanimity,whichwouldsolidifytheshah sownsuperiorpositionasapatronof theartsvis"à"vistheottomansultan. 19

36 ThismanuscriptoftheShahnama(BookofKings)wascompletedintheearly 1520sunderthepersonalauspicesoftheSafavidrulerShahTahmasp. 1 Today,itis widelyconsideredamasterpieceofislamicart,andisremarkablebothforitssizeandfor thesuperbartisticexpressionmanifestinall259paintingsitcontained.yetdespiteits obviousimportance,thecircumstancesunderwhichitwasgivenawaybyitspatron remaininadequatelyexplainedbymodernscholars.however,apreviouslyunknown documentatthearchiviodistato(statearchives)invenicerevealscrucialdetailsabout thegiftingofthismanuscript,whichwillcontributegreatlytothisdiscussion.the documentinquestionisareportwrittenbygiacomosoranzo,thevenetianbailo (ambassadorandconsulofthevenetianstate,) 2 relatingthedetailsofthesafavid ambassador svisitwithanattachedlistofthegiftshebroughttotheottomansultan, SelimII. 3 Inordertocontextualizethismaterial,Iwillfirstbrieflydiscussgift"givingasa formofdiplomaticcontactandexchangeinmuslimcourtsofthesixteenthcentury.then, IwillturntotherolethatgiftexchangeplayedinOttoman"Safavidrelations,whichwill placethepresentationofgiftsin1568inhistoricalcontext.finally,iwillturntothe detailsoftheceremonyheldattheedirnepalace.gift"giving,asiwillshow,is 1 TheworkisalsoknownasShahnama"iShahiorShahnamaofShahTahmasp.Afterits presentationtotheottomansultanin1568,itwashousedforseveralcenturiesinthe TopkapıPalaceinIstanbul,butinthebeginningofthe19 th centuryitwasremovedand itscontentslaterdispersed.today,partsofitarehousedinseveraldifferentcollections. 2 ThebailowouldbeappointedforaperiodofthreeyearstoresideinConstantinopleand wouldbeassignedpolitical,economicandjudicialduties.foranoverviewofthehistory oftheinstitutionofthebailo,seeb.spuler, B#ly$s EncyclopediaofIslam,Second Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline. 3 ArchiviodiStatodiVenezia(hereafterASVe),Senato,DispaccidegliAmbasciatori Constantinopoli(hereafterDispacciConstantinopoli),Filza2,512a"515b. 20

37 essentiallyameasurethatfacilitatesamanifestationofpowerrelations,inthiscase betweentherivalrulersoftwoearlymodernislamicempires. Giftgiving" Giftingwasanintegralpartofearlymodernpoliticalculturebothatthedomestic andinternationallevels.rulerssentandreceivedgiftsofdifferingvalueandamountsfor anumberofpurposes.althoughtodaywethinkofgiftsasunconditionalfavors,amore carefulexaminationofgiftingpatternsrevealsthatitinvolvedvaryinglevelsofpolitical, economic,andartisticinteraction.nataliezemondavisarguesthat giftexchangeexists asanessentialrelationalmode,arepertoireofbehavior,aregisterwithitsownrules, language,etiquette,andgestures. 4 Thisdefinitionisnotsomuchusedasageneral definitionof thegift butaswhatdavisdubsasa giftmode. Thisapproachwillbe quiteusefulinunderstandingthatshahtahmasp sgiftsthemselvesasobjectsof economic,symbolicandartisticvalueswerenotdivorcedfromthemannerinwhichthey werepresentedbeforetheottomansultan.inotherwords,althoughtheexchangetook placebetweenthetworulers,onedidnothandthegiftsovertotheotherinaprivate audiencebutratherthisexchangewasacourtlyperformance.therewereintermediaries involved,thosewhoweredirectlyinvolvedandthespectatorsoftheceremony.the highest"rankingofficialsofbothcourtsmadeupthefirstgroupwhileforeign ambassadorsconstitutedthelattergroup.throughcourtlyceremonial,whichbrought 4 Davis,GiftinSixteenthCenturyFrance,9. 21

38 togetheralltheseparticipants,thepresentationofgiftsbecameaspectacle,ora performativemoment 5 thatportrayedexistingandchangingbalancesofpower. Sovereigns,high"rankingofficialsofthestate,themembersofthearistocracy, andpowerfulmerchantssenteachothergiftsmostsimplyasademonstrationoftheir willingnesstomaintaingoodrelations,expressfriendship,andensureloyalty.aruler s accessiontothethrone,forexample,wasusuallysuchamajoroccasiontohonorhim withgifts.giftsreceivedinthiswaycreatedtensionandattimescomplicatedpower relations.thegiftingoftheshahnamaofshahtahmasptotheottomansultanmusthave createdsuchtensionduetothereceiver sobligationtoreturnthegiftintheformofa comparableormorevaluablegift.ananonymousvenetianaccountwrittenin1553 relatesanoccasioninwhichtheottomansultanwasobligedtocountergiftasafavid presentwithtwiceitsworth.priortothesigningoftheamasyatreatybetweenthe SafavidsandtheOttomans,whichconcludedlongyearsoffighting,theOttomansultan SüleymantheMagnificentreceivedanunofficialnegotiatorofShahTahmaspwhose mission,accordingtothevenetianaccount,wastonegotiateandpersuadethesultanto makepeace.theenvoypromisedthesultanthatwithinamonthshahtahmaspwould sendanambassadorwiththeauthoritytoconcludefinalpeace.then,he gave[to Süleyman]thebookwhichhewasholdinginhishandwhiletheywereconversingasa present,whosevaluewassaidtobe16,000goldducats.inexchange,süleymangavehim 5 J.L.Austin stheoryof speechacts, whichlaythefoundationforperformancestudies, aswellasmikhailbakhtin sengagementwithandexpansionoftheconceptthrougha modelthatempowerstheaudienceofaspeechactinformmyapproachhere.seej.l. Austin,HowToDoThingswithWords,(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1962) andmikhailm.bakhtin,thedialogicimagination:fouressays,ed.michaelholquist, (Austin,UniversityofTexasPress,1981). 22

39 doublethatvalue[incash]. 6 Bypayingthenegotiatorinreturnforthebook,thesultan notonlyeradicatestheindebtednessthatacceptingthegiftgenerates,butalsobypaying himtwiceitsvaluethesultanreiterateshissuperiorityandexpresseshispowerof acquiringthebook.drawingonthisexample,iwillarguebelowthatthegiftsthatselim IIreceivedin1568musthavegivenrisetosimilarfeelingsofindebtedness. Consequently,honoringthenewsultanwasonlyasuperficialmotivationforsendingthe gifts.aswewillsee,thesafavidsusedthisoccasiontoacknowledgetheottomansultan asthesuperiorrulerofallmuslimsandaskedhispermissiontogotomeccaandtogrant protectionfortheirpilgrimsontheirwaytotheholylandsofislam,thenunderottoman control. OttomanContext Theenthronementofarulerwastheprincipal,butdefinitelynottheonly, occasionwhenhewashonoredwithgifts.ottomansultansaccordinglyreceived congratulatorygiftsfromforeignrulersandtheirowncourtiersupontheiraccessionto thethrone.thevenetianambassadorcostantinogarzonirecordsinthereporthe presentedtothevenetiansenatein1573,thatthesultan inadditiontohisordinarystaterevenues,receivesan incrediblenumberofgifts;anditisacommonlyheld opinionthatthetotalvalueofthesealmostequaltohis ordinarysourcesofrevenue noambassadorfromany foreignprinceevergoestoconstantinoplewithout appearingbeforehismajestywiththemostcostlypresent andneitherdoesanysubjectofhismajestyevergobefore himorreturnfromamission,beitlargeorsmall,without firstgivinghimagift,accordingtohisrankandoften 6 alqualeeglidonòquellibrochetenevainmano,mentrecheparlavaconlui,il valoredelqualesidicechefossediducatisedicimilad oro.all incontrodelquale Solimanoglidiedeildoppiopiùdivaluta.EugenioAlberi,ed.,Relazionidegli ambasciatorivenetialsenato,seriesiii,3vols.(florence,1840),iii:

40 payingforthesegiftswiththemoneythatwouldotherwise havegonetothetreasuryofhismajestysinceitcanbesaid trulythatnobodyevertalkswiththegran"signore[the sultan]whodoesnotgivehimsomethingofavaluethat correspondstohisownstation. 7 Asaformofdisplayingroyalgenerosity,thesultantheninturnpresentedgiftsto themembersofthestateandtohissubjects.everytimeanewottomansultanascended thethrone,hewasexpectedtodistributemoney(cülusbahii)toallthestateofficials, theulema(muslimreligiousestablishment),andthejanissaries(eliteslavesoldierswho werethemilitaryandadministrativebackboneoftheottomanempire). 8 Followingthe deathofhisfather,whenselimiibecamesultanin1566,hewasforcedtoborrow50,000 goldencoinsfromhisextremelywealthysister,mihrümah,topaythecülusbahii. 9 Similarly,whenShahTahmaspascendedthethronein1524,he [bestowed]8000robes ofhonor(khilat),[andgranted]areported20,000tomansingiftstocourtiers. 10 Theshah alsoproclaimedasignificantreductionintaxesforthepeasants,whichamountedtoa significantsum,15,000tomans,accordingtothesafavidhistorianiskandarbeg.ithas alsobeenrecordedthatduetotheseexpenditures,almostthewholetreasurywas depleted Alberi,Relazioni,III: IsmailHakkıUzunçarılı,OsmanlıDevletininSarayTekilatı(TürkTarihKurumu: Ankara,1945),59. 9 Sel#nik$MustafaEfendi,Tarih"iSelaniki,ed.MehmetIpirli,2vols.(Istanbul: EdebiyatFakültesiBasımevi,1989),1: RudiP.Matthee, GiftGiving,iv.IntheSafavidPeriod, inencyclopediairanica, online, 11 Matthee, GiftGiving. 24

41 SafavidTraditionofGift"Giving WhenweexaminegiftexchangebetweentheSafavidsandtheircontemporary politicalpowers,itappearsthatcertainobjectswerealmostsystematicallysentand received.rudolphmatthee sdiscussionoftheseintheencyclopediairanicaprovidesa synopsisofthetypesofobjectsroutinelysenttoandfromsafavidiran.forexample, amongthegiftsthattherussiantsaralmostalwayssentweregerfalcons,sablefur,and hardliquor.attheendofthesixteenthcentury,ononeoccasionshahabbasreceived livebearsfromrussia. 12 Lions,zebras,andelephantswerenotatypicalgiftsthatforeign envoysbroughttothesafavidcourt.amongothercharacteristicdiplomaticpresentsthe SafavidsreceivedwereArabianhorses,spices,sugar,sumsofmoney,goldducats, Europeanpaintings,books,andprints.Themostcommontypeofgiftssentoutbythe Safavidsincludedsilk,brocade,turbans,shawls,andscimitars.Specificallyforthe OttomansandtheMughals,Safavidshahslikedtosend camels,horses,carpets,and richlydecoratedtents. 13 Whilecourtlyceremonialaccompaniedthepresentationofgifts atthesafavidcourtwaswell,thestrictformalityofottomanceremonialdoesnotseemto beparalleledhere.h.bussenotesthat [on]persiansoiltheambassadorsandtheiroften numerousretinuewereentertainedattheexpenseoftheshah 14 ThiscontrastisalsovisuallyobservableintheSüleym"nnn"me(BookofSultan Süleyman),anOttomanmanuscriptcompletedin1558andpennedbyFethullah"Arif 12 Matthee, GiftGiving. 13 Matthee, GiftGiving. 14 H.Busse, Hiba,iv. Persia EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearman etal.,(brill,2011).brillonline. 25

42 Çelebi. 15 ItstextrelatesthemajorpoliticaleventsofSüleyman sreignupuntil1555, accompaniedbypaintingsillustratingthem.thecourtofshahtahmasp,receivingan Ottomanambassadorisdepictedtwiceinthismanuscript.Inthefirstpainting(Figure 1.1),thereceptiondoesnottakeplaceatthepalacebutintheimperialtentsetalongsidea river.thisambassadorwassentfollowingthefirstcampaignofsüleymanagainstthe Safavidsin HeclearlypresentsaletterfromSüleymaninaformalsetting:the courtiersarelineduponeithersideoftheshahbutthescenecapturesthenon"uniformity intheirbodilymovementsandhandgesturesincontrasttothedepictionofanalogous scenesattheottomancourt.thecourtiersinthesecondpainting(figure1.2)are portrayedinamoreorderlymannerandtheiractionsarewell"matched.afewofthem aresittingcross"leggedemulatingtheshah,whichisneverthecaseintherepresentations ofthereceptionsofforeignambassadorsattheottomancourt.thecourtisonceagain illustratedincampandtheencountertakesplaceinsidetheimperialtentwiththeshah sittingcross"leggedonacarpetontheground. 17 Evenwhenheisincamp,thepainter(s) depictingsüleymanalwaysseathimonanelaboratethroneinthesüleymnnnme. Althoughtheambassadorsdonotpresentgiftsineitherpainting,wecanbesurethatthey broughtgiftsalongwiththemtotheshah. 15 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary(hereafterTSMK),H.1517.Formoreonthis manuscript,seechapter2below. 16 TSMK,H.1517,374a.See TahmaspReceivingtheOttomanAmbassador, inesin Atıl,Süleymanname:"The"Illustrated"History"of"Süleyman"the"Magnificent(Washington, D.C.andNewYork:HarryN.AbramsandtheNationalGalleryofArt,1986),172"3. 17 TSMK,H.1517,550a.See TahmaspReceivingtheOttomanAmbassador inatıl, Süleymannname,214"215.AlthoughIacceptthattheremaybeinaccuraciessimply becausetheydepicttheottomanpointofview,itdoesnotseemlikelytomethatthe Safavidceremonialisentirelyfabricated. 26

43 IndiscussingthenatureofSafavidgiftssenttoforeigncourts,Mattheehas cogentlyarguedthatinthesafaviddiplomaticculture, acombinationofthepresumed importanceofthecountry,theweightoftheissuetobenegotiated,andthevalueofgifts previouslyreceived,determinedtherichnessandvalueofthepresentsofferedat diplomaticexchanges. 18 Thecharacteristicsofthegiftsandthegift"givingceremony heldattheedirnepalacein1568canwellbeunderstoodinaccordancewiththis observation.beforediscussingthatthough,iwillbrieflylookatottoman"safavid relationsinthemid"sixteenthcenturyinordertounderscorethesignificanceofimportant politicaleventsthatpromptedthearrivalofthesafavidenvoytoedirne.thehistorical backgroundwillplacethegiftspresentedin1568inpoliticalcontext,andhelpus understandthestateofgiftexchangetraditionbetweenthetwodynasties. Ottoman"SafavidRelationsintheMid"SixteenthCentury TheOttomansandtheSafavidswereneighboringdynasties,andtherewas constantcompetitionbetweenthemovercontrolofterritories,oversupportfrompeople livingontheborders,andovercontroloftradeandpilgrimageroutes,allofwhichwere economicallyandpoliticallyextremelyvaluable.however,thereligiousrivalrybetween themovershadowedallotherconsiderations,fortheottomansandsafavidswerebitterly dividedbytheiradherencetoopposingversionsofislam.theottomansweresunnis, andsafavidswereshi#is,whichcompelledthemtobeashostiletowardseachotheras theyweretonon"muslimpowers.inthemid"sixteenthcenturysultansüleymanhadthe shaykhal"islamissuealegalopinion,thatkillingasafavidwasaslegitimateaskillingan 18 Matthee, GiftGiving. 27

44 infidelinthenameofislam.bothrulersthusclaimedtobethelegitimateleaderof Muslimsandviewedtheotherasillegitimate.ItisagainstthisbackgroundthatIconsider Ottoman"Safavidrelationsaswellasthegiftexchangebetweenthem.Asawitnesstothe 1568receptionofthePersianenvoy,FeridunBegexplicitlyandforcefullyemphasizesin hischroniclethatthesafavidswerenottruebelieversofislambysayingthat their pollutedminds lackedanadherencetotruefaith,astheywereaccustomedtobe engagedinobscureblasphemingandheresy,cursedthecompanionsofourprophet. 19 ThesigningoftheAmasyaTreatyin1555betweentheOttomansandthe Safavidsisreasonablygenerallyacceptedtohavemarkedaturningpointintheir relations.afterlongyearsoffightingalongthefrontierbetweenthetwostates,in 1553/54,theSafavidsmanagedtocaptureSinanBeg,anintimatecompanionandfavorite ofsultansüleyman(r.1520"66).iskandarbegmunshi,theofficialcourtchroniclerof ShahAbbasI,explainsthedetailsofthiseventanditsaftermathintheTarikhi"alam arayi"abbasi"(historyofshahabbasthegreat).munshisaysthat SultanSüleyman wasdistressedbythecaptureofsenanbegandregrettedhisfruitlessexpeditiontoiran, andimmediatelyafterthathestartedpeacenegotiationsinwhichtheottoman grandviziersokollumehmedpashaplayedacrucialrole. 20 ShahTahmaspthensent SinanBegbacktotheOttomancourtwithamemberoftheSafavidroyalbodyguard, ShahQuliBeg.Inreturn,Süleyman sentshahqolibegbackladenwithgiftsand favors. AfterShahQuli sreturn,tahmaspsentsüleymanaletterexpressingfriendship. 19 HeisreferringtotheSafavidcustomofcursingthefirstthreecaliphswhosucceeded theprophet.tsmk,h.1339,250b. 20 EskandarBegMonshi,History"of"Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,transl.RogerSavory,2vols. (Boulder:WestviewPress,1978),I:

45 Inreturn,Süleyman senttrustedambassadorsbearingcordialgreetingstotheshah. 21 Followingthis,theformalnegotiationsforanofficialpeacetreatystarted.AdelAllouche interpretsthistreatyas thesuccessofthepolicyofcontainmentwhichsüleymanhad pursuedvis"à"visthesafavids, andarguesthatthesafavidsmadeanefforttomaintain goodrelationsbyfollowingitsstipulations. 22 ThesigningoftheAmasyaTreatywasconcludedwithan exchangeof documentsandgifts. 23 TheAustrianambassadorresidingattheOttomancourt,Ogierde Busbecq,providesadetailedaccountofthisevent.Busbecqrecordsthefollowing descriptionofthegiftsshahqulibroughttoamasyain1555: ThePersianambassadorhadarrivedonthe10 th ofmayand hadbroughtwithhimmanysplendidpresents""carpetsof thefinesttexture,babyloniantenthangingsembroideredon theinnersideinvariouscolours,harness,andtrappingsof exquisiteworkmanship,scimitarsfromdamascusadorned withjewels,andshieldsofwonderfulbeauty.butallthese presentswereeclipsedbyacopyofthekoran,thebook whichcontainstheirceremoniesandlaws,whichtheturks believetohavebeencomposedbymahometunderdivine inspiration.agiftofthiskindisveryhighlyesteemed amongthem. 24 TheOttomancourthistorianArifialsomakesnoteofthesegiftsintheSüleymnnnme. HesaysthattheSafavidenvoybroughttoAmasya: agold"embroideredcanopyfora tentresemblingarosegarden,casketsfilledwithgoldcoins,silkswithfigural 21 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,I: Allouche,"Ottoman$Safavid"Conflict,144" EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,I: OgierGhiselinBusbecq,The"Turkish"Letters"of"Ogier"Ghiselin"de"Busbecq,ed.E.S. Forster(Oxford:TheClaredonPress,1927),62. 29

46 representations,jewelry,bows,andcountlessotherunusualandrareitems. 25 Thesetwo descriptionshelpusinidentifyingthegiftsthatshahtahmasptypicallysenttothe Ottomancourt.Below,Iwillcomparethemtothegiftssentin1568. ThereceptionsofSafavidenvoyspriortoandduringtheAmasyapeacetreatyare recordedintwopaintingsinthesüleymnnnme.inthefirstpainting,(figure1.3), SüleymanreceivestheSafavidenvoyintheimperialcamp.Thisscenedepictsthesultan enthroned,withtheenvoyprostratebeforehimandarowoftheottomancourtiers. Meanwhile,thecourtiersareallstandinginauniformpositionwitheventheireyes lookingtowardsthesamedirection. 26 Thesecondscene(Figure1.4)takesplaceinside theamasyapalace,probablypriortothefinalizationofthepeacetreaty.thesultan receivestheenvoyinthepresenceofhisviziersandtwopages(iç"o#lanlar)linedupina comparablemannertotheformerscene.fourofficialscarryboxes,probablybearingthe giftssentbyshahtahmasp.themeaningofdisciplineinottomanceremonialfor OttomancourtiersandforforeignofficialsalikehasbeeninterpretedbyGülru Necipo"lu.Shearguesthatsuchsolemnceremonialandthedisplayofimperialpompin theottomancourtworkedtogethertoinspireawe,andevento exhaust,and weaken theforeigners. 27 FeridunBegrelatesthatin1568,thePersianenvoywassobewildered bythefoodheatehecouldonlysay: Idon tknowwhatkindoffoodthisis Atıl,Süleymannname,231.SeeChapter2onabroaderdicussionofthegiftsreceived withthistreaty. 26 TSMK,H.1517,603a.Atıl,Süleymannname,230# Necipo"lu,Architecture,"Ceremonial"and"Power, hayretinden"gû"olub"yedügi"ta am"içün"bilmezem"nedür"derdi.feridunahmedbeg, Nüzhetü l$esrri l$a%br"der"sefer$i"s&getvr(chronicleoftheszigetvárcampaign), TSMKH.1339,250a. 30

47 AnotherpointworthyofnotepertainingtotheAmasyaTreatyisthefavorable mannerinwhichthepersianambassadorwastreatedincontrasttotheotherambassadors presentatthisevent.onthisissuebusbecqnotesthat nopossiblehonourtowardsthe Persianwasomitted,thatwemighthavenodoubtaboutthegenuinenessofthepeace whichhadbeenmadewithhim. Hefurthermakesnoteofabanquetorganized exclusivelyforthesafavidambassador.noneofthechristianambassadors,including Busbecqhimself,wasinvited: AliPasha,thesecondVizier,gaveadinnertothe Persiansinagarden,which,thoughitwasatsomedistanceandseparatedfromusbya river,wasvisiblefromourquarters 29 Busbecq saccountoftheeventsgoesonto demonstratethatthegiftswerepresentedinthepresenceofhimselfandpossiblyother foreignambassadors.thebanquetinhonorofthesafaviddelegation,togetherwiththe seatingarrangements,whichplacedthesafavidenvoyinaprivilegedposition,servedto showtheotherforeignersthattheintimacyandbondsoffriendshipbetweenthetwo stateswerestrong.tobesure,thisactcontrastssharplywiththehighlypejorative languageusedincontemporaryottomanliteratureaboutthesafavidshahandhis subjects.byassigningthesafavidsandthegiftstheybroughtaneminentplaceincourtly ceremonial,then,theottomansdeemeditnecessarytoappearastruefriendswiththe Safavidsinordertoshowtheirwesternneighborsthatnoconflictexistedbetweenthem andtheireasternneighbors. After1555,OttomansandSafavidsdidnotfightandingeneralmaintainedgood relationsastheyhadagreedintheamasyatreaty.therewas,however,oneissuethat developedandcreatedtensionbetweenthetwostates.in1560,therebelliousottoman 29 Busbecq,TheTurkishLetters,63. 31

48 princebayezidfledtoshahtahmasp scourt.whilesüleyman sattitudetowardthe SafavidswaseitherindifferentorhostilebeforehissontookrefugeinIran,afterthatit changedsignificantly.afterthearrivalofbayezidatthesafavidcourt,süleymanseems tohavemadeaspecialefforttokeeptheshahonhissideandpreventhimfromtaking advantageofthissituationtousehisownson,apotentialheirtothethrone,againsthim. BeforetheOttomanprincecametohiscourt,Tahmasphadrequestedpermissionto establishapermanentembassyinistanbul.thisrequestwasflatlyrefusedwiththeterse reply: suchisnottheottomancustom. 30 Incontrast,after1560,theOttomansultan firstsentsinanpashaasanenvoytothesafavidcourt,thenhesentthegovernorof Maraandhischieftaster,HasanAgha,withanunprecedentedretinue.IskandarMunshi recordsthattogetherwithservantsandretainerstheembassynumberedoverseven hundredpeople.theybroughttheshah bejeweledweapons,daggerbelts,preciousstuffs fromeurope,rareitemsfromallovertheworld. 31 Overthecourseofthenexttwoyears,atleasttwootherOttomanembassies visitedtahmaspbringing SyrianandArabianhorses,unequaledforexcellenceand fleetnessoffoot,withbejeweledsaddlesofgold,andottomanhorseblanketsofbrocade; incash,aboutfivehundredthousandgoldasrafîandflorins,theequivalentoffifty thousandroyaliraqitoman;preciousstuffs;andotheritemsofthesamescale. 32 Eventually,in1562,thisseriesofembassiessucceededinachievingitsgoal.Shah TahmaspfinallyagreedtoturnovertheOttomanprincetothecustodyofthevisiting Ottomandignitaries.AssoonastheseofficialstookaholdofBayezid,theyimmediately 30 QuotedinEskandarBegMonshi,Shah"AbbastheGreat,I: EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"AbbastheGreat,I: EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"AbbastheGreat,I:

49 puthimtodeathalongwithhissonstoforestallanyfurthertroublethatmaybecausedby himorhisheirs. Incontrasttotheroutineexchangeofembassies,then,whenaruler(i.e.Sultan Süleyman)hadaspecialrequestofcrucialimportanceforhim,thescaleoftheembassy, andtheamountandvalueofthegiftshesentsignificantlyincreased.thissamerulein turnappliedfortheembassyshahtahmaspsenttotheottomansin1568.thisembassy wasnotanordinaryone,thescaleoftheembassyandtheextraordinaryvalueofthe presents,whichincludedthepricelessshahnamayi"shah"tahmasp,itbroughttothe Ottomancourtattesttothis. Shh"Q#l$""presents"the"gifts"to"the"Ottoman"sultan"Selim"II"in"Edirne" ThepresentationoflavishgiftstoSultanSelimIIinEdirnein1568isawell"known eventtohistoriansandarthistoriansalike.thatthesafavidambassadorcametothe Ottomancourtandpresentedsumptuousgiftswasnotonlyrecordedbynumerous historians,butalsotwopaintingsdepictingthiseventareextant.oneofthese(figure 1.5)isfromtheillustratedmanuscriptNüzhetü lesr#ri la$b#r"der"seferi"s%getv#r (ChronicleoftheSzigetvárCampaign).Thisbookwascompletedwithinmonthsafterthe arrivaloftheambassador,in1569andwaswrittenbyahmedferidunbeg,probablyfor thegrandviziersokollumehmedpasha. 33 ItnarratesSüleymantheMagnificent slast 33 Thecolophongivesthedateofcompletionas13Receb976/1January1569inTSMK, H1339,302a.Foradiscussionofthemanuscript spatronage,seeeminefetvacı, VizierstoEunuchs:TransitionsinOttomanManuscriptPatronage,1566"1617 (Ph.D. dissertation,harvarduniversity,2005),97"106.shearguesthatthereisstrongevidence thatsokollucommissionedthemanuscript.atthesametime,heranalysisoftheoverall textualandvisualprogramofthemanuscriptshowsthatitwasdesignedtoappealtoand promoteatvaryinglevels,thesultan,thegrandvizier,andtheauthor,which,asagroup, 33

50 campaignagainsthungaryin1566,thesultan sdeaththere,andtheorderlytransitionof thethronetohisson,selimii.theotherpainting(figure1.6)isadouble"spreadfromthe ehnme"i#sel$m#%n(bookofkingsofsultanselim)dated1581.thisisamore detailedvisualaccountoftheeventinthatitcapturesthesultan,highest"rankingottoman officials,thesafavidambassador,afewmembersofhisentourage,andthepresentshe brought,intypicalottomanceremonialscenery.moreover,thelatterpaintinghasbeen publishedinoneofthemostwidelyusedart"historicaltextbooksofislamicart,making thepaintingaccessibletoanystudentofislamicart. 34 Still,aspresentationofthegiftshas notbeenthoroughlyexaminedbefore,thediscussionofthesetwopaintingsneedstobe furtherexpanded. Thesetwovisualaccountshavebeenexplainedbyarthistoriansintwoways.The firstapproachconsidersthefirstpainting(figure1.5)asvisuallydocumentinghow manuscriptsingeneral,andtheshahnama#of#shah#tahmaspinparticular,werepresented totheottomansultan. 35 Theotherapproachdiscussesthedouble"pagepaintingunderthe categoryof Ottomanpainting ingeneralandpointstotheorderlinessoftheceremony, thecentralpositionofthesultan,andthesubmissiveroleplayedbytheambassador. 36 It ispresentedasoneamongmanypaintingsexemplifyingtheconstantottomanmotivation tovisuallyeulogizethesultan.withrespecttotheforeignanddomesticelements juxtaposedside"by"side,emphasizingottomansuperiorityhereisconsideredasthe formedtheaudienceforillustratedmanuscriptsattheottomancourtinthelatesixteenth century. 34 SheilaBlairandJonathanBloom,The#Art#and#Architecture#of#Islam#1250"1800(New HavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,1994), FilizÇa#manandZerenTanındı, RemarksonSomeManuscriptsfromtheTopkapı PalaceTreasuryintheContextofOttoman"SafavidRelations. Muqarnas13(1996), 144n. 36 BlairandBloom,The#Art#and#Architecture#of#Islam,

51 ultimateobjectiveofthepatronandpainter. 37 Todate,historianshaveprimarilyanswered thequestionofwhythesegiftsweresentinthefollowingmanner: tocongratulateselim IIonhisaccession. WhileIdonotdisagreewiththisexplanation,asithasbeenrecorded timeandagainincontemporaryaccounts.however,myexaminationofthepresentation ofthesegiftsexpandsonandeventuallyamendsthispointbyconsideringtherhetorical significanceoftheshah srequest.thisrequestismostclearlyrecordedinahitherto unknowncontemporaryreportwrittenbygiacomosoranzo,thevenetianrepresentative (bailo) 38 attheottomancourt. Inwhatfollows,ItellthestoryoftheSafavidambassador sjourneyfromtabrizto Erzurumfirst,thentoIstanbul,theOttomancapital,andfinallytoEdirne,wherethenew sultanandhiscourtwerewintering.anexaminationofeventsatthesethreestopshelps drawabetterpictureofthepresentationofgiftsatthreelevelsascendinginpompand complexityofprotocolfromonetothenext. AssoonasnewsofSultanSüleyman sdeathandthesubsequententhronementof hissonselimiispreadtopersia, 39 ShahTahmaspknewthatthe1555peacetreatyneeded toberenewed.itwasalsopartofcustomaryinternationalprotocoltosendaletterof congratulationstothenewsultan.beforelong,theshahappointedsh"hq#l$,the powerfulgovernorofyerevan(nowarmenia)andnakhichevan(nowazarbaijan),ashis ambassador. Accordingtooneaccount,themostdistinguishedandforemostSafavidcourtiers 37 Forarecentcriticismofthisapproach,seeFetvacı, VizierstoEunuchs. 38 Thebaili(pl.)wererequiredtowritereportstotheauthoritiesinVeniceonaregular basisaboutwhattranspiredattheottomancourt. 39 FeridunBegreportsthatitwasMehmedAgha,amüteferria(memberoftheelite corpsofofficersattheottomancourt)whowassenttopersiawiththismission.tsmk, H.1339,207b. 35

52 wereselectedtoaccompanytheexperiencedambassadorinorderto displaytheir splendorandtodemonstratetheircapacitytodresswell (perdimostraziondilorpompa epossibilitàsivestirno) 40 Theforethoughtthattheshahputintoselectingthemembersof thedelegationwasparalleledbyhiscarefuldesignationofgiftsforthesultan.alipasha reportsthatthearrivaloftheambassadorwasdelayedbecausethisprocesstooklonger thananticipated.thegiftsthatshahtahmasporderedtobemadewere: twotentsmade ofgoldembroideredfabriconitsceiling,andembroideredwithtrees,andotherthanthis, twobooksofhistoryandtwopearls,whichweigh10miscali 41 andalargeruby resemblingasmallpear,andotherthanthesewerestuffs(robe)valuedat82,000tumans (tumenlich), andfortyfalcons. 42 Reminiscentoftheshah snegotiators,thesegiftswerelikewisecarefullyselected toimpresstheottomans.sincetheirpreparationdelayedthedepartureoftheembassy, wecanassumethatatleastsomeofthesegiftswerecustom"made,orcollectedspecially forthisoccasion.moreover,amongtheentiretyofgiftsforthesultan,thisgroupofgifts receivedprideofplace,forthenewsoftheirarrivalwasspreadingconcurrentlywiththe movementoftheembassy.theottomanchroniclerselanikimustafaefendiwrotethat whenthesultanandhiscourthadalreadysettledinedirne,newsofshahquli 40 Marc AntonioPigafetta,ItinerariodaViennaaCostantinopoli,ed.DariaPerocco (Padova:IlPoligrafo,2008),231.BothSafavidandOttomanchroniclersmentionthatthe ambassadorwassenttobringaletterofcondolenceforthedeceasedsultanand congratulationforthenewone,andtorenewpeace.hasanbegrumluexplains: the ShahsentShahQuliSultanUstajluwithgiftsandaletterseventycubitslongto congratulatethesultanandtoconfirmpeace. #asanbegr$ml$,a"sanu t#taw$r%kh,ii: Mis%&'lwasaunitofmeasurementusedtoweighpreciousstones.Ramire"Pie"Maxime Vadalagivestheequivalentas:1mis%&'l=4.97grams.CitedinDanielT.Potts, Pearls, ii.islamicperiod inencyclopediairanica,online, 42 Pigafetta,ItinerariodaVienna,

53 approachingthecityarrived.herecords: He[ShahQuli]hasanelaborateletterof condolenceandcongratulation,withonethousandpersians(surhser,lit.redheads)he comesbearinggreattributeandpresents(pike"ü"hed#y#). 43 Asagroup,theyencapsulateimportantreligious,historical,culturalandeconomic Perso"Islamicroyalattributes.Atvaryinglevels,however,asobjecttypes,thepopularity ofeachoneofthemwassharedbyotherrulersintheearlymodernmuslimworld. Contemporaneousrulersfrequentlycollectedlavishcopiesofsimilarbooks,jewels, textiles,tentsandbirdsofprey.theydidthisthroughcommissioningsimilarobjectsto theircourtartists,receivingthemasgiftsortributefromtheirowncourtiersandforeign rulers,orappropriatingthemasbooty,astokensofmilitaryvictory.toaddtothis,inthis particularcase,most,ifnotalloftheseobjectswereone"of"a"kindobjects,thevalueof whichwaseitherbeyondanymeasureorirrelevant.assignifiersofsophisticatedroyal power,thekindofvaluetheyborewasdependentpartlyonwhopossessedthem,which istosaythattheywouldacquirecurrencywhensetinmotion,tobeexchangedbetween kings.inordertodemonstratetheroleofpossessinganddisplayingwealthtoexpand powerandauthority,theeleventh"centurypersianscholaral"birunisays: ifkingshave nootherwaytoincreasetheirpower,theyembellishthemselveswithsumptuousjewelry sothattheywillbehonoredbythepeoplesincetheyadorewealthandyearnforit. 44 At thesametime,heemphasizesthatonlykingshavetherighttoclaimauthorityoversuch rareobjects: Jewelryandpreciousstonesbelongtokings;iftheyareinthepossessionof 43 Selaniki,Tarih,I: CitedinEvaBaer, JeweledCeramicsfromMedievalIslam:ANoteontheAmbiguity ofislamicornament, Muqarnas6(1989),91. 37

54 peopleforwhomtheyarenotappropriatetheymightbesuspectedoftheftorstealing. 45 Itispossibletoexpandthismedievaldefinitionofroyalpowerintheearlymodernperiod toincludeotherrareobjectsthathavebroaderhistoricalandculturalconnotations.these wouldappealnotonlytothesubjectsoftheking,butalso,andperhapsevenmoreso,to otherkings.shahtahmasp sgiftsunderscorethisprinciplebycreatinganimageofa perfectking,throughharmonizingobjectsthatdenotepurewealth,piousness,anddescent fromanoblelineofancientpersiankings. Aswewillseeinfurtherdetailbelow,oneofthe historybooks reportedinali Pasha sletterwasaqur an,onethatwasallegedlywrittenby"ali,theson#in#lawofthe Prophet.TheotherwasTahmasp sownshahnama,aworkwidelyconsideredasthe masterpieceofpersianartoftheislamicperiod.thepearlsandthepear#shapedruby weresimilarlyhighlyrareandextremelydesirableobjectsamongcontemporarykings. Theseventeenth#centuryFrenchtravellerandjewelmerchantJean#BaptisteTavernier wrotethatthelargestpearlthatheeversawwasonethatthepersiankingshahsafi purchasedin1633fromanarabwhogotitfromthefisheriesnearal#katif. 46 ItisdifficulttoassessexactlyhowrarethepearlssentbyTahmaspwere.In Pigafetta sreportnothingbuttheweightofthepearlsismentionedtodescribethemand emphasizetheirrarity.writingacenturylater,tavernierremindsusthatweightisnotthe soleindicatorofqualityinassessingpearls.heexplainsthattheprinceofmuscat possessed themostbeautifulpearlintheworld,notbyreasonofitssize,foritonly weighs121/16carats,noronaccountofitsperfectroundness;butbecauseitissoclear 45 CitedinBaer, JeweledCeramics, ThiswasoneofthetwomainpearlfisheriesinthePersianGulf.Onewaslocated aroundbahrain,andtheotheracrossbahrainislands,onthearabianside,nearthetown ofal#katif. 38

55 andsotransparentthatyoucanalmostseethelightthroughit. Hethenrecountsthe storyofhowthemughalemperorshahjahanwantedtopurchasethispearl: theprinceofmuscatcametovisitthekhanofhormuz, whoentertainedhimwithmagnificence,andinvitedthe English,Dutch,andsomeotherFranks,inwhichnumberI wasincluded,tothefestival.atthecloseofthefeastthe Princetookthispearloutofasmallpursewhichhecarried suspendedfromhisneckandshowedittothekhanandthe restofthecompany.thekhanwishedtobuyit,topresent tothekingofpersia,andofferedupto2000tomans,but theprincewasunwillingtopartwithit.sincetheni crossedtheseawithabanianmerchantwhomthegreat MogulwassendingtothisPrincetoofferhim40,000ècus forthispearl;butherefusedtoacceptthatsum. 47 Al"Birunilikewiseexplainsthatthemostdesirablepearlisonethatisevenonallsides, and pure,spherical,oblong,anddevoidofanyblemish. 48 Furthermore,thecountless examplesandreferencestoliteraryandscientificworksnotedbyal"birunirevealthe difficultiesofdelienatingfixedcriteriafordeterminingthevalueofaspecificpearl.his referencesshowthatthepriceisdeterminedbyacombinationoftheorigin,typeand weight. 49 Togiveanexample,largepearlsarefoundamongthequlzumitype: Iffree fromdullnessincolourandperforations,apearlweighingthreemithqalsshouldfetch 600dinars.Apearlthatapproachessixmithqalsinweightisbeyondanyprice. The 47 Jean"BaptisteTavernier,TravelsinIndia,byJean"BaptisteTavernier,Baronof Aubonne,TranslatedFromtheOriginalFrenchEditionof1676WithaBiographical SketchoftheAuthor,Notes,Appendices,&c.,trans.V.Ball,2vols,(LondonandNew York:MacmillanandCo.,1889),II: Mu#ammadibnA#madB$r%n$,TheBookMostComprehensiveinKnowledgeon PreciousStones:al"Beruni'sBookonMineralogy,Kit#bal"jam#hirfi$ma%rifatal"jaw#hir (PakistanHijraCouncil,1989),106" Forexample,heexplains: Al"Kindihassaidthatanequivalentweightofthe Kha idanahkindisone"halfthepriceofthesphericalkind,whilethepriceofmuzannar varietyisone"twentiethofanequivalentweightofthesphericalkind.accordingtoal" Kindi,stonessimilarinformtopearlsarepricedattendinarspermithqal. B$r%n$,Book onminerology,

56 pearlthatal"birunicharacterizesasthe pricelesspearl isthetypeknownasdurr Yatimah.Accordingtotradition,afterputtinghertoadifficulttest,theUmayyadcaliph Hishambin Abdal"Malikgavetohiswifethispearl,which weighedthreemithqalsand hadalltheattributesofaperfectpearl.itwasspherical,purewhite,exquisiteand possessedlustre. 50 Weighingtenmis#$%ls,wecanassumethatTahmasp sdoublepearls wouldprobablycomparetotheseexamplesofextraordinarypearls. Inadditiontopearls,Tahmaspalsosentthenewsultanmanyfalcons.Theuseof falconsinhawkingwasbythistimeanoldtraditionwithrootsdatingbackatleast severalcenturiespriortothesixteenthcentury.furthermore,itwasaprerogativeof royaltyasfalconswererareanimalswithacostlyupkeep. 51 WithintheOttomancourt hierarchy,thepostofthechieffalconerwasestablishedasaprestigiouspositionas codifiedinthekanunname(codeoflaws)ofmehmediiinthefifteenthcentury.inthe sixteenthcentury,theimportanceofthepositionincreasedsignificantlyasderivative positionsfilledbyofficersofvariousranksinchargeofotherbirdsofpreywere created. 52 IskandarBegMunshimentionsthepostofthefalconer(khid"mat"i#ush$i" gar%), whobecamelatertheheadoftheroyalhunt(ba"man&ab"im%r"shik'r%sar"afr'z 50 B&r'n&,BookonMinerology,132" InPersian,thewordmostcommonlyusedforfalcon,baz,isdefinedbyDekhodaas a famousbirdthatkingsandpersonsofhighrankuseinhunting. Loghatn'ma"yi Dehkhuda. 52 VariousgroupsoffalconerswereappointedintheInnerandOuterCourts(ender(nand b%r(n.)thedo)ancıbaıattheinnercourtandçakırcıbaıattheoutercourtservedas theheadoftheorganizationoffalconers.whileaccordingtohalilinalcikthenumberof falconerschangedintimebasedoneachsultan sinterestinhawking,therewasageneral trendofincreaseinthesixteenthcentury,whichdissipatedinthesevententhcentury.h. Inalcık,"Doghandji EncyclopaediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearmanetal., (Brill,2011).BrillOnline. 40

57 shud) 53 WelearnfromPigafetta saccountthatwhilethesegiftswerebeingprepared,a rebellionbrokeoutinshirvanwitharmedforcesattackingeachother.shahqulihadto attendtothisandsettleitbeforehisdeparture.theottomanswereinformedthatthiswas theotherobstaclethatpreventedtheembassyfromleavingpersiaearlier.the announcementofthiseventinerzurumcoupledwithshahquli seffectivemanagement ofitmightbeinterpretedasameanstounderscoreshahquli sprestigiouspositionnot onlyasanexperiencedandesteemeddiplomatbutalsoasatalentedmilitarycommander. Infact,SelanikiconfirmsShahQuli sprominentpositionamongthesafavids: hewas famedforhisdignifiedoratoryandbecauseofhisdistinguishedeloquencehewas appointedambassador. 54 Withtherebellionsafelysubduedandgiftsprepared,ShahQulithenleftTabriz, 55 withhislargeretinuetomakehisfirstmajorstopinerzurum,anottomancitycloseto thepersianborder.whentheyreachederzurum,thecurrentgovernoralipasha,wroteto thesultantogivenewsoftheambassador sarrival withgrandeur,numerousmen,and greatpresents ("aametle,"v#fir"#demle"ve"$a%m"pikele). 56 WhileOttomanchroniclers mentionitinpassing,marc AntonioPigafettadiscussesthispompousarrivalandgivesa translationofalipasha sletterinhisaccount. 53 Bregel,Yu."K#osh$begi,preferabletoK#ush$Begi"Encyclopedia"of"Islam,"Second" Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline. 54 ah&kulı"dahi"kızılba""içinde"sözi"bellü"ki"i"ve"cangu"#dem%si"olup"yah"i"söz"bilmek"ile" me"h'r"ve"müte$ayyen"sühand#n"olma(la"ilçilik"hidmetine"ta$y%n"olunmı""olupselaniki, Tarih,I: TabrizwasacityneartheOttomanborderandhadservedastheSafavidcapitalduring thefirsthalfofthesixteenthcentury.whileshahtahmaspmovedthecourttoqazvinin 1548,itseemsthatTabrizcontinuedtoserveasamajoroutpost. 56 TSMK,H.1339,208a. 41

58 TheprocessionwasledbyShahQulialongwitharetinueofahundredandtwenty gentlemen withgildedturbansfollowedbyanothertwohundredmenonhorseback,all wearinggoldembroideredrobes.behindthisforerunninggroupwerefourhundred merchantsandtheaccompanyingservantsnumberingabouttwothousand,whomovedon camels,donkeysandhorses.alsoamongthisgroupwereapproximatelythirtymusicians whoproceededplayingtrumpets,flutes,drums(tamburi)andotherinstruments. Inresponse,acounteractingceremonialdisplayoftheOttomanarmywasnotlate tocome.alipashaexplainsthatacrushingnumberofeightthousandottomansoldiers (saymespahi)gatheredinerzurum frommorningtonightplayingtheirmusical instruments. AlmostmirroringtheSafavidhierarchicalorder,aboutonehundred appearedingoldembroideredandsparklingrobes,andabouttwothousandwerewearing gildedandsilveredhelmets.alipashanotesthatseeingbeforethemthe beautifulorder oftheottomanarmy,theentiresafavidembassywasamazed. 57 Theornamentofthe Ottomansastonishedtheambassadorhimself,whosaid thewholearmyin Constantinoplemusthavecomehere. 58 Inturn,however,theOttomangovernorwasnot atallexcitedbythewayinwhichthesafaviddelegationappeared.pigafettanotesthat hisletterhadamockingtonewhenmentioningshahquliandhisretinue. 59 Thisinitialseriesofencountersbetweenthetwosideswereevidentlyalready takingtheshapeofastruggletoimpressorevenovercomebypresentingvarioussymbols 57 Macontuttocìoquestapompavenendoappressoall essercitoadarsrumtuttili PersianisistupirnoavederlabellaordinanzadelliOttomani.Pigafetta,Itinerarioda Vienna, Ilqualeornamentovedendol ambasciatoresistupì,edissechetuttol essercitoch era incostantionpolieravenutoquivipigafetta,itinerariodavienna, Làdoveilchiausscrittorediquestaletteraparladellaqualitàdiquestoambasciatore ediquell altrosoltan,edelleloroentrate,sifabeffediloropigafetta,itinerarioda Vienna,

59 ofpoweranddisplayingmaterialhumanposessionsandtalent.thenextmorning,the ambassadorinvitedalipashaandhiscourtierstolistentotheirmusic;followingsuit,the OttomangovernorinvitedtheSafavidofficialstohiscourttodothesame.Duringthe banquet,anottomanofficial(unaltrosultandelre)presentedshahquliagildedhorn (uncornoindorato)anddressedhimwithagoldembroideredrobeofhonor. Theambassadorhadbroughtwithhimthepossessionsoftheeliminatedprince Bayezid,thenewlyenthronedsultanSelimII sbrother,whohadtakenrefugeatshah Tahmasp scourtin1560.afterlongnegotiations,tahmasphadhandedtheprinceover tohisfatherin1562.thedignitariesthatsultansüleymanhadkilledtheprinceandallof hissonsonthespot.apparently,theyhadnottakenbackthesepossessions,whichshah Qulinowbrought.Unfortunately,AliPasha sletter,whichpigafettacites,doesnot itemizealloftheseobjects: AndtheKingofPersiasentallthearmor(armature)of SultanBayezid,withallofhiscamels,andalsoallhisotherstuff. 60 InresponsetonewsofShahQuliapproachingtheOttomancapital,lettersweresent togovernorsbasedonthewaytothecapitalwithorderstodirecttheembassytoedirne wherethecourthadmovedandwherethesultanwouldreceivealltherepresentativesof foreignstatescomingtocongratulatehimandrenegotiatepeace.theywerealsoadvised toshowutmostrespectandhospitality. 61 Accordingly,Selanikiwritesthatontheirway toistanbul,theembassywasaffordedeverypossiblerespectandesteem.duringthe journey,theyhadtheopportunitytoexperiencewhattheottomanlandshadtooffer;they moved contemplatingtheprosperityoftheottomancountry,fortunateandaffluentwith 60 EilrediPersiahamandatotuttel armaturedisoltanbaiazith,conlisuoicamelli tutti,eancotutal altrarobapigafetta,itinerariodavienna, TSMKH.1339,208b"209a. 43

60 endlessblessings,theysawallaroundthemtheubiquitousgrandeurofthekingofkings [theottomansultan]andtheinnumerablebravesoldiersofwar. 62 Inthisway,asthe embassymovedclosertoistanbul,theottomaneffortstooverwhelmthemintensifiedby wayofdisplayingmilitarymight.butnothingwouldmatchtheimpressionthecapital citymadeonthesafavidembassy. PiyalePasha,whowasleftinIstanbulinchargeofthecityintheabsenceofthe sultan,wrotetoedirneinthemeantimetoasktheappropriatemannerofwelcomingthe embassy. 63 ThegrandvizierSokolluMehmedPashathenposedthequestiontothesultan whodeclaredthateveryeffortshouldbemadetodisplayimperialpowerandmajesty, whichwouldaccordwiththeprayersoftheprophetandthefirstfourcaliphs(çehryr"ı# kirm).subsequently,sokollusentspecificinstructionscallingforthemobilizationof thewholenavalarmy.hesentthefollowingorderinresponse: Whentheenvoyreachesontheotherside[ofthestrait], betweenüsküdarandgebze(gekiveze),thevillageof Kartal,summonallofthenavalcommanders,captains,and themarines.theyshouldbedressedup,accordingto custom,intheiruniformsandbeequippedintheirweapons andarmature.otherthanthese,thecorpsofthearmorers (cebeci)andartillery(topçu)shouldlikewisebeclothedin theirdesignatedgarmentsandembellishedintheirwar equipmentandarmsofcombat.thecombinationofthese threesquadronsoffootsoldiersshouldnumber approximatelyseveralthousandpeople.earlyinthe morningthatday,allofthesesoldiersshouldbeproperly preparedandorganized,andproceed,withtheirchiefsand 62 hürmet#ü#ri$yetlerinde#ihtimm#u#ikdmda#dak%ka#fevt#olunmayup,#memleket"i# Osmniyye#ne#vechile#ma$m&r#u#bdn#olup#ve#env$"ı#ni$am"ı#b%"pyn#ile#mu'tenim#u# mütena$im,#hamet#ü#evket"i#ehenh%#her#yerde#fervn#ve#leker"i#dilvern"ı#krzr"ı# b%"ümrı#mühede#ederekselaniki,tarih,i: rislet#(ar%)iyle#biñ#nefere#)ar%b#demle#ve#$a*%m#pikelerle#geliyorlar.#drü s" sal(anatü l"ma)b&l#ma+miye"i#istanbul a#du,ulları#)ar%bdür.#isti)bl#bbında#ve#ri$yet# dabında#ne#vechile#tedrik#olunma)#gerekdür#diy&#südde"i#sa$dete#$ar"#ü#i$lm# iylemilertsmkh.1339,208b. 44

61 commanders,tomeettheenvoytoleadhim(öñünce yürüyeler).otherthanthis,decoratemanyships,thatis, imperialgalleys("a##a$adırgalar),andassignineacha gunman(tüfenkçi),aguardsman(%arbeci),andanarcher (t&rendaz.)indueorder,everybenchineverygalleyshould beadornedandineverygallery,too,placeasmany cannons('opvebocolo$olar)aspossible.also,gather howevermanyjanissariesarepresentinthecityofistanbul andhavethem,accordingtocustom,gathertheirfirearms andbeprepared,adorned(mücemmel)andarmed (müsell(h),orderedalongsidetheirchiefsatthelanding station. 64 WhentheembassyreachedIstanbul,accordingtoSelaniki,theywereawestruck byitsheaven"likebeautyanditssplendoraffordedbytheottomanstate.theycriedout: WhoeversaysIhaveseen,knownandunderstoodthismightystatewouldspeak unwisely.itisathousandlevelsbeyondthatwhichheiscapableofunderstanding. 65 By reportinghowmuchtheyadmiredit,totheextentthattheyexclaimedthe incomprehensiblecharacteroftheseatoftheottomanstate,selanikiascendsthecitytoa divinestatus,beyondtheintellectualandphysicalgraspofthesafavids. 66 Asiftosay theygotjealouswithenvy,thechroniclerthenwishesthattheevileyemaynotfallonit: maygodprotectitfromtheevileye,mayhespareitwithwhomitbelongsto 67 WhentheSafavidembassydrewclosertothecityofIstanbul,followingthegrand vizier sorder,theheadofthecorpsofthearmorers(cebecibaı)wasalreadywaitingin 64 TSMKH.1339,209a" Fi l)hak&kab&)manendüb&)mislolupuk*lvasfubey(nında(cizvekasırd*r dimiler.vemüddet)iömr,bumülk)isaltanatıbilüpiz+(nitmegekif(yetitmez.herçend kibirkimse, Busaltanat)ık(hireyigördümveanladum,bildüm disen()m(+k*lsöyler. Bilüpanladu,ındanbinmertebeziy(dedür.Selaniki,Tarih,I: IntheQuran,Godandangelsaredescribedasbeyondgrasp.Forexample,theSuraof Al"An#am(6:103): NoeyescanpenetrateHim,butHepenetratesalleyes,andHe knowsallthemysteries,forheisall"knowing. 67 All(hteb(rekeveta+(l(yavuzgözdensaklasun,s(hibinemüb(rekuhucesteeylesün Selaniki,Tarih,I:68. 45

62 Üsküdarwithnearlyonethousandsoldiersunderhiscommandtowelcomethem sumptuouslyandexcellently (müzeyyenvemükemmel).inordertocrosstheseatoget tothehistoricalpeninsula,thesoldiersthenassistedthesafavidstoembarkonthe galleys.astheshipswerebeingpropelledbycompetentgalleyslaves(batardaların forsak"firleri),theottomandisplayofpowerandmagnificencereachedaclimax.ifwe trustselaniki saccount,thesafavids admirationandbewildermentincitedbythebeauty ofthecityandbytheorderlinessofthesoldiersturnedintooutrightfrightastheships movedforward: Thebravewarriorsthereinfiredgunsandcanonsscattering firelikelightningandblusteringlikethunder.blownaway withamazementandaffliction,theredheads[safavids]in thegalleycried OAli,help[us] (y"#alimeded)they keptsaying: Ohelpuswarriors(gaziler),findusa remedy,theseamakesussick OntheothersideoftheBosphorus,alongsidethethousandsofjanissarieswhocameto escorttheenvoytohispalace,alargegroupofurbaniteshadassemblednearthelanding placeeagertocatchaglanceofthepersians.theambassadorandhisimmediateretinue werethensettledatthehançerlüsultansarayı,awaterfrontpalacenearthehippodrome. FeridunAhmedBegtestifiesthattheorderofprotocolspelledoutbythegrandvizierwas carefullyfollowed.piyalepasha,theadmiraloftheottomanfleet,senttothe ambassador sresidencealargeselectionoffreshflowersandfruit(ük$fevürey"h%nve meyvelerdenb%&kıy"s). DuringShahQuli sstay,piyalepashatookhimonatourofthecitysohewould seethebathhousesandimperialmosquesofthecity;theambassadorsawhagiasophia, thegreatbyzantinechurchconvertedintoamosquefollowingtheottomanconquestof 46

63 thecity,thesüleymaniyeandthesultanselimmosque.thesafavidswereallowedto prayinthelattertwomosques,builtbythelatesultansüleyman,oneforhimselfandthe otherinhonorofhisfatherwhohaddefeatedshahtahmasp sfatherinacrushingblow atchaldiranin1514. BeforetheembassywassentofftoEdirne,theOttomanmodeofhospitality followedbythegovernoroferzurumwasreplicatedinistanbul: afterwards,thewisevizier,accordingtostatecustom, feastedtheenvoysandgavethemsplendidrobesofhonor, excellenthorses,varioustextiles(akmiei"mütenevvia), sumptuousgoods(emti#ai"fahire),andsilvervessels (ev$n%i"nukre).[piyalepasha]hadhonorableartisans attendtowhatevertheambassadormightneedduringthe journeyandorderedthemtoprovidethese.and,shahkul", too,gavehimandhisretinuelustrousorelegantthings($b" u"t$b). 68 AfterastayofthreedaysinIstanbul,theenvoywasinformedthatanimperial decreewasreceivedwhichorderedtheembassytoproceedtoedirne.astheambassador preparedtoleavetheottomancapital,allthefootsoldiersofthecitywereonceagain assembled,mountedonhorsesandlineduptopayrespectstotheembassy.thegrand vizierhadsentsergeants(çavu)totownsbetweenedirneandistanbulsothatnecessary preparationswouldbemadetoprovideabundantfoodwhentheembassywouldstopto rest.andsotheywenton fromplacetoplace,eatinganddrinking,restingandmoving (menzil"be"menzil"yiye"içe"&ona"göçe)untiltheyreachedthevillageofhasköy Selaniki,Tarih,I:69.SomeofthevesselsofPersianorigin,suchasthoseatthe MuseumofTurkishandIslamicArtsinIstanbul,whichdidnotentertheOttoman imperialtreasury,andareoflesserqualitythanthosekeptbyroyalty,mighthavearrived throughsuchexchangesbetweenhigh#rankingofficialsofbothcourts 69 TSMK,H.1339,210b. 47

64 AhmedFeridunBeg saccountmakesitclearthatastheembassyapproached closertothesultan,theenthusiasmtoimpressthesafavidsheightenedbutatthesame timeapparentlyeventurnedintofrustration.heexplainsthatbecausethecourthad temporarilymovedtoedirneonahuntingexpedition,theylackedextensivemeansto showeminence(öhretgöstermek);hence, itwasnotpossibletodemonstratea perfectlevelofgloryandasufficientamountofpower. Allthesame,onceagain,allthe soldierswereadvisedtobepreparedonhorseback.theinhabitantsofthecitywerealso systematicallyrecruited 70 toturntheentryoftheembassyintoagrandspectacle,the scaleofwhichisdescribedincontemporarysourcesassurpassinganyeventthatanyone hadeverseenbefore. Ifthehighlychargedenvironmentinwhichtheembassymadeitsjourneyfrom PersiatotheOttomanlandswasnotclearenoughuntilthispoint,itwillbecomemuch moreobviousduringtheeventstocomeoncetheambassadorentersedirne.thispartof thestory,whenthesafavidsmovecloserandclosertothesultan,alsomakesapparentthe emotionalinvestmentsmadebytheobserversoftheencounteroftheembassyinthe Ottomanpeople,thesoldiers,courtiers,foreignrepresentatives,andfinallythesultan himself.atdifferentlevels,ottomanobserversferidunahmedbegandselanikispeak ofthesafavidsusingeminentlypejorativelanguage.selanikiisrathersubtle, emphasizingalltheottomanfavorsbestowedonthesafavids,whichtheycouldnot appreciateduetotheir ungratefulnature. Wordsseeminglymorecourteousorneutral suchas creaturesofgod (mahl"ku ll#h)arereplaced,bycontrast,inahmedferidun Beg saccountwithevidentlymoreinsultingidiomssuchas demon"mannered (d$v% 70 Itwasindicated,however,thatwomenshouldbesavedfromminglingwiththecrowds outonthestreettoobservetheembassy.tsmk,h.1339,211a. 48

65 sret)and impostor"faced (decc"l#$%ret)toqualifyandemphasizetheothernessofthe Safavids.Meanwhile,foreignerswhowitnessedthiscomplexceremonialinteraction observedtheeventsclosely,recordingtoo,whattheottomanhistoriansomittedfrom theiraccounts.whilethefailedattemptofanottomansoldiertokillthesafavid ambassadorwasperhapstooembarrassingtorecordfortheottomanchroniclers,itgoes toshowtheextenttowhichtheabovementionednegativesentimentscirculatedamong differentlevelsoftheottomanestablishmentandthattheseexpressionscannotbe dismissedasisolatedandpersonalopinionsrecordedinbooksthatonlyasmallelite grouphadaccessto. Edirne TheSafavidembassyenteredEdirneonFebruary7 th 1568,severalmonthsafter thenewsultan stemporarytransferofthecourttothiscity.sincetheprecedingsummer, thesultanhadbeenacceptingforeigndignitarieswhocametopresenttheir giftsand tributesofaccession. 71 ThevisitofsomeoftheseforeignersoverlappedwiththeSafavid ambassador.they,too,joinedthecrowdsmadeupoftheentireottomanmilitaryandthe citydwellerscurioustosee,accordingtoahmedferidunbeg, thecuriosstateandthe strangemanners (hey&"t#ı'(acbe've')ıy"fet#i'*arbelerin)ofthesafavidembassy. Thecrowdsweresolargethattheyoverflewthestreetsofthecity.Nevertheless, thiswelcomingceremonywasfarfromchaotic.thepositionofeverygroupwas carefullyorchestrated,witheachstandingapartfromanother,observingtheottoman 71 Ve'makam#ı'mül"zametde'olan'hükk"m#ı'etr"f'u'ekn"f,'cul%s#ı'saltanat'p$ke$'ü' hed"y"sın'südde#i'sa(adet#med"ra'çekme+e'müteveccih'olup'gelüp'çekdiler.selaniki, Tarih,I:67. 49

66 principleoforderliness.themilitarytroopsandthepeopleofedirnestoodseparately, eitherlinedupalongthemainavenueorspreadoutintothestreetsofthecity.following suit,theretinuesofthehabsburgandvenetianambassadorsstoodapart.thecavalry corpswaitedoutsidethecitytobethefirstgrouptowelcometheembassy. TheSafavidsenteredthecityledbyOttomansoldiersmountedontheirhorses, thenfollowedthestandardbearer(emiri"#alem)andotherhighrankingofficialswiththe soldiersundertheircommand.standingamongthehabsburgambassador sretinue, Marc AntonioPigafettasawthatafterthesecamesixmen,whocarriedsixleopardson theirhorses,andthenagroupof EgyptianandMoorishplayers (uomini"giocatori" all egizziana"e"moresca).theambassadorcameafterthem,accompaniedbyagreat numberofjanissaries. 72 Toemphasizetheimposingcharacteroftheceremony,one Ottomanobserverreports: InthestateofthePadishah,therefugeoftheworld,sucha greatassemblyhadgatheredthatdaythatthepeoplewhosawitcried, inanyexpedition haveweeverseenorheardofanassemblyofthisscale(bu"$adar"cem#iyyeti"v%fire),nor ofsuchanabundantnumberofsoldiers(#askeri"mütek%s&ire) 73 TheeffortoftheOttomanstoputoutanimpressiveperformancefortheSafavids wassurelynotlostontheambassador.inselaniki simagination,intheinterestof complimentingtheceremony,hesaid: honestly,theornamentandbeautyofthese soldiersresembleaweddingcrowd. emsiahmedpasha spungentremarkinresponse 72 Poscia"seguitavano"sei"uomini"a"cavallo,"i"quali"sopra"la"groppa"dei"lor"cavalli" avevano"sei"leopardi,"i"quali"suole"usare"alla"caccia"il"gran"turco."poi"seguitavano" alquanti"altri"pur"a"cavallo,"i"quali"nelle"mani"tenevano"longhissime"aste,"uomini" giocatori"all egizziana"e"moresca."dapoi"seguitava"il"chiauspassi"con"alquanti"chiaussi"e" persiani,"e"dietro"a"costoro"una"gran"moltitudine"de"giannizzari,"dietro"a"quali"subito" veniva"l ambasciatorepigafetta,itinerario"da"vienna,244."" 73 TSMK,H.1339,211b. 50

67 broughtuptheottomandefinitivevictoryoverthesafavidsdecadesbefore,afterwhich, accordingtotradition,shahismail swifewastakencaptive: Yes,itwasthesesame soldierswhobroughtthebridefromchaldiran. 74 AsthePersiansdrewneartheHungariansandtheVenetians, 75 theambassador curiouslyaskedwhotheywere,andwantedtosalutethem.selanikireportsthathethen inquired: Wehavepassedbysomanyinfidelswhoalltooktheirhatsoff,whatdoesit mean? Thepasharesponded: Itistheircustom,whentheyseeeachother,bywayof salutation,theytakeofftheirhatstohumblypraiseoneanother. 76 InAhmedFeridun Beg saccount,theambassadoraskswhatpeopletheyare(bunlarnemilletdür).itwas explainedthenthattheyareambassadorsofthekingsofchristiankingsofsomewestern countrieswhocametopaytaxesandtribute.thesafavidsprobablyweregenuinely interestedinthecustomsoftheeuropeansinadditiontoanefforttolearnmoreabout theirmissionattheottomancourt.nevertheless,ahmedferidunbeg soppositiontothe SafavidsfindsexpressioninhisdemeaningcommentsontheSafavids curiosityofthe westerners: 74 Selaniki,Tarih,I:67.Inarecentarticle,Savoryhasdiscussedsomeofthe inconsistenciesandcontradictionsinhistoricalrecordabouttajlukhanum scaptureby SelimI,RogerM.Savory, T"jl#Kh"num:WassheCapturedbytheOttomansatthe BattleofCh"ldir"n,ornot? inirano"tukicculturalcontactsinthe11 th "17 th Centuries, ed.évam.jeremiás(pilisesaba:avicennainstituteofmiddleeaststudies,2003),217$ InSelaniki saccount,atthistime,hungarian(üngürus),french,venetian,ragusan (Dubrevnik),Polish,Czech,Moldavian,andWalachianenvoyswereinEdirne.However, contemporaryaccountsconfirmonlythatthevenetianandhabsburgrepresentatives wereinedirne. 76 ilçiah"kulıhan,pa"ahazretlerinedirlerki Sultanum,buncaküff#ralayıki geçdük,hamusıtakyelerinba"larındanbileçıkaruplardur,ay#nenemehdür diyüpsu #l eylemi"lereyitmi"lerki $detleridür,birbirlerinigördüklerindemahall"imerhab#da takyelerinçıkarurlarya%n&ser"für'itmeks'retindesit#yi"leridür dimi"ler.selaniki, Tarih,I:67. 51

68 Consequently,speakingoftheaforementionedinfidel envoys,the[safavid]envoyssaid, whatamazingly luminousandmagnificentpeopletheyare Whatill"bred enemiesthesearethattheyattributetheinfidels,whoarein essentialerroranddisbelief,luminosity.theabsurd mannersofthesepeopleiscleartomeandthereis sufficientproofthattheirfigureiswell"knownandagreed" upon.nevertheless,whereastheappearanceandcharacter oftheselowlyredheads(ızılb")isevidentlywicked,there aresomanyindividualswhobefriendthesepeople,respect andsympathizewiththem;evenincertainmattersprefer them.maygodprotectusthesesortsofpeopleareworse thanthem.blessingsofthesultanforthoseungrateful peopleareillegitimate. 77 Withthesewords,whileFeridunBeghimselfunapologeticallyopposestheSafavidsand justifieshisanimositytowardsthem,itisatthesametimeclearthathiswasnotafeeling shareduniversallybytheentireottomanestablishment. TheSafavidambassadorenteredthecitywiththeseconflictingsentiments circulatingwithinthehostingcourt.ahmedferidunbeg saccountofthemovementof theembassytextuallymirrorstheprincipleofottomanorderlinessandpresentstheideal modeofperformingthe oldcustomoftraveling (#"det$i%ad&me'$i%mis"firet%üzre). Fittingly,threedaysafterthesettlementoftheSafavidsintheirdesignatedguesthouse, theirsteward(ilçiler%üzerine%(ur"n)süleymançavuwassenttoinformthegrandvizier oftheirarrivalandoftheirrequesttoseehiminordertopresentshahtahmasp sletters. 77 ol%)alde%mez*k+r%ilçiler%mez*k+r"n%kefere%ilç&ler&çün%ne%#aceb%n+r"n&%ve%mu)teem%,al% olur%diyü%kelim"t%iylemiler.%imdi%ol%("ife'$i%mül")ede'$i%bed$"y&nki%bu%a-l$ı%küfür%ü% "el"let%içre%olan%kefere'$i%mürik&n%içün%n+r"niyyet%asn"d%ide.%ol%ma+le%e,"-$ı% b"(ıl"nıñ%-+ret$i%)"lleri%bu%ullarından%ma#l+m%ve%mefh+m%ol+b%s&ret$i%m"fi l$b"lleri%d",&% bu%apl%u%allarına%mu("bık%u%muv"fı%oldu.una%istidl"l%t"m%olunur.%)"l%bu%ki%ızılb"$ı% evb"%("ifesinin%bu%g+ne%-+retleri%ve%s&retleri%,ab"s*et%üzre%iken%nice%kimesneler%vardur%ki% bulub%yine%ol%("ifeye%mu)ib%gecinüb%)ürmet%ü%ra/bet%idüb%belki%ba#"%umurda%terc&)%d",&% iderlermi.%na#%+z*ubill"h%ol%ma+la%kimesneler%anlardan%bedter%olub%ol%a-l$ı%küfr"n%???% ol%nesillere%ni#met$i%p"di"h&%)aramdır.%%% 52

69 Sokollurespondedfavorablybycommandingthattheymightcomeasitsuits the vizierialetiquetteandthegloriousrulesofthatrank. Thegrandvizier shousewasbeautifullydecoratedforthisvisit.thetwomen metintheaudiencehall(divan),which wascoveredentirelywithcarpetsonthefloor, ontopofwhichwerelaidgoldembroideredfabrics 78 ReminiscentofBusbecq s account,soranzoemphasizesthatthesafavidambassadorwastreatedwithfavorsthatno ChristianprincewouldeverreceivefromtheOttomans. 79 Theyexchangedwordsof wisdomastheambassadorconveyedshahtahmasp sflatteringremarksforhowwell SokollumadepossiblethetransitionofthethronefromSüleymantheMagnificenttohis sonselim: maygodhelpassisthimineverysituation.myancestorswillbehis advocatesonthedayofjudgement.ali,thechosenone,lionofgod(murtaz"ali"ir#i" hüd)willhelphimverymuch. 80 ProbablyduetotheopenlyShi"inatureofthese wishes,selanikicharacterizesthemasstrangecomments(ibrt#ı"gar$belerin).the conversationwasfollowedbytheambassador streatmentto,accordingtocustom,a refreshingsweetdrink(erbet). Duringthisvisit,ShahQulialsopresentedthemanygiftshehadbroughtfor Sokollufromtheshahaswellashimself.Incontrasttogiftshewouldpresentthelesser viziers,theseincludedmoreluxuriousitemslikesablelinings.emulatingtahmasp,shah QulilikewisesingledoutadditionalgiftsforSokollu,amongwhichwere carpets, 78 ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,512a. 79 de"quali"favori"non"se"ne"fà"pur"uno"a"qual"si"voglie"amb. r "de"principe"x. no ASVe, Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,512a. 80 Shib#ser$re"saltanat"tesl$m"olunca"müstakil"cihn#bnlık"eylemilerdür."Iki"cihnda" yüz"aklı%ı"anundur."dümen#i"d$n"içinde"bu"ser#encam"ki"vki&"olupdur"ırz#ı"d$n"ü"devleti" yahi"saklayupdur,"hak"tebrek"ve"ta&l"anun"herhalde"mu&$n"ü"yveri"olsun."ceddüm" anun"arastda"ef$&idür."murtaz"ali"$r#i"hüd"ana"ço%"yardım"idüpdür.selaniki,tarih, I:71. 53

70 swordsandotherthings. 81 Afterthisfirstvisit,theambassadoralsowenttoseeother viziersintheirresidencestopresenthisgiftsandtoestablishrapportwiththem.in Ottomanaccounts,theviziersofthecourtareconceivedofasseniortoShahQuli.The expressionselanikiusesforpresentingtranslatesasservingcontinuallyorpaying respectstoasuperior(mülzemetlerine"varup). 82 Butthereisagreementinsourcesthat thegiftsforthehighrankingottomanofficialswerecarefullyselectedfromamongrare andfamousitemsfromdifferentregionsofpersia.theseincludedsilkcarpetsfrom HamadanandDergezin,feltcapsfromGhadjan,and excellentandexquisitebooks (kütüb#i"nef$se#i"a%l). 83 Hammer saccountaddstothislistmorecarpetsfrom Darabdjerd,lightsilkfabricsfromYazd,heavieronesfromQum,clothesfromBesa, antidotescalledmumies 84 fromnirin,andswordsfromshiraz oltra"che"tutte"le"preditte"cose"erano"piu"ricche"una"belliss[im]a"fodra"de"zebelini" doppò"mandò"esso"amb[asciato]r"à"parte"un altro"presente"fatto"da"lui"particolarm[en]te" de"tapedi,"spade,"et"altre"cose"d azemia.asve,senato,dispacciconstantinopoli,filza 2,513a. 82 Selaniki,Tarih,I: k%ide#i"kad$me"üzre"diyr#ı"ark"tuhafından"vükel#i"saltanata"ibri"im"kaliçe#i" Hemedn"ü"Dergez$n"ve"tekye#i"nemed#i"Cm"ve"kütüb#i"nef$se#i"a%l"herbirine"çekilüp Selaniki,Tarih,I: Mumia,ormumiyainPersianandTurkish,referstobitumenusedasadrugforhealing wounds,andaches.traditionally,themosteffectivekindwasbelievedtobethose extractedfromminesinpersia,thoughbeginninginthelatemedievalperiod,piecesof embalmedbodiesofancientegyptianswerealsothoughttoservethesamepurposeand wereinwidecirculationinearlymoderneurope.foradiscussionofthehistory,useand attitudestowardsmumiaintheearlymodernperiod,seekarlh.dannenfeldt, Egyptian Mumia:TheSixteenthCenturyExperienceandDebate, The"Sixteenth"Century"Journal 16,no.2(1985):163"180;RichardSugg, GoodPhysicbutBadFood: EarlyModern AttitudestoMedicinalCannibalismanditsSuppliers, Social"History"of"Medicine19,no. 2(2006):225"240.Inhismemoirs,theMughalemperorJahangir(r.1605"1627)writes aboutamumiyasenttohimfromshahabbas,andexplainshowthedrugdidnotwork, whenrubbedonabrokenleg.nural"dinjahangir,the"jahangirnama:"memoirs"of" Jahangir,"Emperor"of"India,trans.WheelerM.Thackston(WashingtonD.C.andNew York:FreerGalleryofArt,ArthurM.SacklerGalleryandOxfordUniversityPress, 1999). 54

71 WhatMarc AntonioPigafettacharacterizesasa strangeevent tookplaceon ShahQuli swaytooneofthesevisits.asmentionedearlier,whereasthisincidentisnot atallmentionedincontemporaryottomanaccounts,foreigneyewitnessesinquisitively makeanoteofit.pigafettarecordsthisseeminglyspontaneousrageofanottoman noviceinthefollowingmanner: Theotherday,topresentthepashas[gifts],[ShahQuli] himselfwenttovisitthem,whereonhiswayastrange eventcameabout.anovice(ungiamoglano) 86 (whilethe ambassadorwentofftovisit[sokollumehmedpasha]), appearedinfrontofhim,andshotanarquebustokillhim, butmissedhim,insteadhittingoneofhisownseniors, thoughonlyslightlyononeofhisarms.thepersiangot terrified,believinghewasambushed,turnedhishorse aroundtoreturntohisresidence. 87 AssoonasSokollugotnewsofwhathadhappened,heorderedthatthecriminalbe caughtimmediately.healsosenthismentoshahqulitoapologizeforwhathad 85 l ambassadeuroffritaugrand"viziretauxautresvizirsunchoixdesproductions naturellesetindustriellesdesonpays:destapisdesoiedehamadanetdederghezin, desbonnetsdeghadjan,dusavond Ardjan,destabliersdeMehrouyan,destapisde Darabdjerd,deshoussesdeDjehrem,delamomiedeNirin,desétoffeslégèresdesoie d Yezt,d autresplusfortesdekoum,desvêtemensdebésa,etdeslamesdesabrede Schiraz.JosephF.vonHammer"Purgstall,Histoiredel'Empireottoman,depuisson originejusqu'ànosjours,18vols.(paris:bellizardbarthès,dufour&lowell,1835"43), 6:323.Hammer saccountisbasedonaletterwritteninitalianwhichisatranslationofa reportbyanattendantintheambassador sretinue.hedoesnotprovidefullcitationfor theletter. 86 Thisreferstoacemio#laninTurkish.Literallymeaninginexperiencedyouth,these weresoldiersbeingtrainedtolaterjoinhigherrankswithinthejanissaries,theottoman elitesoldiers. 87 Ilgiornodietro,presentatilipassà,eglistessopoiandòavisitarli,dovenell andare gl intravenneuncasost[r]ano.ungiamoglano(mentrel ambasciatores erainviatoper andareavisitarmahomettoperloprimo),seglifeceincontroegisparòun archibugiata perammazzarlo,manonlocolse,mafucoltoinvecesua,legiermenteperò,un gentiluomoprincipalsuo,inunbraccio.ilpersianospaventatosi,credendodiesser tradito,voltòilcavalloperritornarseneall alloggiamento.pigafetta,itinerarioda Vienna,

72 happened,assuringhimalsothatthecriminalwouldbepunishedseverely;thiskindof behaviorwouldnotbetoleratedlightly.giacomosoranzonotes,however,thatallthe effortswerefruitless.strikingfearinthepublic,sokolluthenpickedoutaprisonerwho hadalreadybeencondemnedtodeathanddeclaredhimthecriminal. 88 InPigafetta s account,thecriminalisquicklycaughtaspromisedandbroughtbeforesokolluandshah Quli.Whenquestionedabouthisaction,thetransgressoraudaciouslysaidthat hewould nothavedoneithaditnotbeenforthisambassadorwhowasaheretic,andwassentbya hereticking,enemyoftheirsaints,andforthisreasonitwasnotappropriatethathecame tomakepeacewithhisking,andthatitwasnotsuitable. 89 Anyonewitnessingor hearingaboutthiseventwouldbehardpressednottoformanopiniononitespeciallyif Soranzo sversioncirculatedamongthepopulace.forifsofartheseriesofencounters betweentheelitemembersofthesafavidandottomancourtswereprivateeventsfalling undertherubricofroutineinternationaldiplomacy,nowtheobscuretensionwasmade public.thistension,stemmingfromthereligiousdividedidnotsurface,however,with rivalpartiesattackingeachother.rather,theottomansoldierwhogaveexpressiontothe oppositionalsentimentsofcourtierssuchasahmedferidunbegwastobesacrificed. OnethingthatcannotbeemphasizedenoughinthismatterisSokolluMehmedPasha s excellentmanagementofit.hisexperienceinstatemattersingeneralandinparticular 88 etdisubitofufattagrandiss[im]adiligentiatrovarquellochehaveafattalabotama nonsitrovandoetpuolendopurilmag[nifi]cobassàmetterterroralpopulo,etinsieme dimostrarditenercontodelamb[asciato]rfecedisubitocavardiprigioneun condannatoallamorte,etfattolostrasinarperlacittàlofeceromorircredandosele avassecheeraquelloch haveasparatalapredittaarchibusata.asve,senato,dispacci Constantinopoli,Filza2,512a"512b. 89 Ilgiamoglanosenzaturbarsirisposecheciòperaltroeglinonaveafatto,cheper esserquelloambasciatoreuneretico,emandatodaunreeretico,einimicodellilor santi,echeperciònoneraconvenientechevenisseafarpacecolsuosignore,echedi quellanonneeradegno.pigafetta,itinerariodavienna,

73 hisknowledgeofthehistoryofottoman"safavidrelationsaccountforhisdeep understandingofthehighlycomplexnatureoftheserelations.thedialoguebetweenthe twoempirescouldnotbedictatedsolelybythesunni"shi#isplit.whatwasreducedin manypeople smindtothisintellectualsplitinfactwastheverythrustthatkeptuniting thetwopolitiesphysically.sokolluthereforewouldwiselyusehispowertoskillfully eliminateanythingthatwouldinitiatediplomaticcrisis.tothisend,thedesignated criminalwasbrutallymurdered.hewascondemnedtobedraggedonthestreetsof Edirnetiedbehindahorse;withhishandcutoff,hewasthendecapitated. 90 Complicating thispictureisgiacomosoranzo scommentaryonthisexecution,whichrevealssokollu s obligationtojustifyitatanotherlevel,tothegeneralpublic: butthisisnotall,andsothatthe[safavid]ambassadorand allofhis[men]wouldnotbebadlyregardedbythepublic duetothetreasondonetosultanbayezid,butonthe contrarythesultanreminded[them]ofthegoodfavors receivedforeverycommand,andthattheywouldbe honoredandsingledout. 91 Apparently,theeliminationofPrinceBayezidfromthecontestforthethrone,when SultanSüleymanwasstillalivesixyearsbefore,wasstillfreshinmanypeople s memory.perhapsmoresignificantthanthedifferencesinreligiousorientationforthe generalpublicwasthetendencytoblameshahtahmaspfortheheartlesskillingofthe princealongwithhissons.thispublicopinionmighteasilyhavebeenencouragedby 90 Ilcheuditodalpassà,fucondannatoilgiornodietroadesserstrassinatoperlacittàa codadicavallo,etagliataliunamano,esserdecapitato.pigafetta,itinerariodavienna, Thissectioniswrittenincipheronfol512v;513rgivesthefollowingdecipherment: Manonpercioresta,etchl Amb[asciato]rettuttilisoinonsianomalissimovedutida tuttailpopuloesplorandoliiltradimentofattoàsultanbaiesitmaall incontroil S[erenissi]moSig[no]rmemoredelbeneficiohavutoognidicommanda,chesianopiu honorati,etaccanzzati.asve,senato,dispacciconstantinopoli,filza2,513a. 57

74 SultanSüleymanhimself,whosepreviousexecutionofanotheroneofhissons,Prince Mustafa,hadcauseduproaramongthejanissaries. SelimreceivesShahQuli Threedaysafter,onFebruary22 nd,shahquliandhisentouragevisitedthesultanat theimperialpalace.theprocessionoftheembassyfromtheirresidencetothepalacewas apublicspectaclethatmanyobservedclosely.ithasbeenrecordedthatitwas themost lavishoftheembassiesheretoforeseen. 92 TheprocessionmovedflankedbyOttoman soldiersoneithersideoftheroad,whostoodalongtheroadalllinedupwiththeirhands tiedinfrontofthem. 93 Oneobserverdescribedtheembassyasproceeding inthemost honorablemanner. AttheveryfrontcameOttomancourtiersincludingpalacesergeants andmembersofthesultan selitecorps.boththeottomansandpersiansdonnedrobes madeofextravagantfabricsverymuchlikethosewornbythevenetiannobility. Pigafettathereforeimmediatelyrecognizedthistypeofdressasofthehighestquality. Whatmadeonegroupdiscerniblefromtheotherwastheconspicioususeoffigural embroideryinoneanditsstricteliminationintheother(figures1.7and1.8): [TheOttomanswere]allclothedinrichvestments,mostof themingoldbrocade,andvelvet,andothersindamasks, andotherkindsofsilk.behindthemcamethirtypersians onhorseback,dressedinthepersianstylewithrobesof honorembroideredwithvariouscolorsofwool,andothers withdifferentbitsoformesinesilkandtaffetaofvaried colors,onwhichweredelicatelyembroideredfiguresof 92 Hammer,quotedinMartinDicksonandStuartCaryWelch,TheHoughtonShahnama, 2vols.(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1981),p TSMKH.1339,242v. 58

75 menandwomen,horsesandotheranimals,andother fabricselegantlywoven. 94 BehindthisgroupmarchedShahQuli spersonalservantsonfoot,whowerefollowedby twohundredjannissariesinpigafetta sestimation.thisobservergoesontoexplain,in thefollowingmanner,howtheambassadorandhishorseappearedbehindthisseaof soldiers: andatthebackofthesecameonlytheambassador himselfand[his]horsemostpompouslydecorated.[he was]wearingacrimsonvelvetrobe,butonemixedwith othercolors.thesaddleandthereinsandthecrownpiece ofthehorseonthereversesidewerealldecoratedwith jewels,andtheverysamefabricthattheyuse,likethe TurksandtheHungarians,placedatthebackofthehorse, asornament,wasprofuselyinlaidwithturqoises.the ornaments,whichcrownedtheturbansofthepersiansby morethanapalmandahalfisnamedmetevenchiabythe Turks.[Thesewere]allgildedandencrustedwithdifferent kindsofgems. 95 Theambassador,togetherwithhishorse,wasamongthoseSafavidsthatwere dressedmostextravagantly.thiswasunderscoredbytheappearanceofthehundredand 94 L ambasciatorevenivaonorissimamenteaccompagnatocosìdaturchi,comedasuoi gentiluomini.andavanoinnanzi,oltramoltialtri,inbellaordinanza,unapomposa cavalleriadespahiechiaussiealtricortigianituttibeneacavallo,ericcamentevestiti, molticonvestidibroccatod oro,ediveluto,ealtricondamaschi,ealtrisortidisete. Dietroacostoropoivenivanodatrentapersianiacavallo,vestitiallapersianaconvesti tessutedivaricoloridilana,ealtredivaripezzettidiormesinietaffetàdidiversicolori, facendoneminutissimefigured uominiedonne,dicavalli,ed altrianimali,ealtrevesti fatteafoggioni.pigafetta,itinerariodaviennaacostantinopoli,p enellafinediquestivenivasolol ambasciatore,eglieilcavallo pomposissimamenteaddobato.avevadisopraunavestadivellutocremesino,macon altricolorimischiata.lasellaeleredineelatestieradelcavalloneidebitiluoghierano tuttelavoratedigioie,equeldrappomedesimamentecheusanocosìessi,comeitorchie gliungaridiporreperornamentosopralagroppadelcavalloeratuttoriccamatodi turchine.quelcorno,cheavanzadisopradalturbantedeipersianipiùd unpalmoe mezo,daturchichiamatometevenchia,eratuttolavoratod oroedidiversesortidi gemme.aslightlydifferentversionofthemovementofthesafavidambassadorisalso giveninhammer,histoiredel Empireottoman,6:323"4. 59

76 fortypeoplefromhisretinuethatwalkedbehindhim: some[dressed]well,somebad, accordingtotheirpower. Thosewiththegildedturbans,forexample,stoodoutnotably. Atthesametime,however,aforeignobserverexplainsthatinspiteofallthedisplayof Safavidimperialpompinthisprocession,Ottomansappearedsignificantlymore glamorous;theirceremonialrobes,madeofvenetianclothweresuperiorastheywere morebrightlycoloredthanthosewornbythepersians. 96 Furthermore,Pigafettaspeaks morefavorablyofthegoldbrocadesandvelvetswornbytheottomans: eventhough [thesafavids]haveabundantsilkandwool,theyhavelimitedaccesstoplainclothsand velvets,fortheyhavetogetsomefromtheportuguesewhocontroltheirtradeinthe PersianGulf. 97 AhmedFeridunBegexpandsPigafetta sclassificationbyunderscoring theelementofceremonialorder,whichevenimpressedshahqulihimself,who became convincedofottomansuperioritywhenheencounteredthecountlessobedientcourtiers linedupin order,majesty,magnificence,andgreatness. 98 ShahQuliwasmoreawestruckwhenheenteredtheimperialpalace,whichwas evenmoresumptuouslydecoratedthanusualforthisoccasion.hesawherevariousranks ofsoldiersandothercourtiersingreatnumberfillingupthespacewaitingtoreceivethe ambassadorwithutmostdeference.thedisplayofpowerbywayofsuchmodesty reportedlyarousedfeelingsofextremeadmirationinallmembersoftheembassy. FeridunAhmedBegdescribesthisreaction,whichprobablytellsusmoreaboutOttoman 96 Hammer,Histoiredel Empireottoman,6:323"4. 97 Veneeranoancoraalcuniconvestidibroccatod oro,manoncosìbello,comeil turchesco,equalchedunaltroconvestidivelluto,epochissimiconvestidipanno,perché diquestoediquello,anchorchéabondinoedisetaedilana,nonvenehanno,senonlo piglianodaportoghesichetrafficcanoaquellepartiperlogolfopersico.pigafetta, ItinerariodaVienna, CitedinNecipo#lu,Architecture,Ceremonial,andPower,68. 60

77 aspirationsthanhowthemessengersactuallymighthavefelt: Manypeoplewitnessedthattheenvoys,recollectingthe shamefulmanneroftheirownking,becamemalevolent. Theyuttered: MayhissluggishstatebegoneInsteadof beingakingtothissortofage,mayhebeadoorkeeperand servantattheottomanimperialthreshold. Theysaid, In reality,thatwouldbeahundredtimesbetterandathousand timessuperior 99 SelimIIreceivedtheenvoyinhisdivan(imperialcouncilhall).Theenvoyfirst presentedtheletterfromshahtahmaspinagildedbox.theillustrateddouble"spread fromtheehnme"i#sel$m#%ncapturesthismoment(figure1.6).thesultansitsinan elaboratethrone, 100 andallthecourtierstakingpartinthesolemnceremonyareoriented andlookingtowardshisdirection,whichunderscoreshispositionasthecenterof attention.thegrandvizierandotherviziersarelinedupalongsidethesultanintheupper left"handsideofthepaintingattheright.atthelowersideofbothpaintings,court attendantsareeachholdingadifferentgift.thefiguresinthesetwopaintingsarealigned onaverticalaxisdirectingtheviewer sattentionfromthesultandowntothelineof presentsfromrighttoleft,endingwiththelargegildedboxesplacedattheupperleft" handsideofthepaintingattheleft.theseboxesmusthavebeenusedtocarrythe presentstoedirne.asmentionedearlier,theembassywasquiteasizeableone, numberingoversevenhundredpeople,with320officialsand400merchants.thegifts 99 ilçiler#kendü#"hlarınuñ#usl&b"u#mesl&b#ve#'arz"ı#ma(y&bların#yd#idüb#nefret#ü# istikrh#iyliyüb#itmi"ler#ki#"h$"i#kemrh"u#devletüñ#tebh#ols&n#sin"i#ma)&le#"h# olma)dan#ise#i"b&#(atebe"i#(aliye*"i#(os+mniyye#ve#südde*"i#seniyye*"i#,)niyyede# derbn#u#n&ker#olsuñ#senün#hakikatte#-ad#br#bihter#ve#hezr#u#hezr#evveliyatta#id$# d$m$"ler.tsmk,h.1339,243b. 100 Thesultan scustomofreceivingforeignembassadorsseatedinathroneasopposedto asofawasinitiatedbysultansuleyman.seepálfodor, Sultan,ImperialCouncil,Grand Vizier:ChangesintheOttomanRulingEliteandtheFormationoftheGrandVizieral Telhis, Acta#Orientalia#Academiae#Scientiarum#Hungaricae#47(1994):67"85. 61

78 werecarriedbyfourty"fourcamels,tenofwhichwerereservedforbringingshahquli s owngifts. Theshah slongletterwaspresentedtothesultaninagoldenboxencrustedwith jewels. 101 Thegiftsthatreceivedunanimousprideofplaceinallcontemporaryaccounts hadsimilarcovers;thesewereaqur anandashahnama.inthepainting,theattendant standingclosesttothesultanmustdepicttheextraordinaryqur an,whichisdescribedby Pigafettaas aqur anwiththesoleauthorityofali[ibnabitalib],asistheirbelief. 102 InFeridunBeg slist,thefirstgiftisrecordedsimplyasavolumeofthemostglorious word[ofgod](kelm"ı#mec$d,#bir#cild)withnoreferencetoaliatall.itisnotpossibleto identifyanyofthequr anscurrentlyinthecollectionofthetopkapıpalacemuseum todayasthisparticularonewithcertainty,thoughaqur anfragmentinaprivate collectionhasbeententaivelyidentifiedasthisgift(figure1.9). 103 Withouttheobject itself,theonlyothercluewehaveissoranzo sreport,inwhichhedescribesthebookas havingthreelinesperpage. 104 Allthesame,theextremevalueofthisobjectisbetterunderstoodifweapproach thisgiftwithquestionsabouttheintentionofitsgiveranditsreceptionbythereceiver. 101 et#l Amb[asciato]r#presenter#alla#M[aes]tà#sua#una#lettera#del#Re#suo#messa#in#una# casetta#d oro#zogielata.asve,senato,dispacciconstantinopoli,filza2,514a. 102 un#alcorano#con#l autorità#sola#d Alì,#secondo#essi#tengono#e#cìo#è#di#costume#loro# sempre#rappresentargliene#uno.aveva#le#coperte#riccamate#d oro.pigafetta,itinerario# da#vienna, This Qur an was recently put on display at the exhibition, Gifts of the Sultan held at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in See Linda Komaroff, Gifts of the Sultan: The Arts of Giving at the Islamic Courts (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2011), cat. 148, 18-19, 261. It was sold in 1992 in a Christie s auction. See Islamic#Art,#Indian#Miniatures,#Rugs#and#Carpets#London#20#October#1992# Christie s,lot232,94" Alcorano#scritto#à#tre#righe#per#faccia.ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza 2,515a. 62

79 Thedescriptionsofthebook,aswellasitspresentationandreceptionattesttothehigh esteemwithwhichitwasreceivedattheottomancourt.intheehnme"i#sel$m#%n painting(figure1.6),theinscriptionsontopoftheoppositepagedescribetheleading giftsasfollows: theveryfirst[was]agildedquraninavolumelargelystuddedwith jewels. 105 Thedistinctionofthisgiftfromallothersinthepaintingishighlightedboth visuallyandinwriting.furthermore,itisplacedatthetopofthehierarchyofgiftsinall othersources.thebejeweledcovermusthaveenhancedthisbookandguaranteedits distinction,muchliketheletterandtheshahnama.butifwetrustpigafetta saccountthat thiswasacopybelievedtohavebeendesignedby"aliibnabitalibhimself,thenthe jewelsonlybecomesignifiersofitsimportanceandthevaluetheyaddbecomeonly cosmeticandnegligible,ifnotinsignificant.forthiswasaqur anwithnoequal,written withthepenofthemastercalligrapher. ThetremendousrespectandimportanceascribedtotheQur anasthewordofgod inislamictraditionshadrenderedtheartofcopyingitbeautifullytheprincipalformof decoration,whetherinportablemediaorinmonumentalarchitecture.atboththe OttomanandSafavidcourts,commissioningandcollectingcompleteQur ancopiesand calligraphicspecimensingeneralwereveneratedprincelypractices.theactiveinterestin collectingandcopyingclassicaltextsofpersianliteratureaswellasqur ansatthe Safavidcourtinparticularmadepossibleanexcellentenvironment,asDavidRoxburgh hascogentlyargued,anintellectualengagementwithartisticproductionanditshistory. WithinthesmallbutimportantcorpusofSafavidtreatisesonartandbiographiesof artistsandalbumprefacesproducedinthemidtolatesixteenthcentury,calligraphyis 105 nukhust$n#muz&ahhab#qalm"i#qad$m#bi"jild"i#mura''a(#bi"qadr"i#(a)$mtsmk, H.3595,54a. 63

80 upheldasthemostsupremeformofartisticexpression.inthesetexts,issuesrelatedto artists lineagesandsourcesofartisticknowledgeformedthedrivingforcebehindthe authors quest.withinthisscheme,"aliibnabitalibisdesignatedasakeyfigure withinthechainoftransmission(silsila)ofartisticknowledge.thisideafinds expression,forexample,inthegulistn"i#hunar(rosegardenofart)ofthesafavid authorqaziahmad.inthisfamoustreatiseoncalligraphersandpainters,hepraises"ali asthemasterofthekuficscript: Thenthatwritingwhich,likekohl,clearedthesightofmen ofunderstandingwithdivinerevelationandthecommands andprohibitionsofhisholinesstheprophet God s prayeronhimandhisfamily wasthek$f%writing.and thereexisttracingsbythemiraculousqalamsofhis HolinesstheShah,theRefugeofSanctity(i.e.,"Al#)which enlightenthesightofthesoulandbrightenthetabletsof theheart.nonewrotebetterthanthatholiness God s blessingonhim andthemostexcellentk$f%isthatwhich hehastraced God speaceonhim Q$#A%mad,Calligraphers#and#Painters:#A#Treatise#by#Q&%#A'mad,#Son#of#M%r" Munsh%#(circa#A.H.#1015/#A.D.#1606),transl.V.Minorsky,FreerGalleryofArt OccidentalPapers3,2(Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution,1959),53&54.The goaloftheintroductionistodemonstratethisidea,whichissummarizedinthetitle: On theappearanceoftheqalamandthefirstappearanceofwriting,withthetracingofthe originofthelattertohisholinessthekingofthethroneofsanctity,theam#rofall Am#rs["AliibnAbiTalib] Followingsuit,Maul$n$Sultan&"Al# streatise,whichqazi AhmadgaveintheGulistn"i#Hunar,putsforththesameidea: Murta'$("Al#)laidthe foundationsofthek(f#scriptanddevelopedit.andthoseotherstylesofwriting,which mastersinvented,knowtheyarealsoderivedfromthek(f#. p.107."aliisalsobelieved tohavecontinuedtoinspireandinstructcalligrapherswholivedcenturiesafterhim,for example,byappearingintheirdream.forexample,dustmuhammadtalksabouthow KhvajaMir"AliTabrizi,theinventorofthenastaliqscript,andtheAbbasidcalligrapher IbnMuqlareceivedAli sassistance.davidroxburgh,prefacing#the#image:#the#writing# of#art#history#in#sixteenth#century#iran(london:e.j.brill,2000),131,188.roxburgh s examinationoftreatisesandalbumprefacesalsoshowsthatothersafavidauthorssuchas DustMuhammadrecognizedAliastheinitialdesignerandilluminatoroftheQuran. Roxburghalsodiscusseshowthisunderstandingwasusedasatooltoexplicateand strengthenconnectionsbetweencalligraphyanddepiction. 64

81 TheextraordinaryvalueandrespectthattheSafavidswouldhaveattributeda Qur anofthiskindisunderscored,therefore,bysuchadistinctiveunderstandingof"ali asamasterilluminatorandcalligrapher,theonewhogavemeaningfulformtowriting, andwhopotentiallypossessedthepowertoinstructorguidegenerationsoftalented artiststocome.davidroxburghfurtherdiscusseshowtheagencyof"ali tookona particularresonanceamongtheshi"iteaudienceofthesafavidcourt inacollective scholarlyattempttoelevatethestatusofcalligraphyandillumination. 107 ButhowdidSafavidauthorsandartistsstudycalligraphicspecimensand/ordesigns pennedby"ali?testifyingtotheexistenceofsuchexamples,dustmuhammadclaimed thatpageswithhisdecorationssurvived. 108 AfragmentfromanearlyQuranmanuscript withacolophonindicatingthatitwaswrittenby"aliibnabitalibistodayattheshrine oftheeighthshi"iimam"aliibnmusainmashhad. 109 Itwasamongthegiftsendowed byshah"abbastotheshrine,wherehewentonafamouspilgrimagein1601.such Qur ansbearinginventedsignaturesof"aliandotherimams,accordingtosheilablair, servedalegitimatingfunctionforthesafavidswhoclaimeddescentfromtheprophet 107 Roxburgh,PrefacingtheImage,90.DustMuhammadmaintainedthat "Alib.Abi TalibwasthefirstpersontoembellishKoranswithdesignandillumination(ba"naqshva taz#h$b"iz$nat) AccordingtoDustMuhammad,somepagesdecoratedby"Alib.AbiTalibsurvived tohisdayandthetermgivento"ali sdecorativeelementswasisl%m$. Roxburgh, PrefacingtheImage, Mashhad,Astan#iQuds,no.6.Writtenonparchment,themanuscripthasfifteenlines perpage.itispublishedinsheilablair,islamiccalligraphy(edinburgh:edinburgh UniversityPress,2006),15,citing:AhmadGulch$n#iMa"%n$,R%hnam%"yiganj$na"yi qur %n(mashhad,1347),no.1(jimgiveslistofquransabbasendowed);rama%n#"al$ Sh%kir$,Ganj#ihiz%rs%la#yikit%bkh%na#yimarkaz$#yi%st%n#iquds#iriav$qablwaba"d azinqal%b(mashhad,1367/1989),36and38.blairdiscussesanotherfragmentfoundin thegulistanpalacelibrary(no.1052)intehran,whichlikewisehasacolophon containing"aliibnabitalib ssignaturethatwasaddedmuchlater.unlikethefirst example,however,thisonehassixlinesoneachpage.blair,islamiccalligraphy,

82 Muhammadthroughthelineof"AliibnAbiTalib.Theseobjectswereveneratedas religiousrelicsandtheirpossessionbythesafavidrulersprovidedtangibleproofforthis lineofdescent. 110 Intheehnme"i#Sel$m#%npainting,thethirdgiftalongthelinemustbethe Shahnama#of#Shah#Tahmasp.Asmentionedearlier,GiacomoSoranzoprovidesalistof thesegiftsinhisreport.firstinhislistareaqur an,secondisa bookofthekindwhich oneprincesendsanotherwithallpagesingildedcalligraphyandillustratedwith259 figures. 111 ThisisnoneotherthantheShahnama#of#Shah#Tahmasp,asarthistorianshave alreadyshown.notonlydothenumberofpaintingsandotherexaltingwordsusedto describethebookincontemporarysourcesvalidatethis,butalsotwoaccountsactually identifythemanuscriptasashahnamaandweknowthatshahtahmaspcommissioned onlyonebook#of#kings. 112 Othergiftsincludedsilvercompasses,cushions,porcelainplates,gildedarrows,a chandelier,agildedquiver(?),horses,saddles,apaviliontentmeasuringsixteenunits, 113 largefeltsfromkhurasantobeputonthefloor,smallsilkcarpets,largecarpets,and falcons.acontemporaryaccountclaimsthat themostcostlyofallthegiftsweretwo 110 Blair,Islamic#Calligraphy, ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,515a. 112 ThesetwosourcesaretheVenetiansource,onwhichJosephvonHammer saccountis based,andtheottomanhistorianferidunbegrecords:ah#tahmaspıñ#kendü#adına# denilmi"#ikiyüz#elli&okuz#yirde#ta'v$r"i#meclis#olunmu"#mura''a(#cildle#bir#)ı&(a#"hnme. TSMK,H.1339,243b.Pigafettalistsitasa bookofhistory. 113 ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,515a.Thetentisdescribedindetail. Soranzosaysitis hungwithdamascenecloth,andcoveredwithcrèmecoloredsatin withapolepaintedbluewithsilverinlay,andaboveagreencover,andthreeparasolsto beplacedattheentranceofthepavilion,oneofiraniangold,oneofsatin,andoneof ermesine, andtheircenterpolespaintedinbluewithsilverspokesthataregildedand jeweledandheldtogetherwithtwosetsofcordsmadeofgoldandsilk,oneforthe pavilionandtheotherfortheparasols. 66

83 books.boundalikeingoldandgems,onewasaquran,allegedlyinthehandof[the Imam]Alihimself;theotherwasacopyofFirdowsi sshahnama. 114 Amongthegiftsof ShahTahmasp,then,manuscriptswereconsideredasthemostvaluableitemsasthey wereprioritizedinbothwrittentext"alwaysbeingthefirstitemsinlists",andinimage" inthepaintingdepictingthisevent,thequr anandtheshahnamaofshahtahmaspare presentedattheveryfrontrow,portrayedclosesttoandalignedwiththesultan. 115 TheShahnamaofShahTahmaspwasanillustratedmanuscriptcomposedinthe traditionoftheoriginalshahnama(bookofkings)writteninthelatetenthcenturyby thepoetfirdowsiundertheauspicesofsultanmahmudofghazni.itrelatesthedeedsof ancientpersiankingsandheroes.intime,commissioningashahnamabecame apartof anyiranianruler sregalia. 116 ShahTahmaspwasalsoanactivepatronofthearts especiallyintheformerpartofhisreign.theillustratedmanuscriptsproducedunder Tahmaspdatefromthefirstthreedecadesofhisrule,asintheyear1556herenounced thearts.afterthisdate,heseemstohavedrawnawayfromotherpleasuresoflifeand rarelyleftthepalaceinqazvin. 117 HisShahnamaisperhapsthemostfamousillustrated manuscriptinislamicart,andattimesconsideredthemostsumptuousone(figures1.10, 1.11).Itwasaproductionofenormousscalewith742largefoliosand259illustrations.It doesnothaveacolophon,yetitbearsadedicatoryrosette,whichindicatesthatitwas 114 QuotedinDicksonandWelch,TheHoughtonShahnama, Also,thecaptiononthepaintingreads: thegatekeepersbroughtintribute, pleasing,beautifulandnicegiftsofeverysort/firstwasagildedqur aninavolume largelystuddedwithjewels,[thentherewere]pleasingbooksandshahnamaswrittenin goodorderandbeauty 116 StuartCaryWelch,AKing sbookofkings:theshahnamaofshahtahmasp(new York:MetropolitanMuseumofArt,1972), Welch,AKing sbookofkings,68"73. 67

84 preparedfortahmasp slibrary(figure1.12). 118 Stylistically,artistshavecombinedthe useoflivelycolorsthatareseeninturcomanpaintinganduseofextraordinarydetail typicaloftimuridpainting. 119 AnothercharacteristicuniquetothisShahnamawasthat bythe1520s,whenitwasproduced, theageofmagnificentroyalshah"namashadlong sincepassed. 120 Itwasatimewhenshortertextswithfewerillustrationswereproduced. Insum,itsscalewithlavishillustrationsandthatitwasaroyalShahnamaproducedin sixteenth"centurypersiamadethemanuscript trulyexceptional 121 Butindependentofthevaluesuchamanuscriptheldingeneralterms,this particularshahnamaincludesaninnovativepaintingintheopeningpagesofthe manuscript,whichneedscloseexaminationinthecontextofthegiftingofthebookfrom ashi#ikingtoasunnione(figure1.13).thispaintingillustratesthestoryofthe Ship offaith. Thisparable,inwhichProphetMuhammadand#Ali,thetwoloyalfriends,set outonaseavoyagewithotherfaithfulmuslims,isknowntohavebecomeanarenafor Sunni"Shi#idisputes.Inherstudyofpaintingsthatdepictthisstory,RayaShanipointsto therarityofshahnamacopiesincludingthispainting. 122 Butwithinthissmallgroup,itis possibletoseehowartists,whilereferringtoestablishedmodels,changedthe compositionbasedonthepatron sreligiousorientationandmorespecificallyhisstance 118 BlairandBloom,TheArtandArchitectureofIslam,168.Thelinesinscribedinthe rossetteread: CommissionedforthelibraryoftheMostMightySultan,andthemostjust andbeneficentkhaqan[grandkhan],sultan,son,grandsonofsultans,abu l"muzaffar, SultanShahTahmasp,ofHusayniandSafavidescent,Bahadur[TheValiant]Khan.May God,theMostExalted,perpetuateHisrealmandHisrule,anddiffuse 119 Welch,AKing sbookofkings, RobertHillenbrand, TheIconographyoftheSh$h"n$ma"yiSh$h%, insafavidpersia: TheHistoryandPoliticsofanIslamicSociety,ed.CharlesMelville(LondonandNew York:I.D.TaurisandCo.Ltd.,1996), Hillenbrand, IconographyoftheSh$h"n$ma"yiSh$h%, RayaY.Shani, IllustrationsoftheParableoftheShipofFaithinFirdausi sprologue totheshahnama, inshahnamastudiesi,ed.charlesmelville(cambridge,2006). 68

85 withregardtotheissueofthetruelineofsuccessionaftermuhammad. Tahmasp sshahnamareflectsthisstrongly,unreservedlyexpressingaviewof TwelverShi"isalvationthatisincorporatedseemlesslyintoSafavidreligious propaganda.theshi"itraditionemphasizesthatinhislifetimemuhammadclearly designatedaliashissuccessorandlikenedhisfamilyandsuccessors,theahlal"bait,to Noah sark.thismetaphorwasalsousedbysafavidartistsinotherpaintingsonthis subject(figure1.14).here,muhammadand"aliareatthefrontoftheshipandare distinguishedfromtherestspirituallythroughtheirveiledfacesandspatiallythroughthe useofacolumnbetweenthemandtherest.butmuhammadisfurthersetapartfrom"ali throughhisverticalelevation,seatedhigheronaplatform.ottomanpainting,too,always makessuchdistinctions,carefullysettingmuhammadfromeveryoneelseincluding"ali (Figure1.15).Thescenetakesplaceinamosque;theprophetisseatedontheminbar,or pulpit,and"aliandhissonshasanandhusainareatmuhammed'sleftside.theholy charactersareidentifiedbytheirflaminghaloesandaresurroundedbytheattentive audience. InoneoftheSafavidcompositionsdepictingthisscene(Figure1.14),"Aliandthe otherholyfiguresarewearingthesafavidturbanwhosewhitefabricisfoldedarounda redhighbaton.muhammad,however,isgivenamoreneutralheaddress.inthetahmasp Shahnama(Figure1.15),fourfiguresstandoutwiththeirpositioningunderacanopy, theirveiledfacesandthebundlesofflaminglightsthatencircletheirheads.thetwo figuresflankingthecanopyarehasanandhusain,"ali ssonsandmuhammad s grandsons,andthetwoinsidethecanopyaremuhammadand"ali.withoutanyobvious marksofidentification,itisinfactunclear,asmartindicksonandcarywelchpointed 69

86 out,whichoneiswhich.moreover,allfourfigureswearthesafavidturbanmarking themasshi"isafavids.hence,thepaintingunmistakablylinkssafavidrulersnotjustto "AlibutalsotoMuhammadbywayofhim.Theomissionoftheothercaliphsfroma paintingabouttherightpath,forthereceiversofthisgift,musthavevisuallyparalleled thesafavidrejectionofthelegitimacyofthefirstthreecaliphsofthesunnitradition. Onthethequestionofwhythispricelessmanuscriptwasgifted,arthistoriansare eithersilent,ortheyattributethisgiftingtoshahtahmasp slossofinterestinarts. RobertHillenbrandbrieflyaddressesthisissueattheendofanarticleinwhichhemakes athematicanalysisofthepaintingsinthismanuscript.hearguesthatthethemesofthe illustrationswerecarefullyselectedsoastoemphasizecertainthemes.four#fifthsofthe paintingsareplacedinthefirstpartofthemanuscript,where themajorthemeisthe enmitybetweeniranandturan. 123 Hillenbrandalsodemonstratesthatone#thirdofthe paintingsarebattlescenes,andtherestaresplitintoseveralotherthemes.allinall,the Shahnamaisinterpretedinhistoricalcontext.Throughtherecurrentthemeofthestruggle betweeniranandturan,anationalistmessage, IranfortheIranians, isconveyed. 124 Whilethisargumentisveryconvincing,thetwoclaimsthatTahmaspgiftedthe manuscriptbecause hisprioritieshadchanged, andthatfollowingthetreatyof Amasya,whenpeacewasalreadysecured,giftingtheShahnamawasapoliticalgesture tocementgoodrelations withthenewsultanmaybeconsideredahypothesisnot withoutalternatives.inthischapteripresentanalternativeexplanation,whichisbased bothonthevisualanalysisofthe ShipofFaith paintingincludedintahmasp s shahnama,anongiacomosoranzo sreportthatuncoversshahtahmasp spleatothe 123 TuranisageographicaltermusedtorefertothecentralAsiansteppes. 124 Hillenbrand, IconographyoftheSh$h#n$ma#yiSh$h%,

87 Ottomansultancommunicatedbyhisambassador.Inlightofthisnewsource,Iarguethat thesafavidshahintendedtoproclaimhissuperiorityasapatronofthearts.toelaborate thisstatement,iwillfirstconsiderwhattakesplaceintheimperialcouncilhallasrelated bysoranzo,andtheninterprettheexceptionallyvaluablegiftsentbyshahtahmaspby comparingittotheequallyoutstandingrubyexchangedbetweenaseventeenth"century SafavidrulerandhisMughalcounterpart. InthepresenceoftheOttomansultanSelimII,theSafavidambassador,ShahQuli, bendsoverinutmostrespect,andheisheldbyhisarmsbytwoattendantsofthesultan. ThisimageofShahQuliinthepaintingfurtherenhancesthesubordinatepositionhe takesbeforeselimii.thevenetianbailowhowitnessedthiseventsaysthatshahquli intendedtomaintaingoodrelations withwordsfullofsubmissionandreverence 125 out ofadesirefromwhichhepromisesnevertodepart.thentheambassadorgoesonto praisethesultan. Inadditiontohismajesty sothergreatnessesandtitles,shahquli recognizeshim asheadofthemuhammadansecteventhoughinsomeissuespertaining toreligiontheycontinuetodisagree. Then,accordingtoGiacomoSoranzo,ShahQuli humblyrequestsofselimiithat merchantsmightbeallowedtotradefreelybetween theirrespectivecountriesandtheroadsshouldbekeptopenforthepersianstotravelto MeccabymeansofBaghdad. 126 ItshouldbenotedatthispointthatallMuslims,who havethemeanstoafforditareobligedtogotomeccaforpilgrimage.althoughmerelya religiousrequirementonthesurface,thepilgrimagealsohadsocial,economic,and 125 ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,513a.Alltherestofthecitationsin thisparagrapharefromthissamepage. 126 dimandòappressochelimercantiavesseroliberocommerciodall unaetl altra parte,etchefusseapertaetsicuratalastradacheessipersianipotesseroandaralla MecaperviadiBabilonia 71

88 communicativefunctions. 127 Moreover,intheOttomancontext,thisreligiousdutyhad politicalimplicationsforthelegitimacyofthestate.ashadimal"haremeyn(defenderof theholycities), theottoman[sultan]protectedthepilgrimage becausethisprotection legitimizedthesultan 128.Tothisend,considerablesumsofresourceswereallocatedto organizetheeventandguaranteethesafetyofthepilgrims.theholylandsofislamcame underottomancontrolaftertheydefeatedthemamluksofegyptin1517.henceforth, OttomansultansclaimedaspecialsuperiorstatusoverallotherMuslimleaders. ProvidingsocialandmunicipalservicestoMuslimsonthewaytotheHolylandsandin MeccaandMedinawasthecriticalwayinwhichOttomansdemonstratedthisspecial role. AftertheSafavidambassadormakestherequestabouttrouble"freepilgrimageto Mecca,thesultanrespondsfavorablytoit withfewwords,andtheambassadorleaves shortlyafter.basedonthereportofthevenetianbailo,itisclearthatinadditionto congratulatingandhonoringselimiiasthenewottomansultan,thesafavidambassador cametoedirnetoaskhimforpermissiontousetheroadtomecca,whichwasunder Ottomancontrol,withoutrestraint.Thismeansthathewasalsoaskingforprotection fromthesultanbecauseitwastheobligationoftheottomanstatetoprovideprotectionto allthecaravanstravelingtomecca.inadditiontohavingcontroloftheholylandsof Islam,providingprotectionforpilgrimstravelingtoandfromthisareawasagreatsource ofpridefortheottomans.evidentlythough,thesafavidswerehavingproblemsin travelingtomecca.moreover,italsoseemsthataroundtheyear1568,othermuslim 127 SuraiyaFaroqhi,PilgrimsandSultans:TheHajjundertheOttomans1517"1683 (London:I.B.Tauris,1994). 128 Faroqhi,PilgrimsandSultans,9. 72

89 statessimilarlyappealedtotheottomansultantoprotectpilgrims.muslimrulersin CentralAsiapressuredthesultanbecausetheSafavidswerenotlettingthemthrough theirlandsandtherewereotherdifficultiesintravelingtotheholylandsofislam. SometimesrulersofIslamicstatesincentralAsiaevenmadealliancestosupportthe sultanto(re)conquerstrategicplacessuchasastrakhan,acitytothenorthofthecaspian Sea. 129 Moreover,inarecentstudybyGiancarloCasale,ithasbeencogentlyarguedthat theottomandynasty sauthorityascaliphoftheuniversalcommunityofbelieverswas recognizedonascaleneverequaledbeforeorsince,receivingformalexpressioninthe FridaycalltoprayerofMuslimhousesofworshipfromtheHornofAfricato Indonesia. 130 Asagroup,Tahmasp sgiftstoselimiiencapsulateimportantreligious,historical, culturalandeconomicperso"islamicroyalattributes.atvaryinglevels,however,as objecttypes,thepopularityofeachoneofthemwassharedbyotherrulersintheearly modernmuslimworld.contemporaneousrulersfrequentlycollectedlavishlyillustrated copiesofliterarytextsandqur rans,jewels,textiles,tentsandbirdsofprey.theydid thisthroughcommissioningsimilarobjectstotheircourtartists,receivingthemasgifts ortributefromtheirowncourtiers,vassalsandforeignrulers,ortheyappropriatedsuch objectsasbooty,astokensofmilitaryvictory.butinthisparticularcase,someofthe 129 RobertD.McChesney, TheCentralAsianHajjPilgrimageintheTimeoftheEarly ModernEmpires, insafavidiranandherneighbors,ed.michelmazzaoui(saltlake City:UniversityofUtahPress)133.SeealsoM.Khodarkovsky,Russia ssteppe Frontier:TheMakingofaColonialEmpire,1500"1800(BloomingtonandIndianapolis: IndianaUniversityPress,2002), GiancarloCasale, TheOttomanAgeofExploration:Spices,MapsandConquestin thesixteenthcenturyindianocean Ph.D.diss.(HarvardUniversity,2004),p.231.See chapter4foramoredetaileddiscussion. 73

90 giftsweresurelyone"of"a"kind,thevalueofwhichwasbeyondanymeasure.as signifiersofsophisticatedroyalpower,thekindofvaluetheyborewasdependentonwho possessedthem,andtheywouldacquirecurrencywhensetinmotion,whenexchanged betweenkings.shahtahmasp sgiftsunderscorethisprinciplebycreatinganimageof thepersianmonarchasaperfectking,throughharmonizingobjectsthatdenotewealth, piety,anddescentfromanoblelinegoingbacktotheshi#iimam#ali,andancient Iraniankings.AtatimewhentheOttomanrulershadrecentlysignedapeacetreatywith thesafavids,recognizingtheirpoliticalexistencebutrefusingtorecognizetheshahasa legitimatemuslimruler,tahmasp sgiftsforcefullyassertthathewasinfactalegitimate Shi#iruler.Hisrequestimplicitlydemandsthisrecognition,forbyacceptingtogrant permissionforpersianpilgrimstogotomeccaandbyprovidingsafetyontheirway,the OttomanstatewouldrecognizethemastrueMuslims. WhatfunctiondidthegiftsfromIranservefortheparticipantsoftheceremony fromeurope?thevenetianbailogiacomosoranzosaysattheendofhisreport, I shouldnotforgettotellyourmajestyasthereweremanyretainersofchristian ambassadorsaswellasmyownoutsidethedivan,thepasha[probablysokollumehmed Pasha]askedallofthemtocomeinandseethegreatgiftstheabovementioned ambassadorbrought Then,Sokollu announcedinaveryloudvoice,thattheyshould seehowasultanshouldbetreatedbysomeonewhocomestokisshishand. 131 The ceremonyinwhichshahqulipresentedshahtahmasp sgifts,then,servedasan occasionfortheottomanstodisplaytheirarroganceandsenseofsuperioritytothe representativesofthemajorcontemporaryeuropeanpowers. 131 ASVe,Senato,DispacciConstantinopoli,Filza2,514a. 74

91 Conclusion ThefunctionthatShahTahmasp sgiftsservedforhimwastoputforthacertain publicimageoftherulerhimself.buttheirmissionextendedbeyondthis.theywere objectsthatthesultancouldnotdismiss,orregift.hence,theyobligedtheirreceiverto keepthem,andcontemplatetheirmessage.butwhatabouttheimmediatefuture,whatof theshah sspecificrequestandthesultan spromiseofgoodrelationsandsafetravelto Mecca?Itseemsthatthesubmissivemessagedeliveredbytheambassadordidnotmake alastingimpressionontheottomans. Adouble"pagepaintingfromtheSurnme"i#Hümyun#(c.1582),forexample, depictsagroupofbuffoonsplayingwithsafavidturbans(figure1.16).thepageonthe rightportrays amanbendingover[with]twosafavidturbansplacedonhisbottomina symbolicactofdefilement. 132 Asforthesecondissue,asimilarattitudeisobservedin anotherpaintingfromtheehnme"i#sel$m#%n(shahnamaofsultanselim)thatdepicts themurderofshahtahmasp senvoy,masumbegbybeduinsinthehijaz(figure 1.17). 133 Theenvoyisdepictedinacomparablemanner;hisbodyisupsidedownandhis turbanhasfallenontheground.asafavidchroniclerwrotethatmasumbeg,afavorite oftahmasp,whenhavingsecuredpermissionfrombothrulers,setofftogotomecca, a groupofottomans,disguisedasbedouins,treacherouslyattackedandmurderedhimand hisson,andseveraloftheircompanions,whiletheywereactuallywiththepilgrim caravanandhaddonnedthespecialpilgrims robe. Asthesetwopaintingsvisuallydemonstrate,theSafavidrecognitionofthe 132 DerinTerzio#lu, TheImperialCircumcisionFestivalof1582:AnInterpretation, Muqarnas12(1995), TSMK,A.3595,68a. 75

92 OttomansultanasasuperiorMuslimrulerdidnotsecureOttomanfriendshipanda permanentstateofpeace.thegifts,however,begananewlifeattheottomancourt. Here,despitetherenewedoutbreakofwarbetweentheOttomansandSafavidsin subsequentdecades,theyremainedaccessibletoahighlyselectgroupofcourtiers, foreignvisitors,andpainters,inspirednewottomanartisticmodesthathelpedtodefine thevisualcultureoftheempirethroughoutthelatterpartofthesixteenthcentury. 76

93 CHAPTER2: OttomansBearingSafavidGifts Introduction InherexaminationoftheartisticoutputofSultanSüleyman sreign,gülru Necipo"luhasidentifiedthemid#sixteenthcenturyasatime verydifferentfromthe eclecticsyncretismcharacteristicofartisticexpressionintheearlyyearsofthesultan s reign. 1 ThelastpartofSüleyman sreignisalsounderstoodasatimeofthe solidificationofimperialterritoriallimitsintheeastandwest,coupledwithagrowing emphasisonreligiousorthodoxy,whichculminatedinthecodificationofanewself# identity.asnecipo"lufurtherargues,thenewottomanartisticcanonfittinglyreflected anacuteawarenessofdifferencefromtheempire sneighborstoitseastandwest. 2 Theunresolved,infactrising,tensionwiththeSafavidsplayedalargeroleinthis process.theottoman#safavidrivalryresonatedfarbeyondthebattlefieldandwasmore amatterofpoliticalandterritorialhegemonythansectariandisagreementasseveral scholarshavenoted. 3 Whilethenatureofthisrivalryanditsimplicationsonbothendsat military,politicalandreligiouslevelswillbebetterilluminatedwithnewstudiesonthe subject,iwouldliketoapproachottoman#safavidrivalryherebylookingcloselyatthe visualrepresentationsoftheseempires ceremonialencounters.anexaminationofthese paintingsshowthatfollowingtheamasyatreatyof1555,theflowofobjectsfromthe 1 GülruNecipo"lu, AKanunfortheState,aCanonfortheArts, SolimanleMagnifique etsontemps,actesducolloquedeparisgaleriesnationalesdugrandpalais,7"10 mars1990,ed.gillesveinstein(paris:rencontresdel'écoledulouvre,1992), Necipo"lu, KanunfortheState, 195#7. 3 Allouche,Ottoman"SafavidConflict. 77

94 Safavidshahincreasinglybecame,fortheOttomans,amanifestationofSafavid subservience.thenewimageofthesultaninthepost"süleymaniceravis"à"vishisown courtiersandmilitarycommandersinvolvedinterestingparallelswiththesultan svisual alignmentwithandrelationshiptosafavidgifts. PaintingsofaSafavidambassadorpresentinggiftstotheOttomansultanbeganto beduplicatedinofficialhistories,significantlynamedafterfirdausi sshahnama,during thereignsofselimiiandmuradiii.therecurrenceofsuchpaintingswithstrikingly similariconographycoincidewithanewerainottoman"safavidrelations.thiswasalso aperiodthatratherthanpersonallyleadingarmiestowar,thesultanstayedatthecapital. However,hecontinuedtofulfilltheroyaltraditionandthereligiousdutyofconquest throughthemediumofhiscommanders, asoneottomanhistorianofthelatesixteenth centuryputit.whilethesultansecludedhimselfinhispalace,hiscontactwiththe outsideworldwasincreasinglymediatedthroughhisgrandvizier,otherviziersandan emerginggroupofpower"sharersincludingthequeenmotherandeunuchsofthepalace. Withinthishighlycompetitiveandhierarchizedenvironment,thesultan snewimage becameoneinwhichhereceivedanddispensedobjectsinamoreconspicuousmanner. Inthischapter,IarguethatthepresentationandselectivedisplayofSafavidgifts wastheforerunnerofthistrend.however,aswewillsee,insteadofcomfortably designatingthesultanasthesuperiorauthorityfittoreceivethebestthingsintheworld asgiftsandtribute,andwhointurnwiselydistributestokensofbeneficencebasedon rankandachievementtohiscourtiersandvassals,thedisplayofsafavidgiftscamewith anascendingleveloffrustrationaboutthesincerityandlegalityoftheirpresenters.this questioningofthesincerityofthegifts presentersincontemporarytextsposesastark 78

95 contrastwiththeorderlypresentationofthegiftsinottomanshahnamapaintings.while atfirstthispointwaslesssubtle,hiddenwemightsayinbetweenthelinesin contemporaryaccountsandofficialtexts,bythe1580s,whenottomansandsafavids wereactivelyengagedinwarfare,webegintoobserveitsresonancesmuchmore powerfully,invisualform. Inanefforttodemonstratemoreclearlythesearguments,Iwouldliketostep backandbeginmydiscussionwiththesüleymnnnme,anottomanshahnama, 4 ora 4 ToavoidanyconfusionIshouldfirstclarifywhatismeantherebyan Ottoman shahnama. PersianwastheprestigiouslanguageoflettersattheTurkishspeaking Ottomancourtatleastfromthemid"15 th centuryorthereignofmehmediiwhose literarypatronageandcollectionofpersiantextsatteststothis.theinterestinthe shahnamainparticularcontinueduninterruptedwhetherintheformofcollecting Firdowsi stext,recitingstoriesfromitorallyorbycommissioningthetext stranslation intoturkish.butthisengagementwithferdowsi stextalsowenthandinhandwith anotherprocessbywhichtheottomansultansadoptedtheshahnama,andtailoredittofit theirpropagandisticprograms.theottomanincarnationoftheshahnamafirstappeared attheottomancourtinthe1470sintheformofversifieddynastichistorieswritteninthe shahnama"styleusingthesamemeter. Theseshahnama"styleversifiedhistories,asSaraNurYıldıznotes,insteadof repeatingtheshahnamaverbatim,employedbothitsstylisticformatanditsthematic strategiessuchasmilitaryvictoryandimperialsovereignty,inordertolegitimize Ottomanrulership.Thesebookswouldbereadbyasmalleducatedeliteaudience,one thatwastypicallywell"versedinthestoriesandheroesoftheshahnama,whichwould allowthemtocatchimplicitorexplicitassociationsdrawnbetweenthelegendarykings oftheshahnamaandtheottomansultans.assuch,thisparticularcitationofthe shahnamawouldelevateandsecurethemonarch sabsoluteauthorityintheeyesofhis rulingelite.thesourcesofthisauthoritydependedonassociationswithvariousaspects oftheshahnama.theottomandynastyandthecurrentsultanbyextensionwere associatedwiththeidealancientiraniankings,likenedtothemintheirexecutionof justiceandwisdom,andtheirrulershipwasfashionedsimilarlyasdivinelyordained. Steppingbeyondtheconfinesoftheshahnama,theSüleymnnnmeforexample, fashionedsüleymanasasecondsolomon,perfectjustlikehiminhisexecutionof justice.furthermore,theorganizationalstructureofottomanshahnamas,beginningwith thecreationofman,proceedingwithadiscussionoftheadventofislam,andthehistories ofdynastiesthatadheredtothereligionleadinguptothecontemporaryottomansultan wasmeanttodesignatethesultanasthelastandfinalringinachainoflawfulislamic rulers.sarahnuryıldız, OttomanHistoricalWritinginPersian,1400"1600, inpersian" Historiographyed.CharlesMelville(NewYork:I.B.Tauris,2012),436"502.(Ithank 79

96 shahnamastyle"versified"illustrated"history"produced"at"the"ottoman"court,"which" chronicles"the"reign"of"sultan"süleyman"the"magnificent. 5 "It"is"the"first"manuscript" illustrating"ottomansafavid"encounters"involving"material"exchanges." " Süleymnnme(BookofSüleyman) The"Süleymnnnme,"composed"in"Persian"and"in"the"shahnamastyle"by"#Arif$, 6 " was"completed"in"the"latter"part"of"süleyman s"reign"in"1558."it"is"the"final"book"in"a"five" volume"manuscript"of"the"ehname"i#$l"i#%osmn"(book"of"kings"of"the"house"of" Dr."Yıldız"for"sharing"with"me"this"article"before"it"went"into"press.)"For"illustrated" Ottoman"shahnamas,"see"Zeren"Akalay"(Tanındı),""Osmanlı"Tarihi"ile"Ilgili"Minyatürlü" Yazmalar"(ehnameler"ve"Gazanameler) "(Ph.D."dissertation,"Istanbul"University,"1972);" Filiz"Ça%man," Ottoman"Miniature"Painting, "in"ottoman#civilization,"eds."halil"inalcık" and"günsel"renda"(ankara:"kültür"bakanlı%ı,"2003),"893931,"esp." " This"experimental"molding"of"Persian"concepts"of"rulership"with"orthodox" Sunnism"took"an"unmistakably"Ottoman"character"visually"and"textually"in"the"Ottoman" shahnamas"starting"with"those"commissioned"by"sultan"süleyman"in"the"midsixteenth" century."our"examination"of"the"display"of"gifts"will"begin"with"the"shahnama"made"for" Sultan"Suleyman"for"it"is"key"in"gaining"a"better"understanding"of"the"process"through" which"the"receiving"and"dispatching"of"objects"were"fully"integrated"into"the"projected" image"of"the"sultan"within"two"generations." 5 "TSMK,"H."1517."For"the"Süleymnnme,"see"Atıl,"Süleymanname,"esp."6177;"Christine" Woodhead," An"Experiment"in"Official"Historiography:"The"Post"of"ehnameci"in"the" Ottoman"Empire,"c." , "Wiener#Zeitschrift#für#die#Kunde#des#Morgenlandes"75" (1983):"15782;"Reha"Günay," Süleymanname"Minyatürlerinde"Mekan"ve"Anlatım" Teknikleri, "Topkapı#Sarayı#Müzesi#Yıllık"5"(1992):"103156;"Fetvacı," Viziers"to" Eunuchs, "8491;"Sinem"Eryılmaz,""The"Shehnamecis"of"Sultan"Süleyman:"#Arif"and" Eflatun"and"Their"Distinct"Project "(Ph.D."dissertation,"University"of"Chicago,"2010)," esp." " 6 "The"author s"full"name"is"fethullah"#arif"çelebi."for"arifi s"life"and"career"at"the" Ottoman"court,"see"Cornell"H."Fleischer,"Bureacrat#and#Intellectual#in#the#Ottoman# Empire:#The#Historian#Mustafa#$li#(1541"1600)"(Princeton,"NJ:"Princeton"University" Press,"1986),"30;"Atıl,"Süleymanname;"Tahsin"Yazıcı," #Aref"&eleb$ "in"encyclopedia# Iranica,"online," 80

97 Osman),thefirstofficialillustratedhistoryoftheOttomandynastyfollowingthe shahnamaformat. 7 SüleymnnnmechroniclesSultanSüleyman sfirstthirtyfiveyearsinpower, between1520and1555,whenheactivelybuiltalargeempireupheldbysophisticated politicalandculturalinstitutions.inlinewiththebook scitationofsolomon,thetheme ofjusticeisonethatrunsthroughthetext. 8 Thesultantakesthecenter"stageasa powerful,sophisticatedruler,andatalentedmilitaryleader. 9 Heispersonallyinvolvedin allmattersofthestate,includingleadingbattles,directinghiscommandersand ceremoniallyreceivingmembersofhisfamily,topofficialsandforeignrepresentatives. However,asNecipo#luhasargued,ratherthanthepersonalcharismaofSüleyman himself,thevisualprogramofthebookglorifies thejustpowerofanimperialstate machine. Inthepaintingsofthemanuscript,thesultaniseithersurroundedbyhisruling 7 Theworkwasconceivedasaworldhistory,beginningwiththecreationofmankind, andendingwiththeottomandynasty.thefirstvolume,enbiynme,contains48folios with10paintingsandiscurrentlykeptinaprivatecollection.thesecondandthird volumesareunfotunatelylost.thefourthvolume,"osmnnme,whichisalsoina privatecollection,has205foliosandillustratedwith34paintings.thefinalvolume, Süleymnnme,contains617folioswith69illustrations.SeeAtıl,Süleymanname,55"61; ErnstJ.Grube,Islamic#paintings#from#the#Eleventh#to#the#Eighteenth#Century#in#the# Collection#of#Hans#P.#Kraus(NewYork:H.P.Kraus,1972).TheEnbiynmeandthe "OsmnnmehavebeendiscussedandanalyzedinEryılmaz, ShehnamecisofSultan Süleyman, 76" Necipo#lu, KanunfortheState, Inarecentstudy,SinemEryılmazarguesadditionallythatthebookportraysthesultan as thesealofkingshipandfaith, linkinghimdirectlytoprophetmuhammad: thetenth Ottomansultan[Süleyman]isboththelastofthegreatkingsofuniversaldominionand thelastofthesaintswithmu$ammedanlight. Eryılmaz, ShehnamecisofSultan Süleyman, 207,170"5.ForotherauthorswhohadconceivedofSüleyman smission alongsimilarlines,seecornellh.fleischer, TheLawgiverasMessiah:TheMakingof theimperialimageinthereignofsüleym%n, insoliman#le#magnifique#et#son#temps,ed. GillesVeinstein(Paris:LaDocumentationFrançaise,1992),159"77.Fleischerarguesin factthatsüleymanhimself activelyparticipatedintheformationofhismessianicimage, andforatimeatleastseemstohavebelievedinhisownapocalypticroleinhistory. 81

98 elite,orheiscompletelyabsent,whichhasbeeninterpretedasaconsciouschoicethat underscorestheefficiencyofthestate sadministrativeandmilitarysystem. 10 Thisideaistakenfurtherandthesupremacyofthestate"machineisaccentuated moreclearlyintheottomanshahnamascompletedlaterinthesixteenthcentury.emine Fetvacıextendsandcomplicatesthispointthroughastudyofthevarioustextualand visualstrategiesemployedbytheauthors,commissionersandpatronsofottoman illustratedmanuscriptsproducedinthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury,andshows howthesestrategieswereusedtonegotiatepoliticalandmilitaryrankandpoweratthe toplayersoftheottomancourt. 11 Here,ratherthanentirenetworksofpatronage,Ifocus insteadonthetransformationofthevisualimageofthesultaninottomanshahnamas datingfromthelatesixteenthcentury,inwhichhemakessignificantlyfewer appearances.theseappearancesprimarilyoccasionhisreceptionofthehigh"ranking officialsofthecourtandforeignenvoysinwhichhereceivesmanygifts. IntheSüleymnnme,thefirstreceptionscene(Figure2.1)establishesthecourtly settingandetiquettewithinwhichsuchceremoniesoperated. 12 Thisscenetakesplace duringoneofsüleyman scampaignsonhungary,whereheisdistinguishedand distancedfromthecourtiersandsoldiersaroundhimthroughtheuseofseveralvisual devices.histurbanappearstallerwithitsthickblackplumeattachedatopbyagoldpin; heisseatedinahighgoldthrone,anddepictedaloneinhistent,whichappearsasan enlargedhalothatencircleshim.thecommanderpayinghisrespectsisprostratebefore thesultan,makingamovetokissthesultan sfeet.otherpaintingsreiteratethisgesture 10 Necipo#lu, KanunfortheState, Forasuccintsummaryofherconclusions,seeFetvacı, VizierstoEunuchs, 297" TSMK,H.1517,189b. 82

99 andestablishitasthepropermannerofshowingallegiancetothesultan.forexample,in areceptiongiventoibrahimpasa(figure2.2),thegrandviziersimilarlymakesamove tokissthesultan sfoot,whichheextendstowardibrahim.thetexttellsusthatthis gesture exaltedthesultanoftheagefromtheground. 13 ThefirstreceptionsceneofanenvoyfromtheSafavidkingShahTahmasp emulatescloselythesecourtlymanners(figure2.3).theeventtakesplacein1532,two yearsbeforesüleymanwentonhisfirsteasterncampaign,knownasthe expeditionof thetwoiraqs. Theenvoycamewithapologies(mazirat"kh#stan)fromtheshah,whose secretagreementtoformanalliancewiththehabsburgemperorferdinandiagainst Süleymanwasdiscoveredbythesultan. 14 Inthepresenceofthesultan,theenvoyismade tobendoverprostrateinacompletegestureofsubmissioninemulationoftheprevious receptionscenes.buthere,asharperhierarchyseemstobeestablishedbetweenthesultan andthemessengerofshahtahmasp.thesultanisseatedcross"legged,withalarge roundpillowsupportinghisback,inamuchlargerandhigherthrone.theenvoy, describedasanexperiencedoldman(parvarda$%i"s#l%khurd),isdistancedfrom Süleyman sfeet,unabletotouch,letalonekissthem.buthiscompletesubmissionwhile kissingthegroundbeneaththesultan sfeetistakenasmirroringtahmasp sown submission,asheisexplainedtohavekissedthegroundonbehalfoftheshah. 15 Furthermore,inthecoupletinscribedatthetop"rightcornerofthepainting,Tahmaspis 13 TSMK,H.1517,260a. 14 TSMK,H.1517,332a.AccordingtotheSüleym#nn#me,SultanSüleymandiscovered thesecretagreementthroughhisspieswhoreportedtohimabouttheemperor senvoysto IranandthesecretletterfromTahmasptoFerdinand,inwhichtheshahresponded favorably.tsmk,h.1517,329a"333b.theenvoyisrecordedtohaveexpressedthisplea duringhisaudiencewiththesultan:&alab"kard"afv%i"gun#htsmk,h.1517,332b. 15 nukhust"az"lab%i"sh#h%i"ir#n%zam'n"/"z[a]"lab"kard"kh#k%i"zam'n"gauhar'ntsmk, H.1517,332a. 83

100 giventhetitle pettyshah, whereassüleymanisidentifiedasthe greatshah (besh"h#i buzurg"madazsh"h#ikhurd.)theconstructionofsuchahierarchyisheightenedbythe inscriptionabovethesultan sthrone: thesultan,theshadowofgod (al#sul$"n%ill All"h).Usedalmostlikeaslogan,thislineisincorporatedintothevisualnarrativeasitis placedrightabovethesultan shead,andgivenfurtheremphasisbywayoftheuseof contrastingcolorsofwhiteandblueinrenderingit.havingrootsandalonghistoryin boththeislamicandancientiraniantraditions,thistitledesignatestherulerasthesole representativeofgodonearth. 16 Withthisdeclaration,thesultan sabsoluteauthority overtheworld smuslimcommunityisunderscored,andhissuperiorpositiontoallother rulers,includingshahtahmasp,iselucidated. TheOttomanofficersstandingbehindtheenvoyaredepictedfromthewaistup, holdingsmalljeweledboxes,whichmuststandforshahtahmasp sgifts.eventhough theyareinproximitytothesafavidenvoy,thethickbordersonapinkbackgroundwith zigzaggingpatternsthatseparatethegiftsfromthesultanandtheenvoymightdenote theirphysicalandrhetoricalexterioritytothemainscene.thisideaisstrengthenedby thepositioningofthegiftsinthecompositionbeforeaniron"latticedwindow.thismust betheceremonialwindowofthechamberofpetitionsinthethirdcourtyardofthe TopkapıPalace,wherethesultancustomarilygaveprivateaudiencestoforeign representatives.situatedbesidetheentrancetothechamberofpetitions(figure2.4),this windowwouldbevisiblefromtheoppositeendofthechamber,wherethesultansat. 16 J.H.KramersandC.E.Bosworth, Sul#$n EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds. P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline;PatriciaCrone,God srulegovernmentand Islam:SixCenturiesofMedievalIslamicPoliticalThought(NewYork:Columbia UniversityPress,2004),

101 BeforeenvoysenteredtheChamberofPetitions,thegiftsthattheyhadbroughtwouldbe paradedbeforethiswindowsothesultanwouldbeabletoseethem. 17 Distancedthiswayfromthesultaninthepainting,theexactcontentsofthegifts sentbyshahtahmasparenotrevealed,fortheyareabstractedtotwosmallboxes. However,accordingtothetext,becauseofhisfear(bm)ofthesultan,theshahsenta greatnumberofgifts(sing.tu"fa). 18 Firstamongtheseweregoldenvessels(orobjects) encrustedwithjewels(zarrnah#$yi%mura&&a'%bi$la'l).thebeautyofthesejewelsand coloredstonesareemphasizedinthesüleym#nn#methroughvariousindirectanalogies. Forexample,theturquoisestonesaresaidtohaveshamedthesky. 19 Moreover,the jewelsarepraisedanddistinguishedas worthyofkings. Besidesthosesetonother objects,shahtahmaspmusthavesentloosestonesandjewelstoo,sincetheauthorofthe textsuggeststhattheycouldbeusedinbraceletsorearrings.amongthegiftswerealso horsesofthebestandmostrarekind,fortheirvaluewasbeyondmeasure.inadditionto jewelsandhorses, exquisitebooks camefromiran.thougharifidoesnotspecifythe titlesofthesebooks,theymusthaveincludedliteraryworkswritteninverse,forhe extolstherhymingpoetrytheycontain.oftherestofthegifts,identifiedadmiringlyas elegantthingsakintospringleaves ((ar#f%chu%barg$i%bah#r),arifiwritesthatthere were morethancanbecounted AsGülruNecipo"luhasshown,thispracticehaditsrootsinatleastthelate15 th century.aftertheyweremadevisibletothesultan,thegiftswouldbetakenaroundthe palacesothateveryoneelseatthepalacewouldlikewisebeabletoobservethem. Necipo"lu,Architecture,%Ceremonial%and%Power,96# TSMK,H.1517,331b. 19 za%fr)zaash%#sm#n%munfa'iltsmk,h.1517,331b. 20 TSMK,H.1517,331b. 85

102 SultanSüleymanrespondedtotheappealoftheambassadorbyacceptingShah Tahmasp sapology.thisforgivingandgenerousgesturewassolidifiedandmaterialized bythesultan sgrantingofsomegoldtotheambassadorbeforehewassentoff. 21 JustasinthisfirstOttomanpaintingdepictingthepresentationofSafavidgiftsto theottomansultan,giftscontinuetoappearinthesüleymnnme.buttheyappear sporadically,andbycontrastwiththetextthatitemizesandpraisesthem,visuallythey arealwaysabstractedinasimilarmanner.forexample,asceneaboutthesultan s receptiontofrancisi sambassadorsincludesnogiftsatall(figure2.5). 22 Throughout themanuscript,giftsdonotcomeintoviewconsistently,andtheroleassignedtothemis unimposing,ifnotambiguous.considerforexample,thepaintingofsüleyman s audiencetotheenvoyofthesultanofmecca,oneofhisvassals(figure2.6). 23 Like thoseofthesafavidenvoy,thegiftsaredepictedrightbehindtheenvoy.inagesture signalinghisrelativeclosenesstothesultan,hestandsupright.inanotherpainting,the khanofcrimea,devletgiraykhan,whowasatrustedvassalandrelativeofthesultan, isgivenaposeevenmoreintimatewithhim:hetakessüleyman shandtokissit,even thoughthetexttellsus,asalways,thathecame tokisshisfeet (Figure2.7). 24 Furthermore,thegiftsthathemusthavebroughtareentirelyomittedinthisscene.But thisbynomeansindicatesthathebroughtnone,forasweknowfromnumeroussources, noonewouldcometoseethesultanwithoutbringingsomethingbasedonhisrank, mission,andthecurrenttrendindesiredobjectsattheottomancourt. 21 TSMK,H.1517,332b. 22 TSMK,H.1517,346a.Thisscenetakesplaceinimperialcamp.However,themain ceremonialprinciplesofthepalacesettingarepreserved. 23 TSMK,H.1517,503a. 24 TSMK,H.1517,519a. 86

103 WithinOttoman"Safavidrelations,animportantmilestonewasthearrivalofShah Tahmasp srebellioushalf"brotheralqasmirzainistanbulin Thecomingofthis SafavidprinceinstigatedmomentousenthusiasmattheOttomancourt,significantly raisingthesultan shopesforadefinitivevictoryovershahtahmasp.ifvictoriousover hisbrother,thisprincewouldthentakeoverthesafavidthronenotasanindependent sovereign,butasanottomanvassal.suchananticipationcalledforanofficialand ceremonialintegrationoftheprinceintotheottomancourt. ThesultanwasinEdirnewhenAlqasreachedtheOttomancapital.Aparticularly spectacularprocessionwasorganizedforsultansüleyman sentryintothecity,forthe princewastowatchitfromakiosk(kök)beforehisfirstmeetingwiththesultan. Historiansnotetheextraordinaryquantityofsoldiersandhigh"rankingofficialsdressed intheirbest,whichwassurelymeanttoimpressthesafavidprince.indeed,accordingto Solakzade,Alqaswastrulyamazed,jumpingupatthesightofsomeOttomanofficials, mistakingthemforthesultan. 26 Then,whenheactuallysawSüleyman,hewas 25 ForashortnarrativeofAlqasMirza slifethroughtheuseofalargeselectionof OttomanandSafavidchronicles,aswellasmodernstudiesinTurkishandPersian,see CornellH.Fleischer, Alq#sM$rza inencyclopediairanica,online, TheRevoltofAlq#sMirza, Weiner ZeitschriftfiirdieKundedenMorgenlande68(1976):61"78;%asanBegR&ml&, A"sanu t#taw$r%kh,i:327"36.themostextensivestudyonalqasmirza stenureinthe serviceoftheottomansultaniswalterposch, DerFallAlk#sM$rzaundder Persienfeldzugvon1548"1549.EingescheitertesosmanischesProjektzurNiederwerfung dessafavidischenpersiens, (Ph.D.dissertation,BambergUniversity,1999).ForAlqas Mirza simpactontheproductionofottomanillustratedmanuscripts,boththroughthe actualbooksthathebroughtwithhimtoistanbul,andtheottomanrecruitmentofmenof lettersinhisretinue,seezerentanındı, AdditionstoIllustratedManuscriptsinOttoman Workshops, Muqarnas17(2000):147"161,esp Hergeçipgidenözengia&alarını,mesel$topçu#baıyıveCebeci#baı yıosmanlı$yini üzere,zibüziynetileöhretlibirtantanailegeçerkengördü&ünde; $lem#penahp$di$h hazretleribunlarmıdır? diyeaya&akalkıpt$zimvetekr%meylerleridisolak"z#de MehmedHemdem$Çeleb$(henceforthSolakzade),Solak#z$deTarihi,ed.VahidÇabuk, 87

104 completelytakenaback(diliniyuttuveaırıpkaldı). 27 Afterafewdayshadpassed, whenalqasvisitedthetopkapıpalacetomeetthesultan,hewasfeastedlikewise,with greatcareandgenerosity.thegiftspresentedtohimsubsequentlybythesultanwere meanttobematerialagentsoftheprince sintegrationintotheottomancourt.thesegifts consistedoflargeamountsofgoldandsilvercoins,aswellasobjectsandtextiles decoratedorwovenwiththosemetals.inthefollowinglist,eventheposturesofthe slavesgivenasgiftsarelikenedtosilver: [Alqas]reachedhisresidence,andonthesameday,the sultansenthimsacksofgoldandsilver,andnever"before" seenraritiesaskeepsakes,avarietyofgoldandsilver dishes,bundlesofgold"wovenfabrics,androbesofhonor, velvetslinedwithsableandlynxfur,varioussortsoffine garments,woolencloths,chestsfilledwithavarietyof cloths,severalrareandarabianhorseswithjeweled equipment,andgoldandsilverstirrups,goldandbejeweled swords,goldbelts,slaveswithsilverylimbs,andmany othervaluablegiftsandgoods. 28 TheideathatgiftspresentedtotheSafavidprinceinIstanbulweremeantto welcomehimandincorporatehimintotheottomancourtsystemwasmastermindedby thesultanhimself,whoorderedhishigh"rankingofficialstoentertaintheprinceand showhimfavors.accordingtopeçevi,eachhigh"rankingottomanofficialcompliedby 2vols.(Ankara:KültürBakanlı#ı,1989),II:212;IbrahimPeçevi(Peçuyi),T"r#$%iPeçev# (Istanbul,1283/1866"67),I: Solakzade,Tarih,II:212;Peçevi,T"r#$,I: menzillerinerev"neolındılarveolgün&"'ib%isal(anatdanbirk)açk#sealtunve *ur+vebirniceh#bey"n%ı,osm"n#ve"h#vetef"rik)ünev"dirk)ısmındangözler görmediky"dig"rlarvealt+nves#m#nev"n#k)ısmınınenv",indenvebo*çabo*çazer% end+dveeb$il,atlervesam+rveva"k)post#nk)abluhernev,idenk)a(#feveak)mieve çukadanenv",ielbise-%inef#sevehernev,ik)um"veçuk)ap"st"vlarilememl+&and+k)lar vebirk)aç(av#le,arab#ve(ar#f#"tlarvemücevhervemura&&a,ra$tlarvezerr#nves#m#n rik"blarvemura&&a,vezerr#nti*lerveim#rlervebirk)açzerr#nkemer*ulam%ıs#m% end"mves"-irz#%k)ıymettu'afuemti,apeçevi,t"r#$,i:

105 feastingalqasinhisownhome,andbygivinghimexcessiveamountsofgifts. Collectively,thesefavorsweremeanttodemonstratethepoweroftheOttomancourtto thesafavidprinceandhisretinue,aimedatconvincingthemofitssuperioritytothecourt Alqashadcomefrom.Peçevifurthernotesthatbyreceivingallofthesefavorsandgifts (in"m)fromofficialsatvariouslevelsoftheottomanestablishment,theprinceattained wealththathehadneitherseennorheardofinhisentirelife. 29 Historiansalsonotethatthesultantreatedtherenegadeprinceasifhewashis ownson. 30 Suchaffectionwasemphasizedandenhancedbyapresentationofintimate giftstoalqasmirzafromthesultan swife,hürremsultan.thesegiftswerepresentedto thesafavidprincefromthemostpowerfulfemalememberoftheottomancourt,who intervenedindiplomaticnegotiationswhenshepreferredto. 31 Furthermore,theintimate qualityofthegiftsthemselvesisevidentinthegenderedcontextinwhichtheywere produced,andtheprivatecontextinwhichtheyweretobeused.hürrem sgiftsconsisted ofluxurytextiles,includinggoldwovennightgowns,upholsteries,cushions,and comfortersandsheets peculiartowomen (zen"na#ma$%&%).theirtotalvaluewasofa substantialamount,reachingmorethantenthousandgoldcoins.theincessant ceremonialpresentationoflavishgiftstothesafavidprincebysomanymembersofthe 29 Peçevi,T"r'$,I: TSMK,H.1517,499b. 31 Hürremcorrespondedwithforeignrulersandfemalemembersofroyalcourtsandsent themgifts.forhüremsultan sroleinforeigndiplomaticrelations,seelesliepeirce,the# Imperial#Harem:#Women#and#Sovereignty#in#the#Ottoman#Empire(NewYork:Oxford UniversityPress,1993),220"2.Forhercorrespondencewithandgiftsforthekingof Poland,seeSzymonAskenazy, ListyRoxolany, Kwartalnik#Historyczny#X(1896): ,whichgivesthelettersinFrenchtranslation;NejatR.Uçtum, Hü# MihrümahSultanlarınPolonyaKralıII.Zigsmund ayazdıklarımektuplar, Belleten#44, no.176(1980):697"715;galinayermolenko,"roxolana:thegreatestempresseofthe East,"The#Muslim#World95,no.2(2005):

106 courtevidentlyinitiatedapublicdebateinistanbulaboutthenecessityandlegalityof suchexpenditureforashi"iprince. 32 InlinewithAlqasMirza sincorporationintotheottomancourt,hetookactive partinthedesignandexecutionofsüleyman ssecondmilitarycampaignoniranin 1548.Thistime,thesultanwashopingthatthecampaignwouldresultinthelong# awaitedconquestofallofthelandsundersafaviddominion.sincesüleyman sfirst easterncampaigninthe1530s,shahtahmasphadtakenbacktabrizandhadbeen attackinggeorgia.inthemeantime,thesultansignedapeacetreatywiththehabsburgs in1547,thesameyearthatalqastookrefugeattheottomancourt. 33 Havingtemporarily closedthewesternwarfront,süleymanledhisarmiesintoiranin1548,capturingtabriz, VanandalargeportionofGeorgia.Concurrently,theSafavidprincewassentoffto confronthisbrothertahmaspastheottomangovernoroftabrizandshirvan,andasthe next monarchofiran. 34 BackedbyOttomanforces,Alqasandhisretinuehadbeen given accordingtotheirrank avarietyoftents(oak"lar#ve#ob$lar),baldachins, kitchenandpantryequipment,andmanycamels. 35 Duringthecampaign,asthesultan s delegate,alqasattackedvarioussafavidcities,raidinghamadan,qum,kashan.his attackonisfahanwasunsuccessful;andhisactionsfollowingtheseraidsledtohis 32 Peçevi,T$r%&,I:269;Peirce,Imperial#Harem, Withthistreaty,FerdinandagreedtopaySüleymanayearlytributeof30,000ducats. Forthetreatyof1547,seeErnstPetritsch, DerHabsburgisch#Osmanische FriedensvertragdesJahres1547, Mitteilungen#des#Österreichischen#Staatsarchiv38 (1985):49# GülruNecipo$lu,The#Age#of#Sinan:#Architectural#Culturein#the#Ottoman#Empire (LondonandPrinceton,N.J.:ReaktionBooksandPrincetonUniversityPress,2005), Peçevi,T$r%&,I:

107 subsequentfallingoutoffavorwiththeottomancourt,andhiseventualdeathonthe Safavidsidein ButbeforetheOttomansultanlosthopeontheSafavidprince,whenhestill appearedabletotakedownshahtahmasp,alqassentalargesumofbootyconsistingof extremelyvaluableandculturallysignificantobjectstosultansüleyman.theselection andsendingoftheseobjectsattestbothtoalqas smilitarymight,andhisfamiliaritywith andsensitivitytohishomeland sleadingitemsofartisticproduction.apaintinginthe SüleymnnnmedepictsthearrivaloftheseobjectstoAleppo,wherethesultanwas wintering(figure2.8). 37 SimilartootherreceptionscenesintheSüleymnnme,as examinedabove,thegiftshereareabstractedtomultipliedobjectsofthesameshape dominatingthelowerregisterofthepainting.butthistime,ratherthanbeinghiddenin boxes,theyappearasobjectswrappedingoldcloth.furthermore,insteadoftheir presentationtothesultan,thescenecapturesthearrivalandtheofficialrecordingof Alqas sgiftsincourtregisterspriortotheirpresentationtothesultan.asesinatılhas pointedout,thearchitecturalsettingofthescenerecallsthesecondcourtyardofthe TopkapıPalaceinIstanbul,wheregiftsbroughtbyforeignrepresentativeswould ordinarilybetakeninadvance,sothattheywouldberecordedinthisway. 38 Thebooty(orgifts)sentbyAlqasaremeticulouslyrecordedandeachitemis describedandpraisedsohighlyinthesüleymnnmethatclearly,theywereadmired greatlyattheottomancourt.furthermore,immediatelyfollowingthelengthydescription 36 Fleischer, Alq"sM#rza; EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,I:122$4.The Safavidshahalsodetailstheseeventsinhismemoirs,ShahTahmasp,Tazkira$yi" Tahmasp,ed.D.C.Phillott(Calcutta:AsiaticSociety,1912),57$ TSMK,H.1517,498b. 38 Atıl,Süleymanname,

108 ofthesegifts,itisnotedthatthesultanhimselfwasverypleasedwiththem. 39 Arifi beginsthelistwith manyboundcopiesofthequr anbeyondcompare. 40 Allofthese bookswerewrittenbythegreatestmastersofcalligraphy(ustdn),suchasthe legendarythirteenthcenturycalligraphery"q#tandthefourteenthcenturycalligrapher $AbdullahSayrafi. 41 Thevalueofthesebookswasalsosignifiedbytheemeraldsand " #TSMK,H.1517,499b.# 40 nukhust"az"mu#$if"bimujallad%i"bas&"/"ki"hargiz"nad&da"na'&rash"yak&tsmk,h.1517, 498a.AliteraltranslationoftheactualexpressionusedheretodescribetheseQur ans wouldbe: likenoonehadeverseenbefore. Thisexpressionisrepeatedfrequentlyto describeotheritemsthroughoutarifi slist. 41 Indeed,intheTopkapıcollection,twoQur anshavebeenidentifiedashavingbeen copiedbyyaqutal%mustasimi(tsmk,e.h.76,dated1271,andtsmk,e.h.74,dated 1294),DavidJames,The"Master"Scribes:"Qur ans"of"the"11 th "to"14 th "Centuries(New York:NourFoundationinassociationwithAzimuthEditionsandOxfordUniversity Press,1992),59.Twootherworks,whichareparts2and12oftheQur an,areattributed toyaqut(tsmk,e.h.226,andtsmk,e.h.227),sheilar.canby Y"k&#tal% Musta$'im( Encyclopedia"of"Islam,"Second"Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2012). BrillOnline.ForYaqutal%Mustasimi(d.1298),seeCanby Y"k&#tal%Musta$'im(; Q"$( A)mad,Calligraphers"and"Painters,57%8;SheilaS.Blair, YaqutandHisFollowers, Manuscripta"Orientalia9,no.3(2003):39%47;SheilaS.Blair,Islamic"Calligraphy (Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2006),242%50. ThereisaQur ancurrentlyinthetopkapıcollection(tsmk,e.h.49)thatwas copiedby$abdullahsayrafiin1344/5.thismanuscriptwasrefurbishedbetween1554 and1557attheottomanimperialartisticworkshop,bytheesteemedilluminator Karamemi,binderMehmedÇelebi,andthescribeHasan.Forthismanuscript,seeZeren Tanındı, 13%14.YüzyıllardaYazılmı%Kur anlar ınkanunidönemindeyenilenmesi, Topkapı"Sarayı"Müzesi"Yıllık1(1986):140%52;Atıl,Süleymanname,38;Tanındı, AdditionstoIllustratedManuscripts, 157%8.For$AbdullahSayrafi,seeP.P.Soucek, $Abdallah*ayraf( inencyclopedia"iranica,online, A)mad,Calligraphers"and"Painters,61%3. Knownasthe qiblaofscribes (qibla"al%kuttb)amonghiscontemporaries, Yaqutal%MustasimiisprobablythemostesteemedcalligrapherintheIslamicmanuscript tradition,andabdullahsayrafiwastrainedbyoneofhissixfollowers.davidj. Roxburgh, OntheTransmissionandReconstructionofArabicCalligraphy:Ibnal% BawwabandHistory, Studia"Islamica96(2003),42.BothYaqutandSayrafiareamong the SevenMasters, whoseworkshavebeenincludedintheearliestextantpersian calligraphyalbum,compiledfortimur sgrandson,princebaysungur(tsmk,h.2310). ForspecificreferencestothesecalligraphersinPersianalbums,seeWheelerM. Thackston,Album"Prefaces"and"Other"Documents"on"the"History"of"Calligraphers"and" Painters"Studies"and"Sources"in"Islamic"Art"and"Architecture:"Supplements"to"Muqarnas, 92

109 rubiesthatdecoratedtheirbindings.inadditiontothese,therewereothermanuscriptsas well.eventhoughthetitlesofthesebooksarenotspecified,theirpoetry,bindings,color programsofindividualpages,andcalligraphersandpaintersaredescribedandpraisedin somedetail:theywere writtenincourtlyproseandinelegantverse; 42 theyhad pleasantbindings(hammakhush"nam#jild)madeinshirazinthestyleofherat(hamma k#r"ishir#zvashughl"ihir$);theywerecopiedinavarietyofscriptsbymaster calligrapherssuchassultan"al#andanis#; 43 theirpageswereonpinkandyellow background(gulg%nuzard),anddominatedbygoldandlapislazuli(zarul#javard);and theircomposition[was]theworkofmasters[and]alloftheirillustrations[were] executedbybihzad. 44 ThebookssentbyAlqasMirzaarecollectivelypraisedoverand overinthesüleym#nn#meinamannerthatreferencestheactualjewelsonthecoversof thosebooksontheonehand,andontheother,therefinedcalligraphy,illuminationand vol.10(leiden:brill,2001);roxburgh,prefacingtheimage;davidj.roxburgh,the PersianAlbum, :FromDispersaltoCollection(NewHaven:YaleUniversity Press,2005). 42 zadigarkutubnuskhah#"yishar$f/zanasr"idar$vana&m"ila'$ftsmk,h.1517,498a. 43 hammanaskhh#yish#nkhaf$ujal$/bikha''"ian$s$usul'#n(al$tsmk,h.1517,498a. Thescriptsaredescribedhereinfactas hiddenandevident, or complexandplain. ForSultanAliMashadi,seeQ$#A%mad,CalligraphersandPainters,101&3. 44 hammashughl"iust#dta)r$rish#n/hammak#r"ibihz#dta*v$rish#ntsmk,h.1517, 498a.AsDavidRoxburghhaspointedout,inthehistoryofPersianatepainting,thereisa longtraditionthatseeskamalal&dinbihzad(b.circa1450&d.1535/6)asthe quintessentialartist&genius, apainterofmythicalskillinthepersianculturaltradition,as aparagonofexcellence. DavidJ.Roxburgh, Kamalal&DinBihzadandAuthorshipin PersianatePainting, Muqarnas17(2000):119.TheliteratureonBihzadisvast;fora concisebiographyofthispainterandforsomeofthebasicsourcesonhim,seesheila BlairandJonathanBloom, Bihzad, TheGroveEncyclopediaofIslamicArtand Architecture,3vols.(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009),II:286&8. 93

110 paintingstheycontained,whicharelikenedtothosejewels: allofthem[werea]mineof emeralds[andan]oceanofpearls. 45 Theexactquantitiesofneitherthemanuscripts,noranyotheritemsenttoSultan SülyemanbytheSafavidprinceisspecifiedbyArifi.However,itwasimportantforhim toemphasizequantities,forexpressionssuchas morethananyonecanimagine, more thancanbecalculated, likefallleaves, beyondmeasure, or caravansof are repeatedfrequentlyinhislist.thejewelssentbyalqasisagoodcaseinpoint,forthey areacclaimedbothfortheirquantitiesassuch,aswellastheiruniquenessmeasuredby theirluminosity,androundandsmoothtextures.theseemeralds,pearlsandrubiescame onthebacksonfortycamels,placedinlargetrays.moreover,someofthejewels decoratedotherobjects,madeinsilverandgold. InthepaintingdepictingthearrivalofAlqas giftstosüleyman scourt(figure 2.8),alloftheseluminousthings ratherthananyotheritemsentbyalqas were selectedtorepresent,andthereforebetheshowpieceoftheentiregroupofgifts.the coupletswrittenontheupperrightandlowerleftcornersofthepaintingrelatethatthere weresomanygoldenobjects(sing.zarrna)encrustedwithunique,jewels,whichshined likethesunandthestars,thatevenaskilledjewelerwouldnotbeabletoputapriceon them.theprofuseuseofgoldinmanyofalqas giftsisclearfromthedescriptionof otherobjectsaswell.theseincludedgoldenswords,goldenbelts,goldensaddles,golden bridles,andgoldenvessels,suchasbowls,flasksandcups(sing."asht,#ur$%andj$m) hamma&k$n'i&y$q(t&u&dary$'yi&dur&tsmk,h.1517,498a.itisnoteworthythatthe Persianwordforemeraldhere,y$q(t,isalsonameoftherenownedthirteenth"century calligrapherthatsomeofthemanuscriptsaresaidtohavebeencopiedby,asdiscussed above. 46 Someofthesevesselsweresimple(s$da),whileothersweredecoratedwithjewels. 94

111 Alqas sgiftstothesultanalsoincludedagroupofobjectsthatreflectedhistaste forandknowledgeofthefamedproductionsofdifferentlocationswithinandoutside Iran.Theacquisitionoftheseobjectsbytherebelliousprincecouldbetakenalsoasa formofsymbolicdomination,anticipatinghismilitaryconquestofsome,orallofthe placesthathisgiftstothesultancamefrom.bygiftingtheseparticularobjects,alqas probablywantedtocommunicatetothesultanhisdeterminationtobecometheshahof Iran.Arifi saccountsupportsthisidea,forhewrotethatuponreceivingthesegifts, SultanSüleymanwasdelightedthatAlqashadconqueredIran(z[a]p"r#zashbar$Ajam sh%dshud). 47 TheseobjectsareintroducedintheSüleym%nn%meas themostdistinguished giftsofeveryregion (guz"datar"ntu&fa'(ihardiy%r).amongthesewerebowsand three"wingedarrowsfromchach(themoderncityoftashkentinuzbekistan), 48 spears fromkhattinbahrain, 49 shieldsfromchina,gold"threadedsilks(zar(baftandkamkh%) fromyazd,lavishtextilesinblackcolorandsilkbrocades(aks#nandd"b%)fromkashan, colorfullinensandfabricsofacotton"silkmixture(misq%l"andqutn"),feltpillowsfrom Herat(namad(takya),glassesfromJam,camel"loadsoffinemuslinclothstowraparound 47 TSMK,H.1517,499b. 48 EdwardG.Browne,AHistoryofPersianLiteratureunderTartarDomination(A.D. 1265(1502),vol.3ofALiteraryHistoryofPersia,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1920),262;C.EdmundBosworth, #$% inencyclopediairanica,online, 49 FrancisJosephSteingass,AComprehensivePersian(EnglishDictionary,Includingthe ArabicWordsandPhrasestobeMetwithinPersianLiterature(London:Routledge, 1892),466.Thereisdisagreementaboutwhetherthisnamewasusedtorefertoa particularportonthecoastofbahrain,ortothewholecoast.a.grohmann, al"kha&& EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2012).BrillOnline. 95

112 turbans(dastr)fromindia,silkbrocades(d"b)fromchina,textilesfromdabiq, 50 and otherpreciousclothsofsilks,andfur(vl,saif#randkhazz). GiftsofpreciousPersiansilkcarpets, whosebeauty[was]beyondwords, were decoratedwithfigures(mu$avvar).thesecarpetsandasatincanopy(ortent) 51 thatalqas sentaredescribedas worthyofnobility and princely (shhanshah").thiscanopywas sorarethat nokinghadeverseenthelikeofitabovehishead. 52 Itsbordersweremade ofgold"wovensilks,anditwasmeticulouslydecoratedalloverwithfigures,bothonthe insideandoutside.thedistinctivenessofthecanopyisfurtheremphasizedthrough exaggeratedcomparisonsbetweenitsbeautyandconventionalarchetypesofbeautyand wonderinpersianpoetry,suchasthefaceofabride,angelsandthefirmament.for example,arifiwritesthatthecanopywassobeautifulthatthefirmamentfeltinelegant andashamed. 53 Thegiftingofthistentsparkedthememoryofthecompetitivedialoguemediated bytheexchangeofhostileobjects,whichdefinedottoman"safavidrelationsduringthe reignsofshahismailandselimi,asrelatedinthecontemporaryottomanhistorianlutfi Pasha saccount: Previously,Alqashadappointedmanyartistsandartisans, andplacedmanymonumentalworksforshahtahmaspin allthecitieshehadvisited.henowreappropriatedallof these[forsüleyman];andinfact,itisrumoredthatamong theobjectshetookwasatentthatshahismailhadordered tobeembroideredwhilehewasstillalive,butwhichwas 50 DabiqisaregioninnorthernSyria,celebratedforitsmanufactureoftextiles.D. Sourdel, D#bik$ Encyclopedia%of%Islam,%Second%Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill, 2011).BrillOnline. 51 TSMK,H.1517,499a.ThewordusedintheSüleymnnmeiscanopy(chatr),but othersourcesrefertoitasatent. 52 nad"da%bibl&yi%sar%h"ch%shh 53 TSMK,H.1517,499a. 96

113 leftunfinished.alqastookthistentandsentittothe PadshahofRum,SultanSüleyman. 54 Finally,therewerehorsesandotherrareanimalssuchascamelswithredhair, she"camelswhichdiffusedanicefragrance(nqa"#i$nfa),andbactriancamels,all generouslycoveredwithgoldenornamentsandequipment. PleasedashewaswithAlqas gifts,thesultansentbackwiththeenvoygifts (in%m),allofwhichwereveryvaluableandsomeofthempersonal,tobegiventothe prince.theseconsistedoftenthousandgoldcoins,anumberofhisownrobesofhonor (ham$az$khil%t#i$kh&&a"#i$kh'shtan),pricelesstextiles,andgold"wovengarments,which aresaidtobe worthyofkings. 55 SeveralmonthsafterthearrivalofAlqasMirza sgiftstosultansüleyman scourt inaleppo,theprincewastakencaptivebytheforcesofshahtahmasp.disappointed withtheactionsofalqas,andfindingitunsoundtokeepthearmyanylongerintheeast underitsseverewinterconditions, 56 thesultanreturnedtoistanbulindecember1549. EventhoughtherewassignificantOttomanterritorialgain, 57 Süleyman sambitiousgoal ofoverthrowingthesafavidshahandinstatingalqasmirzainhisplaceasanottoman 54 LütfiPaa,Lütfi$Paa$ve$Tevrih#i$(l#i$Osman,ed.KayhanAtik,(Ankara:Kültür Bakanlı#ı,2001),305. "" #"#$%&%'()*+#,'$#-.')*/&%&#0/&%&1#TSMK,H.1517,499b.# 56 Beyondrelativestrengthsoftechnicalandhumancapacitiesofarmies,throughoutthe sixteenthcentury,acrucialmeasureforvictoryinottoman"safavidmilitarystruggles waseachside sabilitytotakeadvantageoftheharshwinterconditionsinthearea surrondingtheshiftingbordersbetweenthetwostates.assourcesfrequentlypointout, thereareplacesinthisareacoveredwithsnowallyearlong,renderingthemaintenance oflargearmiesthereextremelycostlyanddifficult.shahtahmaspoftentookadvantage ofthesegeographicalconditionsbychoosingtoretractandbyrefusingtoconfront Ottomanforces. 57 Allouche,Ottoman#Safavid$Conflict,143.SüleymansentletterstoFerdinandIand CharlesV,detailinghisvictoriesandachievementsinthiscampaign.FahrettinKırzıo#lu, Osmanlılar ın$kafkas#elleri ni$fethi(ankara:türktarihkurumu,1998),203"4. 97

114 vassalwasthereforenotrealizedwiththiscampaign.butthisgoalwaskeptalive, triggeringsüleyman sthirdandfinaloffensiveonthesafavidsin1553. Inthemeantime,numeroussmall"scaleattacksonbothsidesgeneratedan exchangeofenvoys.thecorrespondencebetweensultansüleymanandshahtahmasp intheearly1550sisfullofprovocativeclaims,accusations,andthreats.süleyman,for example,chargestahmaspofblasphemy,andquestionshislegitimacy,manlihoodand militarymight,accusinghimoffailingtoconfronttheottomanarmyonthebattlefield. HealsothreatenstoattackArdabil,whereinistheArdabilShrineComplex,oneofthe principalsitesofsafavidpilgrimage. 58 Bycontrast,Tahmaspgenerallyadoptsa submissivetoneinresponsetotheseclaims,callingthesultanalexanderoftheage, askingformercyandpeace.still,someoftheselettersovertlyengagewithsüleyman s accusations,statingproudlythesuperiorityofthesafavidtwelvershi#iconvictionover thesunnismoftheottomanstate.onesuchletterfirstprovesgod spreferenceof#alias thetruesuccessortotheprophet,andthereaftertheprogenyof#aliandfatima(ahlal" bayt)astherightandlegitimatelineofleadership.directlyrespondingtoottoman accusations,theletterendswithadaringstatementoftheeschatologicalconsequencesof failingtofollowthispath: Onthatdaywhenkingsandbeggarsareoneandeveryone isresolvedtotheirfaith,theywillnotbeashamedtoappear beforehewhodrinksfromthekausarriver #Ali,the friendofgod andherexcellencyf$%ima(sayyidahal" nis#),andtheinnocentimams Andforthatearthly kingdom[i.e.theottomans]whichrejectsthehandof 58 Kırzıo&lu,Kafkas"Elleri,210"38;Solakzade,Tarih,II:225"44;EskandarBegMonshi, Shah$AbbastheGreat,I:124"31;'asanBegR(ml(,A%sanu t"taw#r&kh,ii:161"8. 98

115 # [ahm"sp],#they#will#say#and#know#nothing#of#the#mercy,# grace,#and#the#beneficence#of#$ali. 59 ###### Though#not#always#mediated#by#such#heated#rhetoric,#negotiations#for#peace# continued#during#the#war,#culminating#in#the#first#ottoman%safavid#peace#treaty,#signed#in# 1555.#It#was#during#the#final#stages#of#these#negotiations#that#Shah#Tahmasp#sent#to# Süleyman s#court#the#ottoman#official#sinan#beg,#who#had#been#taken#captive,#together# 59 #Quoted#in#Colin#P.#Mitchell,#ThePracticeofPoliticsinSafavidIran:Power,Religion andrhetoric#(london#and#new#york:#i.b.#tauris,#2009),#81.#mitchell#discusses#the#letter# at#length,#comparing#it#with#another#one#sent#to#the#uzbeks,#which#boasts#similar#claims.# Another#letter#dated#1554#from#Shah#Tahmasp#to#Sultan#Süleyman,#which#Mitchell#calls# the# Belt#Letter, #for# Sh"h#ahm"sp#repeatedly#describes#his#faith#in#terms#of#girding# the#belt#of#love#for#$ali#and#his#family#around#his#heart, #is#probably#the#most#aggressive# and#polemical#letter#ever#written#by#a#safavid#shah#to#an#ottoman#sultan.#shah# Tahmasp s#accusations#in#this#unprecedented#letter#range#from#calling#süleyman# the# chief#priest#of#the#idol#temple,#istanbul, #and#the#entire#group#of#sunni#religious#scholars# idol%worshipping#sodomites, #to#claiming#that#the#ottoman#state#itself#was# [based]#on# Satan,#[complete]#with#lies,#trickery,#fraud,#and#deceit. #Mitchell#also#shows#how# Tahmasp#draws#a#direct#historical#parallel#between#the#injustice#and#pain#that#$Ali#and#his# offspring#experienced#in#their#struggles#with# the#caliphal#oppressors, #and#his#own# struggles#with#the#ottomans.#for#an#analysis#of#the# Belt#Letter, #and#the#likely#influence# of#prominent#shi$i#scholars#favored#by#shah#tahmasp,#most#significantly#$ali#al%karaki# (d.#1534),#see#mitchell,#practiceofpolitics,#esp.#83%8.#for#al%karaki#and#shi$ism#under# Shah#Tahmasp,#see#also#Said#Amir#Arjomand,#TheShadowofGodandtheHiddenImam: Religion,PoliticalOrder,andSocietalChangeinShi"iteIranfromtheBeginningto 1890#(Chicago#and#London:#University#of#Chicago#Press,#1986);#Said#Amir#Arjomand,# Two#Decrees#of#Shah#Tahmasp#Concerning#Statecraft#and#the#Authority#of#Shaykh#$Ali# al%karaki, #in#authorityandpoliticalcultureinshi"ism,#ed.#said#amir#arjomand# (Albany:#State#University#of#New#York#Press,#1988),#250%62;#Andrew#J.#Newman,# The# Myth#of#the#Clerical#Migration#to#Safawid#Iran:#Arab#Shi$ite#Opposition#to#Ali#al%Karaki# and#safawid#shi$ism, #DieWeltdesIslams,#33#(1993):#66%112;#Rosemary#Stanfield# Johnson,# Sunni#Survival#in#Safavid#Iran:#Anti%Sunni#Activities#during#the#Reign#of# Tahmasp#I, #IranianStudies#27,#no.#1%4#(1994):#123%133;#Devin#J.#Stewart,# Notes#on#the# Migration#of#$&mil'#Scholars#to#Safavid#Iran, #JournalofNearEasternStudies,#55,#no.#2# (1996):#81%103;#Rula#Abisaab,#ConvertingPersia:ReligionandPowerintheSafavid Empire#(London#and#New#York:#I.B.#Tauris,#2004).# 99

116 withthesafavidenvoysh"hq#l$beg. 60 ApaintingintheSüleymnnmeillustratesthe sultan saudiencewiththesafavidenvoyinseptember1554atcampnearerzurum (Figure2.9). 61 Anygiftsthattheenvoymighthavebroughtarenotincludedhere,making theenvoythesinglerepresentativeandmediatoroftheshah.thetextemphasizesshah Tahmasp sfeelingsofregretandapologiestothesultan,statedinhisletterand articulatedbyhisenvoy.shahquli,whoisdepictedasanoldmaninthepainting,andis fullyprostrate,withhishandsplacedgentlyonthecornerofsüleyman sgreatcanopy. AsinthefirstpaintingofaSafavidenvoyencounteringthesultan(Figure2.3),heretoo, thetextcommunicateswiththeimageinconveyingtheideathatthecomplete submissivenessoftheenvoyismeanttobeunderstoodasanextension,orevenreflection ofshahtahmasp sobediencetothesultan,andhispleaforforgiveness.theenvoysays: OhshahIfourcrimesareboundless,yourforgivenessandbeneficenceisahundred timesthat 62 WithSüleyman sfavorableresponse,officialpeacenegotiationsbegan.the sultanalsogavetheenvoymanygiftsandfavors(bas"#kard#a$sn#va#bakhsh"d#ml). ArifimentionsthenthatPrinceSelim,thefutureOttomansultan,whowaspassingbythe imperialcamp,additionallygavetheenvoyandhisretinue uniquethings (ganj%i#nb). 63 InJune1555,theTreatyofAmasyawassigned,puttinganendtoOttoman% Safavidmilitaryoffensives. 64 Asisoftennoted,thistreatywastothebenefitofboth 60 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah#&Abbas#the#Great,I:130;Kırzıo&lu,Kafkas%Elleri,238%9; RemziKılıç,XVI.#ve#XVII.#Yüzyıllarda#Osmanlı%Iran#Siyasi#Antlamaları(Istanbul:Tez Yayınları,2001), TSMK,H.1517,600a. 62 ki#shh#agar#jarm%i#m#b"$add#[a]st#/#tur#&afv#u#a$sn#yak"#dar#'ad#[a]sttsmk, H.1517,600a.FortheletterpresentedbyShahquli,seeKılıç,Osmanlı%Iran, TSMK,H.1517,600b. 64 A.EkberDiyanet,Ilk#Osmanlı%Iran#Anlaması#(1555#Amasya#Musalahası)(Istanbul: EdebiyatFakültesiBasımevi,1971). 100

117 sides,foritprovidedpoliticalstabilityandstoppedbloodshedinanatolia.eventhough theottomanaspirationofterminatingsafavidruleiniranwasnotrealized,thetreaty shouldbeseenasanideologicalvictoryfortheottomansultan,forthefirstiteminthe treaty,asrecordedbyottomansources,stipulatesthattahmasppromisestoendtheritual cursingofthefirstthreerightlyguidedcaliphs,andtheprophet swifeaisha. 65 AnotheriteminthetreatyrespondstoTahmasp srequestfromthesultanfor permissionandapromiseofsafetravelforsafavidpilgrimstomeccaandmedina. 66 Withthisitem,thesultanguaranteesthattheholylandsofIslamareopento Muslims (umm"müslim#n). 67 WithinthecorpusofOttomanletterssenttotheSafavidcourtprior tothesigningofthetreaty,theissueofwhetherornotthesafavidsweremuslimsisa prominentone.oneletterwrittenbythegrandvizierrüstempasha,forexample,fiercely arguesthat everyoneiniran,includingthearmyandthesubjects,areinfidels. 68 This letterthenpointsoutthefatwas(judicialrulingsissuedbyareligiousscholar), 69 which declaredthatitislicittoseizesafavidpropertyandshedtheirblood,forwhoever disrespectstheonenessofgodandtheprophethood(nubuvvat)oftheprophetisan 65 ForSafavidritualcursing,thewaysinwhichitwasinstitutionalizedduringthereignof ShahTahmasp,anditsimportancewithinthecontextofSafavid"OttomanandSafavid" Uzbekrivalry,seeMitchell,Practice"of"Politics,77"9;StanfieldJohnson, Anti"Sunni Activities; KathrynBabayan,Mystics,"Monarchs,"and"Messiahs:"Cultural"Landscapes"of" Early"Modern"Iran"(Cambridge:HarvardMiddleEasternMonographs,2003),222"4; RosemaryStanfield"Johnson, TheTabarra#iyanandtheEarlySafavids, Iranian"Studies 37,no.1(2004):47" Acopyoftheshah sletterisrecordedinpeçevi,t$r#%,i:329"36;feridunahmedbeg, Müne&$tü s'sel$(#n,2vols.(istanbul,1274"5),i:620"3;tsmk,h.1517,603b"604b. 67 Kırzıo$lu,Kafkas'Elleri,244,quotingthetreatyasrecordedbytheOttomanofficial andchroniclercelalzademustafa(d.1567).fortheamasyapeacetreaty,seealsokılıç, Osmanlı'Iran,71"8. 68 vil$yet'i"&acemde"olan"sip$h#den"ve"re&$y$dan"cümlesi"k$firlerdürpeçevi,t$r#%,i: BruceMasters, Fatwa(fetva),

118 infidel. 70 AlsocitingtheQur an,thegrandvizierarguesthatthepunishmentforsuchsin willsurelybehell.againstthisbackground,thegrantingofpermissionforsafavid pilgrimstogoonthehajjshouldbeseenasanideologialvictoryforshahtahmasp,who frequentlystatedinhisownletterstothesultanthatheandthepeoplelivingunderhis rulearemuslims,andpointedoutthefutilityofmuslimskillingeachotherduring Ottoman"Safavidwars. ThegiftsthatShahTahmaspsentwithhisenvoyFarrukhz#dBeg 71 forthe conclusionofpeacecanalsobereadinthislight,asobjectsthatdemandrecognitionof ShahTahmasp sidentity.acopyofthequr anamongthesegiftsisparticularly significant,asnotedbyogierghiselindebusbecq,whowasalsoinamasyain1555, leadingahabsburgdelegation,theretoconcludepeacewiththeottomans.busbecq writes: Onthe10 th ofmay,thepersianambassadorcameto Amasia,andbroughtwithhimrichandgallantPresents,as manychoicesortsofhangings,babyloniantents, curiouslywroughtwithinwithmanysortsofneedle"work, gallanthorse"trappings,andsaddles,scymitersmadeat Damascus,whosehandleswerestuddedwithJewels,and shieldsofcuriousworkmanship;butthatwhichexceeded themall,wasthealcoran,sotheycallthebookcontaining theritesandceremoniesoftheirreligion,whichthey 70 ForthefamousfatwasissuedbytheOttomanjurist(shaykhal"Islam)Ebusuudonthe Safavids,seeM.Ertu$rulDüzda$eyhülislamEbussuudEfendiFetvalarıI"ı#ında16. AsırTürkHayatı(Istanbul:Enderun,1972);ColinImber,Ebu s"su ud:theislamic LegalTradition(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1997). 71 Q#%A&madQumm%,Khul$satal"tav$r%kh,ed.IhsanIshraqi,2vols.(Tehran,1359),I: 376.AseventeenthcenturySafavidcourtchronicler,Faz'l%Khuz#n%recallsthedispatchof FarrukhzadBegasaresponsetoSultanSüleyman srequestforpeacein1553"4.simin Abrahams,"AHistoriographicalStudyandAnnotatedTranslationofVolume2ofAfz#l al"tav#rikhbyfaz'l%kh(z#n%al"isf#h#n% (Ph.D.dissertation,EdinburghUniversity, 1999),133"4. 102

119 fancymahometcompos dbydivineinspiration,andwhich isaccountedthemostnoblepresentofall. 72 ThisdistinctionoftheQur an,whichwasnotlostonbusbecq,shouldbeseenas materialproofoftahmasp seffortforrecognitionasamuslimruler. 73 Thebook s acceptancebythesultan,togetherwithhisgrantingofpermissiontosafavidpilgrimsto visittheholyplacesofthefaithindicateshisimplicitacknowledgmentofthesafavid shahandhissubjectsastruemuslims. Otherpresentssentbytheshah,asrecordedbyBusbecq,wereextravagant.Their selectionasagroupaccordedwiththegift"givingpracticesatthehighestechelonsof boththeottomanandthesafavidcourts.furthermore,aswehaveseen,similaritems weregiftedtotheottomansultanbyshahtahmasp srebelliousbrotheralqasmirza, justafewyearsago.inthesüleymnnme,tahmasp sgiftsarecollectivelydescribedas manygiftsfitforaking (bas"#had"ya#u#tu$fa%yi#shhvr). 74 Similartothegiftsbrought tothesultanbyshahqulilessthanayearearlier,thesearetightlytiedinthemanuscriptto theapologiesthatshahtahmaspissaidtohaveofferedthesultan.arifiwritesthatthese giftsweresovaluablethatthetreasuryhadtobeemptiedforeachandeveryone.while hethenmentionsatent,variouskindsofprecioustextiles,andjewels,thereisno referencetoacopyofthequr ansentbytahmasphere. 75 Thismightbeadeliberate omission,todisguisethesultan sreceivingoftheholybookofislamfromtheshah, whomhechargedwithheresy. 72 Busbequius,Travels#into#Turkey, Thelettersentbyshahin1555statesthisquiteclearlysaying,forexample,thatboth rulersfollowthesamereligion(jud#n"st#az#hamdigar#d"n%i#m).tsmk,h.1517,604a. Forthisletter,seealsoDiyanet,Ilk#Osmanlı%Iran,5"8. 74 TSMK,H.1517,602a. 75 TSMK,H.1517,602b. 103

120 TheceremonialorderinthepaintingdepictingFarrukhzadBeg saudiencewith SultanSüleymaninAmasya(Figure2.10) 76 takesitscuefromotherreceptionscenesin thesüleymnnnmethatwehaveexamined,particularlythosetakingplaceinthe ChamberofPetitionsattheTopkapıPalace.Theformalnatureofthereceptionis highlightedbythegreatgoldthronethatthesultansitsin,andtheorderly,respectful gesturesofthecourtiersparticipatinginthescene.donnedinottomanrobesofhonor, theenvoystandsnearthethrone,extendingwithbothhandsthelettersentbytheshah. SimilartothefirstpaintingofaSafavidenvoyencounteringthesultan(Figure2.3),the giftsherearepushedawayfromthemainsceneintheupperleft,confinedinasmall registerinthelowerleft,inwhichfourattendantsholdsmallboxesintheirhands. Representedassuch,theSafavidgiftslookmorelikeanafterthoughtinthepainting, distancedhorizontallyandverticallyfromthesultan,andonceagaindiminishedtobare portableboxes.the apologies offeredbyshahtahmasp,expressedbyhisenvoy, therefore,isgivenprecedencehereoverthenatureofthegiftssohighlyadmiredby BucbecqandArifialike.Theenvoy swordsofpraisetothesultanarenotedinthe inscriptionsonthelowerleftcornerofthepainting: Youarethekingoftheworld 77 In thisconstruction,thesultan sagreementtothepeaceisduetohisforgivingnatureand justice,asdeclaredinwhatappearstobeanarchitecturalinscriptiononthetopright corner.thismessagewritteninwhitelettersonabluebackgroundreads: Thesultan,the just (al"sul#n$al"%dil). TheOttoman"Safavidpeacetreatysignedin1555wasrespectedbybothsides untilthebreakoutofwaronceagainin1578.ottomansandsafavidsdidnotfightandin 76 TSMK,H.1517,603a. 77 chan&n$guft$shh$tuy&$dar$jihn 104

121 generalmaintainedgoodrelationsastheyagreedintheamasyatreaty.therewas, however,anisolatedincidentthattemporarilyheightenedtensionbetweenthetwocourts: theflightoftherebelliousprincebayezidtoshahtahmasp scourtin1559.thisevent initiatedaseriesofreciprocaldiplomaticmissionsgovernedbynewrulesofetiquette. NowthatShahTahmaspheldapotentialheirtotheOttomanthrone,SultanSüleyman firstpressuredtahmaspaboutthereleaseofhisson,threateninghimwithamilitary attack,whichwouldjeopardizetheamasyapeacetreaty.later,thesultanadopteda muchmoregenialtoneinhiscorrespondencewiththeshah,dispatchingalsomanygifts, anactthathewouldnothavedoneotherwise.inresponse,whilethesafavidshahfirst askedthesultantoforgivehisson,later,heenteredintoanegotiation,askingforthe FortressofKars(Qars)andtheadministrativeresponsibiltiesoftheShi"isanctuariesin NajafandKarbalainIraq.WiththeescapeofBayezid,thesultan#to#be,PrinceSelim, alsobegantocorrespondwiththeshahevenbeforehewasofficiallyenthroned.after twoyearsofongoingnegotiations,inreturnforalargesumofcashandsometerritorial concessions,shahtahmaspagreedtohandtheottomanprinceovertoadelegationsent bysüleymantohiscourtinqazvin.bytheorderofthesultan,theseottomanofficials immediatelyexecutedbayezidandhisfoursons. 78 Aswewillseebelow,thenext 78 FortheBayezidaffair,hisarrivalinIran,hiscorrespondencewithhisfather,andhis brotherselim sinvolvementinthematter,seeeskandarbegmonshi,shah"abbasthe Great,I:166#73;$asanBegR%ml%,A#sanu t$taw%r&kh,ii:178#80,182;shahtahmasp, Tazkira$yiTahmasp,74#81;erafettinTuran, ehz&debayezid inbabasıkanunisultan Süleyman agönderdi'imektuplar, TarihVesikaları1(1955):118#27;erafettinTuran, K%n'n& nino(luehz%debayezidvak ası(ankara:türktarihkurumu,1961;reprint, KanuniSüleymanDönemiTahtKavgaları,Ankara:Bilgi,1997);Ça'atayM.Uluçay, Selim#BayezidMücadelesi, TarihVesikaları3,no.18(1961):374#87;CahitÖztelli, K&n%n( nino'luehz&debayezid inbabasınasonmektubu,inviii.türktarih Kongresi(Ankara11$15Ekim1976)KongreyeSunulanBildiriler,2vols.(Ankara:Türk TarihKurumu,1981),II:1105#1112;FilizKılıç,ehz%deBayezid%h&HayatıveD&v%nı 105

122 OttomanillustratedshahnamaincludesapaintingofanambassadorpresentingShah Tahmasp sgiftstosultansüleymanduringthebayezidaffair. afern"me(bookofvictory):anewimageforthesultantomatchanew ModeofRepresentationforSafavidGifts Theafern"me(BookofVictory),ortheTetimme#i$A%v"l#i$Sul&"n$Süleym"n'"n (AppendixtotheEventsofSultanSüleyman) 79 isthefirstottomanillustratedshahnama, completedafterthesüleym"nn"me,inwhichthereisapaintingofasafavidambassador presentinggiftstothesultan.completedin1578"9,thismanuscriptwaswrittenby SeyyidLokman(d.1601) 80 anditstwentysixpaintingswereexecutedbyagroupof artistsworkingunderthedirectionofnakkaosman.itisthoughttobeacontinuationof Arifi ssüleym"nn"me,foritdetailstheeventsofthelatterpartofsultansüleyman s reign,between1559and Infact,thetextandtheillustrationsfocusprimarilyon (Ankara:KültürBakanlı#ı,2000);ColinP.Mitchell, AmIMyBrother skeeper? NegotiatingCorporateSovereigntyandDivineAbsolutisminSixteenth"CenturyTurco" IranianPolitics, innew$perspectives$on$safavid$iran:$empire$and$society,ed.colinp. Mitchell(LondonandNewYork,Routledge,2011),33" ChesterBeattyLibrary(HereafterCBL),T.413.VladimirMinorskyandJ.V.S. Wilkinson,The$Chester$Beatty$Library:$A$Catalogue$of$the$Turkish$Manuscripts$and$ Miniatures(Dublin:Hodges&Figgis,1958),19"21.Thismanuscriptisalsooften referredtoasthet"ri(#i$sul&"n$süleym"n$'"n(historyofsultansüleyman). "# $ForSeyyidLokman,seeAhmetRefik, Bizde%ehnamecilik,SeyyidLokman,ve Halefleri, Yeni$Mecmua9(1917):169"73;BekirKütüko#lu, %ehnamecilokman, in Prof.$Dr.$Bekir$Kütüko)lu na$arma)an,ed.nebahatkütüko#lu(istanbul:edebiyat FakültesiBasımevi,1991),39"48;EmineFetvacı, OfficeoftheOttomanCourt Historian, instudies$on$istanbul$and$beyond:$the$freely$papers$volume$1,ed.robert G.Ousterhout(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaMuseumofArchaeologyand Anthropology,2007),7"21;HilalKazan, FarklıAçıdanbirBakıla%ehnameciSeyyid Lokman ınsarayiçinhazırladı#ıeserler, Osmanlı$Aratırmaları35(2010):117"36.$ 81 Atıl,Süleymanname,53;IstvánNyitrai, RenderingHistoryTopical:OneAspectofa 16 th CenturyPersianHistoricalEpicintheOttomanEmpire, Acta$Orientalia$Academiae$ Scientiarum$Hungaricae48,no.1"2(1995):109"

123 Süleyman slastcampaigntoszigetvárinhungary,hisdeaththere,andtheevents leadingtotheaccessionofhissonselim. 82 Asingle"pagepaintingintheafern"medepictsthesultan saudiencewitha SafavidambassadorduringhisnegotiationswiththeshahaboutthereleaseofPrince Bayezid(Figure2.11). 83 Theconstructionofthescenefollowspreviouspaintingsinthe Süleym"nn"meaboutthesultan saudienceswithforeignenvoys,inparticularenvoys comingfromiran.thesultansitsinahigh,goldthronewithtwocourtattendantsonone side,andthegrandvizierandothervizierslinedupontheother,allstandingupwiththeir handsclenchedinfrontofthem,signalingtheformalityoftheceremony. Thispaintingdepartsfrompreviousmodels,nevertheless,foritconveysthe formalityoftheceremony,thegreatnessofthesultan,andthesubservienceofthe ambassadormuchmoreforcefully.whileinthisscenethethronesüleymansitsin closelyresemblesthoseinthesüleym"nn"me,here,itisextremelylargeandspacious, givingthesultanunprecedentedprominence.theuniformsofthetwopagesstanding nexttothethroneontheright,thesilahdar(sword"bearer)andtherikabdar(stirrup" holder),echoandhighlightthethrone,fortheequipmenttheyhold,thebeltsandthehats theywearhavegold"tones.fittingly,intheottomanillustratedshahnamascompleted duringthelastdecadesofthesixteenthcentury,theornamentanduniformsofofficialsof thecourt,attendants,andsoldiersarepraisedasmuchas,orsometimesmorethanthe regaliaofthesultanhimselfincomparisonwiththesüleym"nn"me.moreover,even thoughthesubservientposetheenvoyadoptsisastrongiconographicthreadthatbinds 82 Foraninterpretationofsuchdistributionanditsconnectiontotheinfluenceofthe grandviziersokollumehmedpasha,seefetvacı, VizierstoEunuchs, 115" CBL,T.413,14b. 107

124 thesüleymnnmewiththenewottomanshahnamas,hereheismadetobowdown completelywiththehelpoftwoottomancourtiers,whograbhimunderhisarmstopush himdown. InthepreviouspaintingswehaveexaminedfromtheSüleymnnme,gifts receivedbysüleymanareeitherabsent,ortheydonottakepartinthemainscene, pushedawayfromthesultanandtheenvoy,confinedinseparateregisters.thisvisual marginalizationisnotmatchedhoweverinthetext,foraswehaveseen,arifiitemizes andpraisesthesafavidgiftspresentedtothesultaninabombasticmannerinthe Süleymnnme.Inthe"afernme,thepaintersofthescenemakereferencetotheorderly wayinwhichambassadorialgiftsweredisplayedandparadedatthetopkapıpalace.but departingfromthemodeoftheirrepresentationinthesüleymnnme,herethegiftsare fullyintegratedintothemainscene,alignedverticallywiththesultanandtheenvoy. Furthermore,ratherthanbeingconfinedinbareboxesorwrappedingold"embroidered textiles,theyarerepresentedasrealobjects.thefirstgiftheldbyagatekeeper(kapıcıin Turkish,bavvbinPersian)atthefarrightappearstobeaboundmanuscript,andthe remaininggiftsareshownashuntingbirdsheldbyeightgatekeepers.also,bycontrast withthewayinwhichsafavidgiftsaredescribedinthesüleymnnme,the"afernme s textneitherspellsoutthecontentsofthegiftsatlength,norpraisesthemassuchinterms oftheirrarityandvalue,andthegreatnumbersinwhichtheycame. ThevisualrepresentationofSafavidgiftsexpandsthiswayinOttoman shahnamaswithintwogenerations.asweturntootherpaintingsofsafavidgiftsbeing presentedtoottomanssultans,wewillseethatanewmannerofdepictingthesegifts emerges,whichrefersbacktothesetupestablishedbytheartistsofthe"afernmeby 108

125 quotingandexpandingthispainting.theemergenceofthisnewmodecoincideswitha significantchangeinthevarietyofrolesassumedbythesultan,andthefrequencywith whichheappearsintheofficialshahnama.asnotedabove,inthesüleymnnme,the sultanappearsastheableheadandleaderofasophisticated,powerfulstate.hegoes hunting,executesjustice,leadshisarmiesintowar,directshiscommanders,receives membersofhisfamilyandrepresentativesofforeignrulers.süleyman ssonand grandsonleftthecapitalrarely,whichdemandedareformationofthesultan simageasa militaryleader.inthenewshahnamas,thereareaconsiderablenumberofpaintingsin whichhereceivesforeignambassadors.inthesepaintings,giftsplayanimperativerole, highlightingthesultan snewimageasarulerwhoclaimsworlddominionduetohis abilitytoreceivemagnificentgiftssentbyother,or lesser, rulersoftheworld. ehnme"i#sel$m#%n(bookofkingsofsultanselim) Theehnme"i#Sel$m#%n(ShahnamaofSultanSelim), 84 dated1581,isthe secondillustratedshahnama"styleottomanchroniclewrittenbyseyyidlokman.similar tothe&afernme,itsfortyfourpaintingswereexecutedbyateamofartistsledby NakkaOsman,andAli. 85 Eventhoughthenumberofrolesassumedbythesultaninthe ehnme"i#sel$m#%nissignificantlyfewerwhencomparedwithsüleyman s "# $TSMK,A.3595.FehmiEdhemKaratay,Topkapı#Sarayı#Müzesi#Kütüphanesi#Farsça# Yazmalar#Katalo'u(Istanbul:TopkapıSarayıMüzesi,1961),273;FilizÇa#man, %ehname"iselimhanveminyatürleri, Sanat#Tarihi#Yıllı'ı5(1972"3):411"42;Ba#cı etal.,osmanlı#resim#sanatı(istanbul:kültürveturizmbakanlı#ı,2006),121"3;emine Fetvacı, TheProductionofthe%ehn$me"iSel%m&$n, Muqarnas26(2009):263" Kazan, %ehnameciseyyidlokman,

126 shahnama, 86 hisportrayalastheperpetratorofjusticeremainsasanimportantone.here, SelimIIisfirstshownasthedispenserofjusticenotbyexecutingitactivelyhimself,but bycheckingonhisimperialcouncil,whichhehaddelegatedwiththismission.thefew remaningpaintingsinwhichthesultanmakesanappearanceareaboutsignificant historicaleventsofhisreign,suchashisaccessiontothethrone,andhismeetingswith histopofficials. Inoneotherpainting,ShahTahmasp sgiftsarebeingdisplayedbeforeselimiiin 1568(Figure2.12). 87 Thisdouble"spreadis,then,theonlyimagewherethesultanis showninanysortofcontactwiththeworldoutsidehiscourt.significantly,ittakesplace athiscourtinsidethepalaceinedirne.here,thepaintersmusthaveusedtheafern"me paintingasamodel,fortheyhavedesignedasceneontheleftsideofthecomposition thatcloselyemulatesthespatialarrangementoftheafern"mepainting(figure2.11):the sultansitsinasimilar thoughsmaller throneatthetoprightcornerwiththe grandvizierandtheothervizierstandingbyhisside,theenvoyisbroughtinfrontofhim bytwoattendantswhoforcehimtobowhim, 88 andshahtahmasp sgiftsareheldby gatekeeperswhostandinahorizontallinethatrunsacrossthelowerregisterofthe image.thislonglineofgatekeepersholdinggiftscontinuesontotherighthalfofthe composition,providingcontinuitybetweenthetwopages.attheupperregisteroftheleft page,othergiftsarespreadovertheground,guardedbymoregatekeepers.ottoman 86 Inthismanuscript,onlysixpaintingsdepictthesultan.Fetvacı, ehn#me"isel$m %#n, TSMK,A.3595,53b"54a. 88 OttomanhistorianandbureacratFeridunAhmedBeginhisNüzhetü l#a$b"r%der%sefer# i%s&getv"rdescribesthiscustominhisaccountoftheambssador saudiencewiththe sultan:k'apuc&baılar&%mü"rileyh%""h%k(l&%sul)"nıñ%k'olluk'*ına%girüb%ad"b#ı%ta+,&m%ü% tekr&m%birle%p"ye-#i%ser&r#i%gerd(n%na,&re%getürübtsmk,h.1339,245a. 110

127 officialsandmembersofthesafaviddelegationalsostandby,waitingfortheenvoytobe dismissed.whileinthesüleymnnme,ambassadorialgifts whendepicted were confinedinseparateregisters,boththe"afernmeandtheehnme#i$sel%m$&n paintingsintegrategiftsfullyintothemainactioninthescene.also,similartothe "afernme,thecontentsofthegiftsarespelledout,whichrevealseachitem,andvisually underscoresthevarietyofobjectssentbytheshah. InthenewmodeofdisplayingSafavidgifts,newideasofcontrolandorder governboththeposetakenbytheenvoyandthemannerinwhichsafavidgiftsare displayed.assuch,thegiftsareorganizedanddisplayedbasedonahierarchicalorder. AsLaleUluçhaspointedout,theitemsdeemedmostimportantprecedeallelseandare closesttothesultan. 89 ThesearemanuscriptssentbyShahTahmasp,whichincludeda copyofthequr an,andacopyoftheshahnamacompletedforthelibraryofshah Tahmasphimself. 90 Inthepainting,othergiftsdisplayedarecourtlyobjectsmadeofgold, heronfeathersusedtodecoratetheturbansofthesultanandhigh"rankingofficialsofthe court.thefeathersarefollowedbywhatappearinthepaintingaslongrectangularblocks indifferentcolors.thesemustrepresentrolledupcarpetsortextilessentbytheshah.at theupperleftsideofthecompositionareagoldendome,twocolumnsingoldandblue, twoothersinred,andtwopairsofdoors.allofthesemustbedisassembledpiecesofthe tent,whichwasamongthisgroupofgifts. 89 LaleUluç,Turkman$Governors,$Shiraz$Artisans,$and$Ottoman$Collectors:$Sixteenth$ Century$Shiraz$Manuscripts(Istanbul:#BankasıKültürYayınları,2006),469" ve$h$'ahmasbıñ$kendü$dına$den%lmü"$ik%yüz$ell%$(ok)*z$yirde$ta+v%r$mecl%s$olınmu"$ mura++a,$cildle$bir$k)ı(,a$"hnmetsmk,h.1339,243a.foramoredetaileddiscussion ofthegiftingofthesetwoitems,seethefirstchapter. 111

128 Thismanneroforderlydisplayinthepaintingisaccompaniedbythetextual narrativewhichidentifythegifts,referredtoastribute(pishkash).bycontrastwiththe Süleymnnme,however,SeyyidLokmanlimitstheuseofhyperboleasarhetorical devicewhendescribingtahmasp sgifts.beforetheauthorbeginstoenumeratethem,he saysthattheywerecollectively ofeveryappropriatesort,beautifulandpleasing 91 Then,Lokmanusessuccinctexpressionsandsimpleadjectivestointroduceeachgift.For example,thefirstitemis [an]illuminatedqur an,withjeweledbinding,ofgreat value. 92 Otheritems,suchasthemanuscriptsarereferredtoas appropriate (maqb"l), andthepersiantextilesas withoutcompare (b#$qiys). 93 ThisnewmodeofvisualandtextualdisplayofSafavidgiftssurfacesspecifically intheottomanillustratedshahnamasdatingfrom1579andafter.adifferentchronicle, completedwithinayearafterthepresentationofshahtahmasp sgiftsin1568isferidun AhmedBeg snüzhetü l$esrri l$a%br&der&sefer$i&s#getvr,(chronicleoftheszigetvár Campaign).ThisbookincludesapaintingoftheSafavidambassador sreceptionwith SelimIIinEdirne(Figure2.13). 94 Thepaintingdepictsthesultanandtheviziersbeside himinsimilarfashiontothesüleymnnme.eventhougharchitecturaldetailsshow somevariation,thespatialarragementofthepeopleinthesceneconformstoestablished models.differently,thestrictcontrolofcourtceremonialimposedonthesafavid delegationisaccentuatedherethroughtheenvoy spose,whichisforcedonhimbytwo Ottomanofficials.Atthebottomleftcorner,weseeaSafavidofficial(withtwomore behindhim),alsoheldonhisarmsbyottomanofficialsoneitherside.whatisentirely 91 z[a]&har&jins$i&maqb"l&z#b&u&kh"shtsmk,a.3595,53b. 92 muzahhab&kalm$i&qad#m&bijild$i&mura''a(&biqadr$i&(a)#m&tsmk,a.3595,54a. 93 TSMK,A.3595,54a"55b. 94 TSMK,H.1339,244b. 112

129 absentfromthescenearethemagnificentgiftssentbythesafavidshah.inthetext, however,feridunbegitemizestahmasp sgifts.thisauthoralsofreelyexpressedhis doubtsaboutthemissionofthisembassyandhispersonalconvictionsaboutsafavidsin general,forhetitlesthissection thecuriousstateandthestrangemanners (hey"t#ı$ %ac&be$ve$'ıy"fet#i$(ar&belerin)ofthesafaviddelegation.whenreferringtothe ambassadoroftheshah,hiscommentsbecomeopenlydemeaning,ashereferstohimas demon"mannered (d&v#s&ret)and impostor"faced (decc"l#)*ret). ehin"ehnme(bookofthekingofkings)vol.1 Ottomanillustratedshahnamasthatweconsiderherewerecompletedduringthe reignofsultanmuradiiiwhocametopowerin1574.eventhoughthesafavidand Ottomanstateswereatpeaceatthattime,theSafavidshahwasnotamongthosekings whoweresentimperialnoticesoftheenthronementofthenewsultan. 95 Accordingto diplomaticcourtesy,allofthosereceivingofficialletterswereexpectedtosendenvoysto congratulatetheenthronement,andtorenewpeaceagreementsmadepreviously.though uninvited,shahtahmaspdidsendanambassadorwithalargeretinuebearingmany valuablegiftsforthesultanin1576.soonafterthearrivalofthisembassy,shah Tahmaspdied,whichbeganaperiodinSafavidhistorycharacterizedbyweakcentral authorityandinternalunrest.takingadvantageofthesituation,theottomananduzbek statessoondecidedtowagewaroniran,whichleftthecountryunderattackbothonthe eastandwest.after1578,whentheottoman"safavidwarbegan,twootherembassies fromiranarrivedinistanbul:thefirstonein1580,chargedwiththemissionofrequesting 95 BekirKütüko#lu,"ahTahmasb'ınIII.Murad'aCül$sTebriki,"inVekayi'nüvis$ Makaleler(Istanbul:IstanbulFetihCemiyeti,1994),375"

130 peace,andin1582forthecircumcisioncelebrationofmuradiii ssonandfuturesultan princemehmed.paintingsdepictingthesethreeembassiesarefoundinthetwo"volume ehin"ehnme(bookofthekingofkings),whichchroniclesthereignofmuradiii.we willexaminethesepaintingstotracethedevelopmentofthenewpictorialmodeof depictingsafavidgifts,andtoinvestigatehowthisrelatestothevisualimageofthe sultan. MuradIII sshahnama,ortheehin"ehnme 96 waspreparedintwoillustrated volumes.likethe"afernmeandtheehnme#i$sel%m$&n,itstextwaswrittenin PersianversebytheOttomanshahnama"composer("ehnmeciorshahnamag'y)Seyyid Lokman,anditsfiftyeightpaintingsweredonebythehandofateamoftwentytwo artists,onceagainledbynakkaosman. 97 Thefirstvolume,dated1581,chroniclesthe eventsofthefirstpartofmuradiii sreign,between1574and1581,whenhereceived thelastenvoytobesenttoistanbulbyshahtahmaspin1576. Thebookopenswiththestoryofthenewsultan saccession.thesultanispraised inthetextasaworldemperorwhoholdsthispositionthroughhisactivepowerof conquestbywayofhisvictoriousarmy.butwhatismoreimportanthereisthatthistitle isdefinedbothvisuallyandtextuallybyhimreceivinggifts,bootyandtributefromall overtheworld: theworldrejoiceduponhis[muradiii's]accession theearthbecamehiswell"cultivatedgarden whereeverhisfarmn$goes subjects(farmnbari)offerexclusivegiftsastribute(pishkash) wheneverhisroyaldecree(yarligh)arrivesbeforethetatar[khân] 96 IstanbulUniversityLibrary(HereafterIUK),F.1404.Formoreonthismanuscript,see HüsamettinAksu, SultanIII.Murad"ehinehnamesi, Sanat$Tarihi$Yıllı(ı9"10(1981): 1"22;Ba#cıetal.,Osmanlı$Resim$Sanatı,124"8. 97 Kazan, "ehnameciseyyidlokman, 120"1. 114

131 itsinfluence[resonates]fromchinatothelandofthebulghars hisrenownhasstruckcalamityiniran [making]thedam"vandandalborz[mountains]trembleintheir place 98 ThepaintingofProphetMuhammad ssword,broughtfromegyptandpresentedtothe sultannicelyfitsintothisformula,showinghowthesultan spowerresonatesbothwithin andbeyondhisrulershipthroughthemovementofobjectsintohispossession(figure 2.14). 99 ThetextabovethepaintinghereemphasizesMuradIII sclaimtoworld dominion: thewholeworldisdependant,submissivetohissplendor/thenobleandthe plebeiantohissovereignty. 100 Justliketheexampleoftheholysword,thereareother paintingsinehin"ehnme sfirstvolume,whichdepictthesultanreceivinggiftsfrom localrulersandforeignones.aswewillsee,thesearemodeledafterthenorms establishedfordisplayingsafavidgiftsbeforethesultan. Inthismanuscript,precedingtheillustrationofShahTahmasp sgiftsbeing presentedtomuradiiiisadouble#pagepaintinginwhichthesultan,hishigh#ranking officials,andmanysoldiersofthearmyparadebeforethesafavidambassador$uqm"q Kh"n 101 (Figure2.15). 102 Therearemanyprecedentstosuchaceremonialentryofthe sultanintothecapital,liketheonethatwasorganizedforshahtahmasp srenegade brotheralqasmirza.butthethemehadbeenforeigntothepictorialprogramofottoman 98 IUK,F.1404,20a,quotedinYıldız, OttomanHistoricalWriting, IUK,F.1404,25a;Ba%cıetal.,Osmanlı"Resim"Sanatı, jahn"jumla"tbi#"shahnash"mu$%"/"bifarmn&rav&y%"shar%f"u"vaz'%# 101 TuqmaqKhanwasthesonofShahq&l',therulerofErivan(orYerevan)inArmenia andnakhchivan(ornahçevan)inazerbaijan,whocametotheottomancourtasthe shah sambassadorin1568toexpresstheshah scondolencesandtocongratulate accessionofselimii,muradiii sfather.iuk,f.1404,35a;me(medz")'m,tsmk,r. 1382,308b. 102 IUK,F.1404,38b#39a. 115

132 shahnamas.ottomansdeemedtheseceremonialentriesespeciallyimportantforsafavid embassiestocontemplate,fortheyweretobeshownthemagnificenceofthesultan,as wellastheornamentandthedistinctivenessofhislargearmy. 103 Inthepainting,the Safavidscanberecognizedthroughtheirdistinctiveturbansatthetopleftcorner, watchingtheparadefrombehindtwowindowsintheviewingkiosk(temgh)that wasputupforthem.ontherightpage,thesultanmovesforwardinthemiddle,mounted onhishorse,surroundedbyhisattendantsandcourtiers,andfrontedbyaseaofsoldiers. Contemporaryobserversnotetheextraordinarynumberofthesesoldiers,alldressedin theirwaruniformsandequipment. 104 Accordingtothetext,watchingtheparade,allthe Safavidrepresentativeswereamazedandawestruck. 105 SincethismanuscriptwascompletedaftertheOttoman"Safavidwarbeganin 1578,thispaintingcouldwellhavebeenincludedinittoreassureitsaudience,the Ottomanelite,thattheSafavidswereindeedveryimpressed,infactintimidatedbythe sultan scommandersandarmy,andwereconvincedoftheottomanstate ssuperiority ThesultanleftthepalacetwodayspriortotheSafavidembassy sarrivaltogoon huntingtohalkalı,nearistanbul.selaniki,tarih,i:113"4;stephangerlach,türkiye" Günlü#ü"1573$1576,trans.TürkisNoyan,2vols.(Istanbul:KitapYayınevi,2006). 104 StephanGerlachnotedthatnearly10,000soldiersattendedtheparade.Gerlach, Türkiye"Günlü#ü.Lokmangivesthemuchmoreexaggeratednumberof120,000(fuz%n" az"&ad"u"b'st"b'var"hazr)iuk,f.1404,35b. 105 Thecoupletinscribedontherightpagereads:z[a]"r%zan"shud"chashm$i"q&id"bir%n"/" qizilbsh"r"gasht"(ayrat"fuz%niuk,f.1404,38a 106 AccordingtoSelaniki,eachpashahadhisownretinue,dressedintheirbestuniforms andmountedonhorsesdecoratedwithsuperiortextiles,ornamentsandembellishments. WhileallofthiswasmeanttoimpresstheSafaviddelegation,thedisplayalsosignaleda competitionamongstottomandignitariestoputoutthebestshow:pesend'de"olan" mümtz"alay"sadri)azam"mehmed"paa"hazretlerinün"güz'de"cebe$hnesinden"geçicek" Ahmed"Paa"hazretlerinün"idi,"velkin"Sinan"Paa"hazretlerinün"kesreti"gerçi"nihayetde" idi,"velkin"sinan"paa"hazretlerinün"vilyet$i"yemen"usl%bında"at"geyimlerinün"yeni" serser"ve"a#ır"çatmalardan"tedrük"olunma#la"keml"mertebe"z'ver'"yaraık"düdi."ve" Kızılba"t*ifesi"dahi"mme$i"lem"tahs'n"eyledügüni"be#enmeme#e"kdir"olamadılar."Ve" 116

133 InLokman swords,thesafavidssaid, OhGodthesultanisfirmlyobeyedbytheentire world 107 AfterestablishingthesuperiorityoftheOttomanforces,theehin"ehnme thendictatesthatitwouldonlybeanunsounddecisiontogotowarwithsuchanarmy. 108 Neverthless,whenthemanuscriptwascompleted,theSafavidsandtheOttomanswerein factatwar. TheemphasisonthepoweroftheOttomanstateheadedbythesultan,whois identifiedasthe shadowofgodonearth, continuesintothediscussionofthedisplay andpresentationofshahtahmasp sgiftsbeforethesultan.thedoublepagepainting aboutthispresentationinthefirstvolumeoftheehin"ehnme(figure2.16) 109 isacopy ofthepaintingwiththesamethemefromtheehnme"i#sel$m#%n(figure2.12),which itselfisacopyoftheonefoundinthe&afernme(figure2.11).theplacementofthe sultan sthroneatthetoprightcorner,thegrandvizierandthevizierslineduptohisright, thepositionoftheenvoybroughtbeforehimbowingdownrespectfullyonthelargeuak carpet,andthegiftsrunninghorizontallyonasinglelinefromtheleftpageintotheright pagecloselyemulatethemodelprovidedintheehnme"i#sel$m#%n.ontheleftpage, thelineofgatekeepersholdinggiftsalsocontinueonaseparateline,culminatingatthe top,withsomemembersofthesafavidembassyholdingthegatesforthetentthatwas sentasoneofthegifts.inthiscopy,architecturaldetailsallowustoidentifythespecific locationsofthesceneatthetopkapıpalace.eventhoughthelightbluepastelcolorof bi l"cümle#darb$#n"kab'llerün#kab'li#oldı.selaniki,tarih,i:113"4.lokmanwritesthat movingforward,thesoldiersfiredtheirguns,whichresembledsparklescomingoutofa dragon smouth,scaring theenemies. Theseenemiesmustrefertononeotherthanthe Safaviddelegation,fortheauthorthenwritesthatwhenthegunswerefired,theenvoy losthisheadoutoffright.iuk,f.1404,36b"37a. 107 biguftand#yrab#khudvandgr#bi(lam#mu)a($#b'd#bar#qarriuk,f.1404,38a. 108 IUK,F.1404,39b. 109 IUK,F.1404,41b"42a. 117

134 themarblefloorrunningthroughbothpagesmightpointtocontinuitybetweenthetwo sectionsofthepainting,themarblecolonnadeframingthesceneonthetopleftsuggests thatthatpartofthescenetakesplaceinthesecondcourtyardofthepalace.thestrict principlesofcontrolandorderthatwasintroducedintheehnme"i#sel$m#%npainting isstatedmoreclearlyhere,asmoresafavidofficialsenteredthescene,flankedonboth sidesbyottomancourtiers,whokeeptheminastraightline,holdingtooeithertheirarms orhands. TheportrayalofShahTahmasp sgiftsinthepaintingreiteratethenewimageof thesultanbothbycitingtheotherpaintingandbyformingaclosetiebetweenthegifts andtheideaofservitude(bandag$).accordingtolokman,shahtahmasphadsent beautifulgifts(tu&fah"yi#la'$f)as theheadofservitude (bihangm"i#p"b(s#u# afkandag$#/#pay"i#p$shkash#az#sar"i#bandag$.) 110 Theehin"ehnmeitself,archivaldocuments,andcontemporaryaccounts documentingthesegiftsallconfirmthatin1576manymoregiftscamefromthesafavid shahthanhehadeversentbefore. 111 Inlinewiththenewrepresentationalmodeof displayingsafavidgiftsinottomanillustratedshahnamas,boththepaintingandthetext oftheehin"ehnmebegincitingthegiftswiththemanuscripts.thequr ancopies,nine largeandninesmallinnumberaccordingtoothersources, 112 arelikenedbylokmanto tabletsfilledwithluminousversesofgod. Thoughadditonallyotherbooksare 110 IUK,F.1404,42b. 111 ManyofthesearecitedinKütüko"lu,"Cül#sTebriki,"379$80.Thereisadditionallya Venetianarchivaldocument(dated27May1576)thatliststhem:ASVe,Senato,Dispacci Costantinopolifilza9,96a$103a. 112 ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza9,100a;SeyyidLokman,Zübdetü t" Tevr$)(TheCreamofHistories),TIEM,1973,89a,citedinKütüko"lu,"Cül#sTebriki,"

135 mentionedbylokman,theyarenotdescribedinanydetailintheehin"ehnme. Elsewhere,Lokmannotesmanyvolumesofpoetrycollections(d"vn)offamedPersian poets,whichisconfirmedbyavenetianaccount,notedthereinas epicstoriesandother books (libretti#di#canzone,#et#altre#poesie). 113 ThisreportoftheVenetianbailo,whowas residingattheottomancapitalatthattime,additionallyrecords254unboundpagesof Persiancalligaphy.ThisrecordpossiblyconfirmsthearrivalofthefamousShah TahmaspalbumcurrentlyattheIstanbulUniversityLibrary, 114 andothersafavid calligraphyalbumscurrentlyinthetopkapıpalacecollection.thebailo saccountthen recordsninehawksand6900piecesofbirdfeathers.twopairsofblackfeathersareheld upinthepaintingbythegatekeeperstandingnexttothoseholdingthebooks.othergifts weretwenty"ninebagsfilledwithturquoisestones,bezoarstonesinthreeboxes(lacrime# di#cervo,#scatole#n[ume]ro#3), 115 feltswithlandscapedesign,gold"embroideredsilk carpets, 116 swordsfromqum,persianbows(t"$%i#qum"#va#kamn%i#&ajam), 117 and 113 Lokmangivesthenumberofd#v$nsas60,TIEM,1973,89a,citedinKütüko%lu, "Cül&sTebriki,"379;whereastheVenetianbailoGiovanniCorrarorecordsonly12, ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza9,100a. 114 IUK,F.1422.Thecatalogentrydefinitivelyclaimsthatthisalbumwasoneofthegifts sentbytahmaspin1576,basedonanotewrittenmuchlaterontheflyleaf: Formépour ShahTahmaspparShahQuliKhalifahsongardedessceaux(mühürdar),cetalbumadu fairepartiedeprésentsdushah,offertsàmuradiii,en1576. FehmiEdhemandIvan Stchoukine,Les#manuscrits#orientaux#illustrés#de#la#bibliothèque#de#l Université#de# Stamboul(Paris:E.deBoccard,1933),40"3.Forthisalbum,seeRoxburgh,The#Persian# Album,196"212.Thealbumcurrentlyhas89folios.DavidRoxburghhasarguedthat foliosmighthavebeenremovedfromthealbumthroughtheyears,but thesecanonlybe fewinnumber,ahypothesisbasedonthepremisethatthethicknessofthecurrent gatheringcorrespondstothewidthofthespine. Roxburgh,The#Persian#Album,343"4, n Lokmannotesthattheseboxesweremanyinnumber,allmadeofsilver:bas"#'uqqa% yi#s"m"n#pur#pdzahriuk,f.1404,42b. 116 OnlyGiovanniCorraroitemizestheseindetailas34largesilkcarpets,2verylarge silkcarpets,14 mosquecarpets, whichmustbeprayerrugs,seej.michaelrogers, EuropeandtheOttomanArts:ForeignDemandandOttomanConsumption, ineurope# 119

136 saddleswithmatchingsaddleblankets.thedisplayofgiftsinthepaintingroughly followstextualaccountsinshowingthevarioustypesofobjectssentbyshahtahmaspin theordertheywererecordedintextualsources.nexttothegatekeeperholdingfourbird feathersareothergatekeepersholdingagoldobjectandabox,whichmustholdthe antidotes.thenextobjectlookslikearolled"upcarpetortextile,whichmightsuggest thatitrepresentsoneofthecarpetsoralargepieceoffelt.thenextthreegatekeepers (andtwomorebehindthem)carrytwosilkcarpets,fortheyarequitesoft,andverylarge suchthatthegatekeepersneededtowrapthemaroundtheirshoulderstoholdthemup. Nextaretwomorecarpets,eachrolledupandcarriedbyanindividual,followedby gatekeepersholdingbowsandarrows. Therestoftheitemsdisplayedontheleftsideofthecompositionarepiecesofthe greattentunanimouslyadmiredandhighlypraisedbyallobservers,whorecountedits magnificencebyhighlightingitsbeautyandrarity.inselaniki saccountofthis embassy smissioninistanbul,onlythetentismentionedamongthegiftsbroughtby TuqmaqKhan: Then,whentheaforementionedenvoycametothesublime councilhallanddeliveredtheletter,acrowdedcouncilwas summoned.theinfiniteandmatchlessgiftsfromiranwere presented.thegreatcouncilhallwasfilledentirelywith thosecarryingthegifts.onlyalofty"domedtentwithforty sections,whosecolumnswerestuddedwithjewelsand wovenwithfiguredfabricswaspitched.itwasrecorded andislambetweenthefourteenthandsixteenthcenturies,eds.michelebernardiniet al.,2vols.(naples:2002),ii:721.corraro slistalsoincludes9velvetcarpetsindiverse colors,inadditionto5veryfinewoolcarpets. 117 IUK,F.1404,42b.ThelistprovidedbyCorrarodoesnotmentionanybowsand swords. 120

137 thiswayintheprotocolregister.nosuchgifthadever cometothesublimecouncilfromanyotherking. 118 Intheehin"ehnme,Lokmansimilarlysinglesoutthetent.Aftercompletinghislistof theothergifts,whichwereall famedandwithoutequal, hewentontodescribethetent. Thismagnificenttenthadtwogold"embroideredprojectingroofs(ch"gh).Allofits threadsweremadeofglitteringsilk;itsfoundationwasmadeofagold"wovencoarse fabric(#ab);itsrobeswereallmadeofsilkandgold;andeachofitshighcolumnswere dividedintothreesections.corrarowrotethatthefourcolumnsofthetentwereall jeweledandfinelydecorated(tutti$gioielate,$et$miniate). 119 Inthepainting,twopairsof gatekeeperscarrytwobluecolumns,whichareindeeddividedintodifferentsections throughhorizontallinesingold,witheachsectiondecoratedbyscrollingdesigns.the golddomeofthetentcarriedbytheadjacenttwogatekeepersinthepaintingislikenedin thetexttothebrightsun(mihr%i$mun"r). Afterthereception,whentheenvoyleftthepalace,thesultanorderedthetent" pitchers(zumra#%i$mihtarn) 120 toassemblethetentinacourtyardinthepalace.these verses,recordingthesultan sorder,areinscribedonasingle"pagepaintinginthe 118 Ba#dehu$D"vn%ı$adlet%unvna$ilçi%i$mezb&r$gelüp$nmeyi$tesl"m$eyledükde$az"m$ kalabalık$d"vn$oldı.$tuhaf$u$hedy%yı$memlik%i$acem$be%gyet$b"%hadd$u$b"%kıys$ çekildi.$d"vn%ı$mu#allnun$dr$u$medrı$tammen$pi"ke"$çekenler$ile$ml"$oldı.$yalnız$ kırk$haz"nelük$murassa#$u$mücevver$sütün$ile$ve$akmi"e%i$reng"n$ile$duhte$bir$otak%ı$ gerd&n%nitk$çekildi.$te"r"ft$defterinde$dahi$bu$tavr$üzre$yazıldı.$hiç$bir$tr"hde$"hn%ı$ p"""nden$divn%ı$l"ye$gelmi"$ve$yazılmı"$de'ildi.selaniki,tarih,i: ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza9,100a. 120 Thetentpitchers(also"##$%ç#$%&'()*+)&,inTurkishand(ayme%zenorkhaima%zan inpersian)wereinchargeofsettingtheimperialtentsonmilitarycampaigns.gustav Bayerle,Pashas,$Begs,$and$Effendis:$A$Historical$Dictionary$of$Titles$and$Terms$in$the$ Ottoman$Empire(Istanbul:IsisPress,1997),

138 ehin"ehnme,whichdepictsthetentbeinginstalledbeforethesultan(figure2.17). 121 Lokmanwritesthatwhentheheadtent"pitcherfixedthedomeontopofthetents high columns,itseemedasifitsapextouchedthesky.thispaintingimmediatelyfollowsthe sceneinwhichtuqmaqkhanpresentsshahtahmasp sgiftstomuradiiiin1576,which visuallyunderscorestheprimacyandvalueofthemanuscriptsovertheremaininggiftsin linewiththenewvisualmode.however,theinclusionofaseparatepaintinginthe manuscriptwithanentirelynoveldesigndedicatedtothetentpointstothisgift sbeauty anddistinctionbythesultanamongallothers,similartocontemporarysources.the formalityofthereceptionceremonyisnotrepeatedhere,forthesultanobservesthetent inaveryprivatesetting,dressedinmodestclothes,andsittingonagoldstool rather thanhisthrone inagarden.wegetafrontalviewofthetentdisplayedinthe foreground,asifitisturnedtowardsussowecanseehowthesultanwouldhaveseenit. MuradIIIseemstocontemplatethegift sbeautyandsplendorinatranquilsetting,witha fountainbyhisside.thetexttellsusthat thekingofkings cameoutintothegarden, andhesatonachairtoseethetent.butthen,insharpcontrasttohisfixedpositioninthe painting,itsaysthatheglancedatitandpassedbyquicklyandmovedon,foritwastoo smallforthegreatnessoftheking. 122 Aswehaveseen,theadmirationandacceptanceofthisgiftishighlightedthrough itscommandingvisualpresenceinapaintingofitsown.butparadoxically,thetext resiststhis,assertingtheephemeralpleasureitgavethesultan.itisnoteworthythatsuch abelittlingcommentaboutasafavidgiftismadejustasshahtahmaspdispatcheda 121 IUK,F.1404,43b. 122 bikurs"#nashast#az#pay$i#sayr#u#gasht#/#na%ar#kard#bar#khaima#va#bz#gasht# guzasht#az#tamsh$yi#n#khaima#z&d#/#ki#andar#khur$i#himmatash#tang#b&diuk,f.1404, 44a. 122

139 groupofgiftsthatbyfarsurpassedanyothergroupthathehadeversentanottoman sultanintermsofamount,variety,andpraisethatthegiftsreceivedfromcontemporary observers. Duringthelastdecadesofthesixteenthcentury,then,Safavidgiftsturninto visualdevicesthatplayanimportantroleindefininganewimageforthesultaninthe corpusofottomanillustratedshahnamas.intherestofthemanuscript,thesultanmost frequentlyappearswhenheisgivingaudiencetoforeignenvoysandvassals,wherehe alwaysreceivesgiftsinremarkablysimilarmannertothevisualstandardsestablishedfor depictingthedisplayofsafavidgiftsbeforethesultan(figures2.18,2.19,and2.20). 123 Abidingbythestrictcourtlyceremonialtradition,thevizierslineupbythesultan sside, andtheenvoyisheldbyhisarmsandbroughtbeforethesultantokisshisfeet,asthetext insists.theemphasisonthesultan sabilitytoattractobjectsasthesoleruleroftheworld isagainandagainemphasizedthroughtherepetitionofthissameset"up,thesame momentwhenthesultan,envoyandthegiftsfallintothesameaxis.atthesametime, thevarietyinthedifferenttypesofgiftsisspelledoutbytheartistsineachcomposition. InthecaseoftheFrenchenvoy(Figure2.20),thesultanreceivedabejeweledgoldclock, amirror,andsilksindifferentcolors, 124 whicharedepictedassuchandinthatorderfrom righttoleftinthepainting.thepleasingmannerwithwhichthese tributesandgifts (pishkashutu"fah#)areacceptedbythesultanbecameassuchamarkerofthe presenter ssubservience. Itisremarkablethatjustwhenthesultan simagewasbeingreformulatedinline withstandardssetdownbyshahtahmasphimselfintermsofthecorrectmannerof 123 IUK,F.1404,54a,122a,and141brespectively. 124 IUK,F.1404,142a. 123

140 honoringthesultan,theottomanillustratedshahnamabeginstoresistandquestionthe truesincerityoftheshahandofthequalityofthegiftshesends.whileintheehnme"i# Sel$m#%n,anyeventthathadthepotentialtoresultinadiplomaticcrisis,suchasthe murderofshahtahmasp senvoyonhiswaytothehajj(figure2.21), 125 isdepictedwith thedisclaimerthatitwasinfactthearabswhokilledhim,inthefirstvolumeofthe ehin"ehnme,completedthreeyearsaftertheoutbreakoftheottoman"safavidwarof 1578to1590,crisisitselfenteredthevisualprogramofthebook,showingthearrival fromthewarfrontofseveredheadsofsafavidcommanders completewiththeirturbans ofcourse tothesecondcourtyardoftheimperialpalace(figure2.22). 126 ehin"ehnme(bookofthekingofkings)vol.2 TheincreasingmilitarytensionandconflictbetweentheOttomanandSafavid statesintothe1580 senteredinfullbloomintothevisualprogrammeofthesecond volumeoftheehin"ehnme,thelastottomanshahnamawritteninpersianverse. 127 This volumecoversmuradiii sreign,betweentheyears1580and1584.itwascompletedin 1592,twoyearsafterthesigningoftheIstanbulPeaceTreatyin1590,whichendedthe Ottoman"Safavidwar,conferringsignificantadvantagesontheOttomans. 128 Bycontrast withthefirstvolumeoftheehin"ehnme,theroleassumedbythesultaninitspaintings 125 TSMK,A.3595,68a. 126 IUK,F.1404,61b"62a. 127 TSMK,B200.Karatay,#Farsça#Yazmalar,274"5.Completedin1592,itwaspresented tosultanmuradiii sson,mehmediiiin1597/8(1006),ba#cıetal.,osmanlı#resim# Sanatı,152.Thisvolumecontains95paintings.NurhanAtasoy, III.Murad ehin"ehnamesisünnetdü#ünübölümüvephiladelphiafreelibrary dekiiki MinyatürlüSayfa, Sanat#Tarihi#Yıllı&ı5(1973):359"87;Ba#cıetal.,Osmanlı#Resim# Sanatı,152" Forthistreaty,seeChapter3. 124

141 isnotrestrictedtothatofasedentaryrulerwhoseonlycontactwiththeworldbeyondhis palaceareaudienceshegivestoforeignenvoysandhisownvassals.whilethesultanis stillalwaysdepictedinthecapital,heparticipatesinvariousactivitiesbesidesgiving audiencestoenvoys.nevertheless,hemakesfewappearances,whichemphasizesthe strengthofhisstate sadministrativeandmilitaryinstitutions,whichrunperfectlywell withoutalwaysneedinghisapprovalorpresence. Amongtheninetyfiveillustrationscontainedinthemanuscript,contactswiththe Safavidsisamajortheme.Theseincludescenesofthesultan sappointmentof commanderstothewarfront,militaryclashes,anddiplomaticreceptions.between1580 and1584,muradiiireceivedtwosafavidembassies,whichareillustratedwithtwopairs ofpaintingsinthemanuscript.thefirstembassyarrivedinistanbulin1580,ledbythe ambassadormaq"#dkh$n,whowaschargedwiththemissionofrequestingpeace.the secondembassycamefortheoccasionofthecircumcisionfestivalof1582,organizedas alongpubliccelebrationforprincemehmed. SimilartotheentryoftheembassysentbyShahTahmaspinIstanbul1576,the arrivalofbothoftheseembassieswerearrangedtocoincidewithamilitaryparadeofthe OttomanarmysotheSafavidswouldseetheextentandstrengthofOttomanforces.The textrecountingthebraveryofeachsoldierandthestrengthofthewholearmy,likenedto amountain,ismuchlongerinthisvolumeoftheehin"ehnmethanthepreviousone.it wasexplainedtotheambassadorthatmanymoresoldierswerefightingatthesafavid front,andthatwhathesawinthatprocessionwaslike adropinthesea. 129 A 129 TSMK,B.200,26a. 125

142 contemporaryobservertellsamuchdifferentstory,however,suggestingthatmaqsud Khanwasinrealitynotimpressedatall: WhenanOttomanherald(çavu)askedtheSafavid ambassadorwhetherheenjoyedtheprocession,he respondedbysaying, notbad. MaqsudKhanthenasked theheraldwherethesultanwascomingfromandwhyhe wasaccompaniedbysuchalargecrowd.butwhenhe learnedthatthesultanwascomingbackfromahunting party,hesaid: Suchalargecrowdisunnecessaryforthis purpose,andadisplayofsuchvanityisinappropriate duringhunting.also,wherearethoseanimalsthatthey ve hunted?theydidnotbringanythingwiththem.ifthe sultaninsteadwishestodemonstratehispowerwiththis crowd,thenthenumberofpeoplehereisnotsufficientfor that. Justatthattime,alineofjanissariesholdingguns werepassingby,andtheheraldaskedhimwhethersuch weaponswereusediniran.theambassadorresponded: Wedonotusetheseweapons,weonlytakethembyforce fromtheottomansduringwar 130 TwopaintingsdepictthemovementoftheOttomanprocessionin1580and1582 inthesecondvolumeofthe"ehinehnme.thefirstofthesepaintings(figure2.23) 131 closelyemulatestheformeronefoundinthefirstvolumeofthework(figure2.15). MembersoftheSafaviddelegationareinakioskplacedatthetop"leftcornerofthe composition,watchingtheparadeasitmovestotheleft,passinginfrontofthem.also similartothepreviouspainting,thesultanisextravagantlydressed,ridinghishorsenear themiddleoftheleftpage,surroundedbycountlesssoldiers.thesecondpainting(figure 2.24) 132 departsfromthismodel,mostsignificantlythroughthere"assignmentofthe sultanasaspectator,andthesafavidsasparticipantstotheprocession.here,thesultan 130 SalomonSchweigger,Sultanlar"Kentine"Yolculuk"1578#1581,ed.HeidiStein,trans.S. TürkisNoyan(Istanbul:KitapYayınevi,2004),87" TSMK,B.200,24b"25a. 132 TSMK,B.200,33b"34a. 126

143 hasswitchedplaceswiththesafavidembassy,watchingtheprocessionatthetop"left corner,astheottomanarmyandthesafavidsbehindthemmovetotheright. SimilarmilitaryprocessionswereorganizedwhennewSafavidembassiesarrived inistanbulin1590and1596, 133 continuingthistradition.in1596,ratherthanleavingthe citysolelyforthepurposeofputtingonashowforthesafavidembassywithhisentry, sultanmehmediiiarrivedatthecapitalvictoriously,comingbackfromthee#ri(erlau) CampaigninHungary.Oneofthefourpaintingsinhisshahnama,ehnme"i#Sultan# Mehmed"i#Slis(BookofKingsofSultanMehmed),depictshisceremonialentryinto Istanbul,astheSafavidembassywatchestheprocession(Figure2.25). 134 Thispainting quotespaintingsoftheottomanmilitaryparadingbeforesafavidembassiesin1576, 1580,and1582,foundinthetwovolumesofehin"ehnme,makinganintertextuallink betweenitselfandpaintingsofaprocessionoftheottomanmilitarycontemplatedbya Safavidembassy. Thepaintingsfoundintheehin"ehnmerefertoaperiodofeitherhightension oropenwarfarebetweentheottomansandthesafavids,whenconclusivelyproving militarysuperioritywasamajorpoliticalissueforbothsidesofthefront.citingand emulatingtheseearlierpaintingsin1596/7,nearlysixyearsaftertheconclusionofthe twelve"yearwar,mustthenalsobereadasdemandingtheviewersofthepaintingto recalltheehin"ehnme,testifyingtohowthesafavidswereconvincedofottoman militarysuperiority.theintertextualityamongallthesepaintingsshouldalsobereadin linewiththereappearanceinottomanshahnamatextsoflongsectionsaboutthe 133 SeeChapters3and4forthese. 134 TSMK,H.1609,68b"69a.ThismanuscriptwaswritteninTurkishversebyTalikizade Mehmedandisdated1596/7.Forthispainting,andfortheSafavidembassy,itsreception attheottomancourt,andthegiftssentwithitbyshahabbas,seechapter4. 127

144 amazementandshameofsafavidembassiesatthesightofottomanmilitarymight. SalomonSchweigger scomments,ascitedabove,neverthelessattesttothecirculationof rumorsinistanbulthatthesafaviddelegationmighthavebeenlessimpressedwiththe OttomanshowofpowerthanthecollectivemessageendorsedbytheOttoman shahnamas. WhilethemannerinwhichSafavidgiftsaredisplayedinpaintingsofMuradIII s audienceswithambassadorsmaqsudkhanin1580andibr"himkhanin1582inthe secondvolumeoftheehin"ehnme(figures2.26and2.27) 135 quotethenewmodeof representation,thecompositionofthesetwodouble#pagepaintingssetsthemapartfrom theothersfoundinottomanillustratedshahnamaswritteninpersian,beginningwiththe "afernme.inthesetwopaintings,whicharecopies,wegetaviewofthesecond courtyardofthetopkapıpalaceontherightpage,whichcontinuesontotheleftpage, whereweseetheendofthiscourtyard.here,thegateoffelicityopensintothethird courtyard.thesceneinsidethechamberofpetitionsimmediatelybeyondthisgate, wherethesultanreceivedambassadors,isplacedinbothimagesatthetopright.aswe havealreadyseen,paintingsinthenewmodeofrepresentingsafavidgiftsinottoman shahnamaszoomedratherintotheinsideofthechamberofpeititons,showingusonly theaudience,withthegiftsspreadonahorizontalaxisatthebottomofthecomposition. Forthosewell#versedwiththenatureoftheceremonyofreceivingforeignenvoysatthe Ottomancourt,thedistancingofthegiftstothebottomofthepagewouldbeasufficient visualcuetoconjurethegifts actualplaceintheceremony,whichispreciselyhowthey aredepictedinthesetwopaintings:outsidethechamberofpetitions,heldbygatekeepers 135 TSMK,B.200,28b#29aand36b#37arespectively. 128

145 whostandinalineinsidethesecondcourtyard.theconsistentprominenceofthe audiencetakingplaceinsidethechamberofpetitionsinearlierpaintingsisreplacedhere withthedisplayofthesafavidgifts,spreadoverthewholecourtyardandtakingupmore spaceinthecompositionthantheaudienceitself. ThenatureoftheprincipleofcontrolandorderthatgovernedearlierOttoman shahnamapaintingsisalsoreworkedinthesepaintings.thestrict,almostmonotonous mannerusedinearlierversionstodepictthesultan,ottomandignitaries,andthesafavid representativesinsidethereceptionhallistransformedintheehin"ehnme ssecond volumetoemulatethelinearpresentationofthegiftsoutside.thegrandvizierandthe otherviziersstandsidebysidewithmembersofthesafaviddelegation,withoutholding theirhandsorarms.thepositionoftheambassadorsinthisbooklikewisedepartsfrom thesubjugatedposeforcedonsafavidenvoysbyottomancourtiersinpaintingswehave discussedfromthe"afernme,ehnme#i$sel%m$&n,andthefirstvolumeofthe ehin"ehnme.neithermaqsudkhannoribrahimkhanismadetobowdownbeforethe sultan,whichbringstomindthepositionofsafavidambassadorsbeforesultansüleyman inthesüleymnnme. In1580,MaqsudKhanwassenttoIstanbulbytheSafavidshahMuhammad Khudabandatorequestpeace. 136 AccordingtothesourcesthatmentionKhudabanda s giftstomuradiii,thisambassadorhadbroughtasignificantlyfewernumberofgifts coupledwithanarrowervariety.theshortaccountofthesegifts(pishkash)inthe ehin"ehnmeincludespersiantextiles,whicharesaidtohavecomeingreatquantities 136 Khudabanda slettertomuradiiiexplainsthatthecropsthatyearwerebarely sufficienttofeedtheqizilbash,whichmeansthatcontinuingthewarwouldbeagreat disasterforiran.tsmk,b.200,29b. 129

146 (jihn"gasht"pur"az"qumsh#i"$ajam). 137 Besidesthese,whicharenotfurtherspecified, silkfabrics(d%baord%bh)aresaidtohavefilledupthewholepalace.thevenetian bailopaulocontarini sreporttothesenatealsomentionssilks,inadditiontobagsof cash,whichamountto100,000aspers,gold"wovengarmentsandrichlydecorated horses. 138 SalomonSchweiggerinsteadwrotethatMaqsudKhanpresentedthesultan manyroughturquoisestonesandtwoqur ancopies. 139 Eventhoughallthreeauthorsrecordadifferentgroupofgifts,clearly, Khudabanda sgiftscontrastedsharplyonthisoccasionwiththosesentbyshahtahmasp in1568and1576inbothamountandvariety.thisdetailwouldonlybecaughtbya carefulobserverinthepaintingaboutmaqsudkhan sreceptionatthetopkapıpalace (Figure2.26).LikethepaintingsofSafavidgiftsdisplayedbeforethesultaninthe &afernme,ehnme#i"sel%m"'n,andthefirstvolumeoftheehin"ehnme allof whichhadcomefromshahtahmasp Khudabanda sgiftsstilldominatethelower registerofthedouble"spread.furthermore,theshah sgiftsarecarriedbyalargernumber ofgatekeepersthaninanyofthepreviousimages.thefirstgift,heldbythegatekeeper closesttothegateoffelicityisaboundmanuscript,followedbywhatappeartobegold objects,boxesorbags.mostoftherestarefabrics,eitherheldinbundles,orrolledup.in groupsoftwoorthree,thegatekeepersshownattherightpagecarrylargerfabrics,or carpets,displayedinthesamemannerasthepaintinginthefirstvolumeofthe ehin"ehnme"(figure2.16). 137 TSMK,B.200,26b. 138 ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza14,223a. 139 Schweigger,Sultanlar"Kentine"Yolculuk,

147 Onlyaclosecomparisonofthispaintingwiththeoneaboutthesultan saudience withibrahimkhanrevealsthatmanymoregiftscamewiththesafavidembassyin1582 thanin1580.thetextdoesnotsupportthis,however,foritonlymentionspersiantexiles withdesigns(qumsh"i#$ajam#jumla#b#kash#u#fash) 140 Otherwrittensourcesdocument theentiregroupofthesegifts,whichconstitutesalonglist.accordingtothehistorian andbureacratmustafa"#l$,forexample,muhammadkhudabandasentthesultan eighteenmanuscriptsincludingtwocopiesofthequr an,ashahnama,akhamsa (Quintet)ofthefamedPersianpoetNizami(d.1209),whosepaintingswereexecutedby thelegendaryartistbihzad,acopyoftheiskendernme(bookofalexander),a Muraqqa$(calligraphyabum),andaD%vn(collectionofpoetry)ofHafiz(d.1391).All ofthesemanuscriptsarepraisedbymustafaalias giftsofsoundminds (her#biri#tu&fe" i#ulü l"elbb). 141 Othergiftsweresilktextiles,wovenwithgoldonthreesides,satins, velvets,carpetsfromyazdandkhurasan,felts,agold%emroideredcurtainwithdeisgns alloverit,ajeweledcontainerfilledwithanantidote,andthreelargedishesfrom China. 142 MustafaAli saccountalsoshowsthatmuhammadkudabandasentothergifts specificallyforthesultan smothernurbanusultan,andforthesultan sharem.other membersofthesafavidcourtjoinedtheshah,foritisrecordedthatkhudabanda s mothersultanumbekumsentgiftstotheottomanqueen%mother,hissistertothefemale attendantsofthecourt,andthesafavidcrown%princehamzamirzaalsosenttwogroups 140 TSMK,B.200,36a. 141 Mustafa"#l$,Cmi$u l"buh'r#der#meclis"i#s'r,ed.aliöztekin,(ankara:türktarih Kurumu,1996), "#l$,cmi$u l"buh'r,

148 ofgiftsforthesultanandforprincemehmed. 143 Alloftheseemulatethegiftssentfrom KhudabandatoMuradIII,beingshorterversionsofthatmasterlistofgifts. ThepaintingofIbrahimKhan saudiencewiththesultanalludestotherichness andsophisticationcontainedinkhudabanda sgiftstosultanmuradiii.thefirstthree gatekeeperscarrymanuscriptswhosecoversarestuddedconspiciouslywithlarge jewels. 144 SomeoftheothergiftsmentionedbyMustafaAli,suchastextilesandcarpets, arealsodiscernibleinthepainting.however,thelastgift,placedonthebottomright cornerofthecompositionisatent,whichismentionedneitherbymustafaali,norby Lokmaninthetext.Coupledwiththetext sfailuretomentionanyofthevaluableand tastefulgiftssentbykhudabanda(itmentionsonlythetextiles),wemightsaythatwhile theartistsherewereconcernedwithhighlightingthearrivalofalargernumberofgifts fromthesafavidshahcomparedto1580,documentalaccuracywaslessofaconcernthan intertextuality,thatis,quotingearlierpaintingsofsafavidgiftsdisplayedbeforethe sultan,whichcarefulobserverswouldbeabletorecall. Theomissionofevenapartiallistofgiftsinthemanuscriptmightalsobetiedto therisingtensionbetweenthetwocourts,heightenedbyarekindlingofclashesbetween OttomanandSafavidforcesjustastheCircumcisionFestivalof1582wasongoingin Istanbul.Adouble"pagepaintinginthesamemanuscriptdepictshowtheSafavid ambassadorwasshamedwhennewsofamilitarycrisisinshirvanarrived,andhowhe wasmadetoleavethecelebration(figure2.28). 145 Therightpageshowstheenvoy,with fourmembersofthesafaviddelegationfollowingbehindhim.theseattendantshave 143 #$l%,cmi"u l#buh$r,26" Foradetailofthisimage,seeUluç,Turkman%Governors,488. "# $TSMK,B.200,75b"76a.$ 132

149 packedtheirbelongingstoo,fortheyeachcarryalargebundle.astheyareshownthe wayoutfromthefestivalgroundbyottomancourtiers,jannisarriestakedowntheloggia thathadbeensetupforthesafaviddelegationforthemtowatchthefestivities.onthe oppositepage,weseeasafavidturbanthrownontheground,andamandressedinred byitssidewithhisbareheadexposed.theekphrasticcommentarywritteninturkish abovethecompositiondeclaresthat ahereticqizilbashhadconvertedtosunnism (bir mül"idk#ızılb$ehl%isünniyet$bi&olma'la).variousotherwrittenandvisualsources alludetothisincident,highlightingthemilitarycrisisbetweentheottomanandsafavid states,whichsurfacedduringthefestival,andtheresultingconfessionalhumiliationthat thesafavidsaresaidtohaveexperienced. 146 Conclusion StartingwiththeAmasyaPeaceTreatyof1555untilthe1590s,Safavidshahs alwayssentottomansultansextremelyvaluable,ifnotincreasinglymorevaluablegifts, whichreflectedtheshah saccesstosuchculturalandmaterialtreasuresaswellashis sophisticatedtasteinputtingthemtogetherasagroup.thistrendunfoldedconcurrently withonethatinvolvedakeychangeintheprojectionofthesultanicimageinthe Ottomanchronicles,significantlycalledshahnamas,writteninPersianinthesamemeter astheshahnama. WhileintheshahnamaofSultanSüleymangiftssentbytheSafavidshahwere visuallymarginalized,thetextdescribedthemindetailpraisingexcessivelyeachgift s beautyandrarity.beginningwiththe(afern$me,bycontrast,safavidgiftscametobe 146 Terzio"lu, ImperialCircumcisionFestival, 85#6. 133

150 fullyintegratedintothemaincompositionofimagesofsafavidgiftsbeingdisplayed beforeottomansultans,depictedasrealobjects.this,asihaveargued,demonstratesa newvisualmodeindepictingsafavidgifts,intricatelytiedtothenewvisualimageofthe sultanprojectedinottomansshahnamas.asthesultanmakesfewerappearances,gifts receivedfromthesafavidshah,aswellasotherforeignrulersactasmajormediatorsof hiscontactwiththeoutsideworld.thelastottomanshahnamawritteninpersian,the two"volumeehin"ehnme,complicatesthispictureevenfurther,reflectingthe transformationoftheroleassignedtomagnificentsafavidgifts.asmilitarytensions keepbuildingupbetweenthetwostatesduringthe1580s,emphasizingsafavidshame beforethecrushingpowerofthesultanandhisstatebecomeasignificantmessagethat Ottomanshahnamasaimtoconvey.AsSafavidgiftsmultiplyvisuallyinthepaintings containedinthesemanuscripts,theycometoreceivelittleornopraiseatalltextually. Thisway,anintertextuallinkisformedbetweenthesepaintings,requiringtheviewerto recallsimilarpaintingsinpreviousshahnamastopiecetogetherthesubservientfunction theyhadpreviously,understoodasareflectionoftheshah sownsubserviencebeforethe sultan,atatimewheninrealitythesafavidarmywasfightingtheottomans,refusingto recognizethersuperiority. 134

151 CHAPTER3: APeaceforaPrince: TheReceptionofaSafavidChildHostageattheOttomanCourt TheprotractedwarbetweentheOttomanandSafavidEmpires(Figure3.1),which rangedfrom1578to1590,wasconcludedatthesafavids expensewithaveryharsh condition:thattheottomansultanwouldreceiveandkeepathiscourtasafavidhostage prince.negotiationstookplaceamidstmilitaryandpoliticalcrisesofvaryingdegreeson bothsidesoftheborder:theottomanarmy sdiscontentwasfedbytheweakening economyandthechallenginggeographicalconditionsoftheregion.iniran,whenshah Abbasascendedthethronein1587,takingdownhisownfather,thecountrywasonthe brinkofcollapse.therewasmuchinternalunrestandthemilitaryassaultofthe neighboringpowersoftheuzbeksandtheottomansfromtheeastandthewestwas ongoing.whennegotiationswerefinalized,thesafavidkingshahabbasagreedtosend his6"year"oldnephew,haydarmirza.the surrender ofthischildprincebythe Safavids inadditiontothetreatytheyagreedtosign elicitedmuchenthusiasmamong Ottomanofficials,andinspiredhistorians,paintersandpoetstoreflectonthearrivalof theprinceinarangeofmedia.thetermsofthetreatygavetheottomansultanofficial licensetoannexallofthesafavidterritoriesintowhichhisarmieshadenteredduringthe campaign.againstthisbackground,theprince sarrivalatcourtwasseenasmaterial proofofsafavidsubordinationandplacedatangiblesealontheagreement. ApaintingfoundintheKitb"ı#Genc$ne"i#Fet%"i#Gence(Book#of#Treasury#of#the# Conquest#of#Ganja),anOttomanchronicleglorifyingthedefeattotheSafavidsinthe 135

152 1580s,depictstheSafavidShah,AbbastheGreat,duringhislastencounterwithhis nephewhaydarmirzabeforehisdeparturefortheottomancourt(figure3.2). 1 Thetext aroundthisimaginarysceneexplainsthatshahabbaswassendinghaydartothe abode ofjustice withtherequestthathe goundertheshadowofgod wordsthat,toan Ottomanaudience,wouldindicatethatShahAbbas,asaShi"i,neverthelessrecognized theottomansultanas Caliph. 2 Thelinesimmediatelyabovethepaintingalsorecord theshah swordstoveliagha,theottomanofficialwhowastheretoaccompanythe princeonhisjourney: Fromthisdayonwards,[maythesultan]considerme,likehis othersubjects,hisslave. 3 1 ThisisaheroicaccountofFerhadPasha seasterncampaignandtheottomanconquest ofganja.pennedbyrahimizadeibrahimçavu,itwaspresentedtomuradiiiin1590 bythechiefblackeunuchmehmedagha.twocopiesoftheworkexist:thelavishcopy illustratedwithtwentypaintingsisfoundin:tsmk,revan1296.theother,unillustrated copycompletedayearlater,isiniuk,ty2372,99a#160b.thetopkapımanuscriptwas recentlypublishedinfullasafacsimilewithanintroductionandbibliography:rahimi# z$deibrahimçavu,harim%kit"b#ıgenc$ne#ifeth#igence:osmanlı#iransavalarıve Gence ninfethi(1583#1590),eds.günaykaraa&açandadnaneskikurt(istanbul: Çamlıca,2010).Foradiscussionofthebook spatronageandpictorialcycle,seeemine Fetvacı, VizierstoEunuchs, 164#168;ZerenTanındı, BibliophileAghas(Eunuchs)at TopkapıSaray, Muqarnas21(EssaysinHonorofJ.M.Rogers)(2004),334#5;Ça&man andtanındı, RemarksonSomeManuscripts, 144#45;LaleUluçpublishedallthree paintingsdepictinghaydarmirza(tsmk,r1296,46a,48band53a)anddiscussedthem withinthecontextofgiftsbroughttotheottomancourtbythesafavidsinturkman Governors,486#87,490#91. 2 perverde%#is"ye%#i&ıll#ıil"h$olmak' ric"sıy lathemeaningoftheexpression s$ya# parvard inpersiangoesbeyond enteringthedomainofsomeone, andfurther encompassesbeingnourishedbythefavorsreceived,inthiscaseofcourse,bythe Ottomansultan.ShahAbbas requestfordomination,accordingtoottomansources,is thereforenotonlydeliberatebutferventtoo. 3 benp"di"h#ıisl"m(az)retlerinüñs"%$rk*ullar$gibibendesiyimmuk*addem"i+v"#yı ey,"n#ıbedk"rveilk*"#yıa-v"n[u]en."rile,"r$k*#ı-in"das"likolduk*cak*uvvet#i k*"hireleriylecem$-vil"yetümk*abz)uz)ab,idübelümdeb"k*$k*alancasınuñda/im"lu men"ltal"nveric"lünis"üe,f"lünn"l"nitdilerbu"nadekitdügimüzef-"lepe$m"n olub-afvui(s"nlarıric"sınak*arındaumo+l$sul,"n/aydar$sizüñleder#i-ad"let#i destg"hairs"leylemegemuk*arreritmiimdür.tsmk,r1296,45b. 136

153 Inexploringthenatureoftheprince smediatingrolewithinthesocial relationshipsheforges,iwilltreattheprinceasanobject.indoingso,mystartingpoint isanissuethathasinitiatedanongoingdebatewithinanthropolgyandmaterialculture studies: ourcommon"senseoppositionbetweenthepersonandthething,theanimate andtheinanimate,thesubjectandtheobject. 4 Inthe1980s,IgorKopytoffhasargued thatsuchaconceptualdualityisnew,bypointingouttheambiguitybetween individualizedpersonsandcommodifiedthings beforemoderntimes. 5 Likeaslave,the princewasrenderedanexchangeablething;butunlikeaslaveonthemarketinthelate sixteenthcentury,hewasexchangeableonlyinthisspecificcontext.kopytoffalsodraws attentionto thingsthatarepubliclyprecludedfrombeingcommoditized. 6 Such preclusionisenforcedbyindividualsorgroupsholdingpoliticalpower,wholimittheuse andexchangeofsymbolicallyloadedobjectsamongstthemselves.alongtheselines,i thinkoftheprinceaslikewise singularized bytheottomanandsafavidkings. 7 Thecaseoftheprincealsoatteststotheinterdependenceofsubjectsandobjects andtheextenttowhichtheyshapesocialrelationsconcurrently. 8 Aswewillseebelow, 4 DanielMiller,Stuff(Cambridge,UK:PolityPress,2010),5. 5 IgorKopytoff, TheCulturalBiographyofThings:CommoditizationasProcess,"in TheSocialLifeofThings:CommoditiesinCulturalPerspective,ed.ArjunAppadurai (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),64. 6 Kopytoff, TheCulturalBiography, Theterm singularization isborrowedfromkopytoff, TheCulturalBiography, 73" Theactor"network"theoryforexample,attributesagencytothingsjustasmuchas people.seebrunolatour,reassemblingthesocial:anintroductiontoactor"network" Theory(OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005);AlfredGell stheoryof theagencyofart,whichextendsagencytomaterialthingsinsocialcontexts,hasalso significantlyshapedmyunderstandingofthesafavidprince,alfredgell,artand Agency:AnAnthropologicalTheory(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998);Arjun Appaduraialsostressestheimportanceandcentralityofobjectswithinsocialrelations, andtheirpotentialtoshapethoserelations.hisworkonthebiographyofobjectsargues 137

154 theprincebroughtmanygiftswithhim,whichallparticipatedintheconclusionofthe peace.buttheprincehimselfappearstobetheleadinggiftinthatentiregroupofgifts. Onemightalsosuggestthattheprincemaybetakenas tribute sincetheagreement dependedonhistransfer.however,tributerarelyincitesreturnfavors,whereasgifts usuallydo.forthisreason,hisrolealignsmorewiththatofapreciousgift,which,as anthropologistsbeginningwithmarcelmausshaveshown,demandreciprocity. 9 Wewill seethatottomansourcesnarratingtheprince sjourneyandreceptionattheottoman courtferventlymaintainthatfavorsfromthesultanintheformoffeastsand entertainment,andofcoursematerialgifts(inm),wereshoweredontheprinceandthe remainingmembersofthesafavidembassy.avarietyofsourcesinsistthatthesafavids wereinturnsoimpressed,andshamedbythesultan sgenerosity,thattheybecame convincedoftheottomansuperiority. 10 SuchexcessiveinsistenceonOttoman dominationcouldeasilybedismissedastypicalimperialpropaganda.however,across" readingofothersourcessuggeststhatitsignalsdeepanxietyaboutthesolidityofthat domination. thattheymightmoveinandoutofcommoditystatusthroughtheirlives,whichwould imbuethemwithdifferentvaluesindifferentcontexts,arjunappadurai,"introduction: CommoditiesandthePoliticsofValue,"inThe"Social"Life"of"Things:"Commodities"in" Cultural"Perspective,ed.ArjunAppadurai(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1986),3"63. 9 MarcelMauss sthe"gift:"the"form"and"reason"for"exchange"in"archaic"societies, trans.w.d.halls(newyork:w.w.norton&companyinc,2000)hasinspirednotonly anthropologistsbutalsoscholarsfrommanyotherfields,whoengagedwith,builton,and evenrefutedsomeofhismainpremises,suchastheprincipleofreciprocity.particularly withinthecontextofottoman"safavidculturalexchange,therearemanymomentsand periodswhenthedefinitionsof gift and tribute overlappedandwerecontested,or sometimesdeliberatelymisunderstood.here,iwilltreattheprinceasagift,thoughhe mayhavebeenconceiveddifferentlybyeithertheottomanorthesafavidside. 10 AlargerdiscussionofOttomanmethodsofimpressingforeignersthroughstrikingfear inthemcanbefoundinnecipo#lu,architecture,"ceremonial"and"power. 138

155 Theembassyofabout600people,ledbytheenvoyMahdiquliKhan,governorof Ardabil,andtheprince sguardian, 11 leftqazvininfall1589,andsooncrossedinto Ottomanterritory.Fromthispointon,the6"year"oldprince slifewouldbepunctuatedby hispublicappearances,whichalwaysoccasionedmaterialexchanges.thesignificanceof theseexchangesliesintheobjectsthatthegivercarefullyselectedforthetakertoreceive andkeep.alsoimportant,areotherexchangesthattookplaceduringtheceremoniesthat bringmembersofthetwocourtstogether. Theseareephemeralexchangesintwoforms.Firstarethevisualandaudial displays,whichhadacompetitiveundertone.asvisualtestimoniestothemightofthe Ottomanpoliticalstructure,theyweredesignedtoimpressandevenoverwhelmthe Safavids.Second,thefeaststhatweregiveninhonoroftheprince,theenvoy,andtheir retinueweremeanttoserveasimilarfunction.butlookingcloseratthevisualandtextual descriptionsoffoodservedbytheottomansmakesitclearthattheseedibleanddrinkable giftsweregivenaprominentplaceamongottomanofferings.theirmeticulousnarration particularlyemphasizetherarityandsuperiortasteofeachtypeoffoodaswellastheir overabundance.furthermore,theirsupplyisdirectlyassociatedwiththesultan spower. Itwasthesultan sabilitytoprovidetowhomevercametohiscourtthesedelicaciesthat gavehimsuchpower.similartotangiblegifts,suchtransientgiftsrequiredmucheffort toprepareandserve,buttheywerespontaneouslyconsumed.ottomanauthorsdemand 11 Besidestheprince sguardian(tbegorll)shahimqulikhalifa,themostprominent membersoftheembassywereacertainaliqolikhan,andanothermahdiqulikhan. Ottomanauthorshaverecordedthenamesofimportantmembersoftheembassyinmore detailthansafavidauthors.thenamesgivenherearementionedintsmk,r1296,46b andinanottomanarchivaldocumentdiscussedbelow(seeappendix).however,onlythe envoy snameismentionedbythesafavidhistorianiskandarbegmunshi.seeeskandar BegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,II:

156 themostamountofappreciationforthesevaporousgifts,fortheyunderscore, persistently,howstunnedtheprinceandothersafavidswereatthesightandtasteofthe dishesonoffer,followedbyanemphasisontheboundlesscharacterofthesultan s favors.methodologically,itaketheseephemeralexchangesandtheirrepresentationsasa sub"groupofexchanges,whichwereespeciallyorganizedfor(andthereforeonlypossible with)thearrivalofthesafavidprince.theiranalysiswillilluminatethereceptionofthe princeattheottomancourt,himselftakenhereasanobjectexchangedbetweenthe SafavidandOttomancourts. Theredheadwasdrownedinfavors InOctober14 th of1589,theprincereachedhisfirststop,thecityoferzurum, wheretheottomanarmycommanderferhadpashawaswaitingforhim.soldiersofthe armyalsogathered,alldressedupandalignedalongsidethecommander stentinorderly manner.thedescriptionofthesceneinthebookoftreasuryoftheconquestofganja conveysinamostlivelymannerthejoyoftheottomancommanderuponwelcomingthe prince: whenthey[theprince,theenvoyandhisretinue]approachedthetentofthe commander,thecelebratedcommanderbecamevisiblefromundertheoverhanging canopy.likeafalcon("h#b"z#ıhüm"#perv"z)inthegame(he)hunts,withfullcaution andbrightwill,fromhorsebackheseized[theprince]andhuggedandkissed[him] 12 Theprincereceivedsuchanintimatewelcomemainlyduetohisprematureage.Being onlyachild,hisevidentvulnerabilityandneedforprotectionimmediatelyreceived Ottomanrecognition. 12 TSMK,R1296,48a. 140

157 Theinitialmeansthroughwhichfavorsandhonorswereshoweredonthelittle princewerethebanquetsgivenforhim.theottomancommanderferhadpashahad alreadyorderedthemealtobesetupbythesideofhisowntentwhereapproximately halftheembassywasservedfood.thisfirstoneofthetwoformalbanquetsforthe SafavidsinErzurumisspecificallystatedinOttomanmanuscriptstohavebeengivenby thesultanhimself(cenb"ı#pdih$den). 13 SeyyidLokman s"ehnme"i#%l"i#&osman (Book#of#Kings#of#the#House#of#Osman),adynastichistoryinrhymingversecompleted shortlyaftertheprince stransfertotheottomancourt,hasalengthysectionabout Haydar sjourneyandhisreceptioninistanbul.itisinthismanuscriptthatthesebanquets areelaboratedinlivelydetail. 14 Lokmanexplainsthattherewassomuchfoodthatthe Safavidswere drownedinfavors (nazl#ü#tedrik#görilüb#serbeser/#ni&mete#'ark(#olmu# 13 TSMK,R1296,48aand48b. 14 BritishLibrary(HereafterBL)Add7931.Themanuscriptisdated999(1590/1591)on 178b.Thetextofthismanucriptiscompletebutmostofthemarginaldecorationsand paintingsinitareunfinished.itonlyincludesportraitsofsultansosman,orhan,and MehmedI.Welearnthethemeoftheintendedpaintingsthroughcoupletswrittenontop ofruled,blankpages.seecharlesrieu,catalogue#of#the#turkish#manuscripts#in#the# British#Museum#(London:BritishMuseum,1888),16"7;ZerenTanındı, Transformation ofwordstoimages:portraitsofottomancourtiersinthe Dîwâns ofbâkîandnâdirî, Res#43(2003),134"36.Thebanquetsaredescribedbetweenfolios118aand122b.For SeyyidLokman scareerandhisauthorshipofthismanuscriptseefetvacı, Ottoman CourtHistorian,

158 idisur"ser). 15 Thismealfromthesultanwasspreadoversixtytablesandcountlessitems offoodwerebroughtinbejeweledservingplates(sa"n#ımurassa$). 16 ThissceneisillustratedinapaintingintheBookofTreasuryoftheConquestof Ganja. 17 (Figure3.3)Thepaintingshowsthetablearoundwhichsattheprince,the OttomancommanderFerhadPasha,theenvoy,andhisimmediateretinue.Insidethetop marginisaroundinginvertedsquaremotifwhereinisinscribedthedescriptionofthe scene: Eighteenthpainting(meclis):ThisistheplacewherePrinceHaydarwasfeasted onaccountofthepadshahinerzurum. Weseethelonglargetable,placedatthecenter ofthecomposition,fromanoverheadview.butthedishesandthecourtiersaredepicted infrontalviewasiftheywerepaperfiguresfoldedoutinapop"upbook.thismannerof representation,favoringvisibilityfortheviewer,allowsustoseeeachpersonsittingwith theirlegscrossed,theirindividualspoonandpieceofbreadplacedinfrontofthemonthe table,andtheirbodilygesturesastheyinteractwithoneanother.alongpieceofsheer fabricgoesaroundthetable,coveringeveryone slaptocollectfoodcrumbs.thehigh mountainsoftheareaalsofigureinthepainting,toweringbehindtheprominentendof thetable,inthetopcenter,wheretheprince,commander,andtheenvoysit.curious commonerspoketheirheadsfrombehindthehillsinthescene,showingusthelevelof curiositytheprince sarrivalevoked.italsohintstothesemi"secludedandsemi"private 15 BLAdd7931,118a.Thewordni$metistranslatedalsoasblessing,beneficence, kindness,bountifulgift,delight,comfort,pleasure,riches,wealthandprosperity.butit mightwellbeunderstoodsimplyasfood,basicfoodorbread.ifitistobetakenas food, thenitisthekindoffoodthatsomeone,inthiscasethesultan,gives.therefore, consideringthemultiplemeaningsthewordmightdenote,itshouldnotbeunderstoodas detachedfromtheactofbeinggivenasafavor.steingass,persian#englishdictionary, 1412;SirJamesRedhouse,ATurkishandEnglishLexicon(Beirut:LibrairieduLiban, 1987[1890]), BLAdd7931,118b. 17 TSMK,R1296,48b. 142

159 natureofthefeast,whichallowedoutsiderstocatchaglimpseofthesafavidprinceand howhewasreceived. Theprince spre"maturityisonceagainunderscoredbyhissmallsizeinthe painting.otherwise,heismuchveneratedthroughhisplaceatthetableandhiselegant outfit.histurbanisdecoratedwithablackbirdfeathermuchliketheothersinthescene. Additionally,hishasawhiteone,whichismatchedonlybytheenvoyMahdiquliKhan s turban,similarinshapebutindifferentcolors.theprinceandtheenvoysitattheheadof thetable,oneithersideofthecommanderferhadpasha.ferhadpashasurelyhasa commandingpresence,especiallywithhislargerturban,whichismuchenhancedbyhis contrastwiththelittleprincesittingbyhisside.acrossthetablesitthreesafavids.but thisverticalsymmetryisnotmirroredontherightandleftsidesofthetable.anottoman archivaldocumentlistingrobesofhonor(cme)giventotheenvoy sretinuementions thenamesoffourteensafaviddignitaries,whichperfectlymatchesthenumberofpeople aroundthetable. 18 Incontrasttosuchquantitativeaccuracy,thefoodisdescribedinrather qualitativeterms,placingmuchemphasisonitssuperfluity.suchassertionsas insteadof water,honey"watersplashed, and asifthatgroundwasallsugar, orqualifying expressionssuchas withoutcompare abound,forexample,inlokman stext. 19 One particularwordthatisfrequentlyusedtorefertothefoodservedatthefeastisnef"s(pl. nef"s).lokmanwrote: insixtytablesmorethanagreeabletotaste/intotalwere 18 ThisdocumentisfoundinatreasuryregisterattheBabakanlıkArivi(hereafterBA) inistanbul,kk.1773,231.atranscriptionofthedocumentcanbefoundinfullin Appendix2. 19 altmı#sofrada#$ayri#bekm#/#cümle#yüzer#dürl"#nef"s%i#tamm,#su#yerine#ça&lar#id"# ehd%b#/#berre'%i#biryn#olun(r#m"#)esbbladd7931,118b,119b. 143

160 hundredsofexcellentdelicacies(nef"s). InRahimizade stext,thelinesimmediately abovethepaintingwithinthepicturerulingread: aboveall,plentifuldelicacies(nef"s) weresummonedandbroughtespeciallybeforetheprince. Thiswordisalternately translatedas precious,delicate,exquisite,awished"forobject,greatriches,good, excellent,precious,rare,orsomethingthatisasourceofpride. Theconsistentuseof thiswordtorefertothefoodunderscorestherarityofwhatwasservedingeneralterms. Thereisonlyoccasionalreferencetowhatexactlywasoffered.Lokmanexplainsthatat thetableweretwotypesofbread:bagels(nn#ı$simit)andsweetpizza(ya%lu$b"de#i$ eker").besidesthese,meatsandsweetsdominatedthemenu,whichincludedrefreshing sweetdrinks,rosejam,andmeatsofvariousbirdsandfish. Thesultan sfeastwasfollowedbyapresentationof varioustypesofprecious robesofhonor (&il't#ı$müte'addid#i$f&ir)forthesafavidembassy. 20 Butinadditionto these,theyreceivedotherobjectsfromthesultan,amongwhichwerelavishlydecorated horses,swords,daggers,belts,andfabricswovenwithsilverandgoldthreads: thenrobe(s)ofhonorwithnoblefavors/bestowedonpeopleofallranks bejeweledhorsewithdecoratedsteed/itscoquettishairshumbleasapeacock itsblanketwasgold"woven,luminous/sword,belt,anddaggersetwithpearls loadsofsilverandgoldwithoutbounds/variousfabrics,ornamentedcloths astringofloadedcamels/aredheartcheeringtent favorsandbenevolencefromthekingofkings/generosityandmunificence fromtheheart sdesire TSMK,R1296,48b.AccordingtoDalMehmed 21 &il'atle$(oñradan$in'm#ı$&($/$eyled"$mebz)l$'avm$u$&av((,$ra&t#ı$mura((a'la$ müzeyyen$semend$/$cilves"$*v)s$gib"$müstmend,$yp)%"$hep$(ırma$id"$tbdr$/$t"%$ü$kemer$ 144

161 - Thewordsinthislastcoupletusedtoreferto generosity and favors arelu"f and#a"$,andbezlandsa%$,whichareusedinpairs.inadditionto generosity, lu"falso means kindness,goodness,favor,gentlenessandbenevolence. #A"$isdefinedas munificenceandgiving, butcouldalsodenoteamoreactualizedformofmunificence, being gift,favor,present,orathinggiven. Bezlisveryclosetothelatterinmeaning, beingdefinedas munificence,givingliberally,spending, butalso agift,present, expense. Finally,theuseofthewordsa%$complementsthesethreebyrepeatingthe principleofthesultans liberality,generosity,beneficence. 22 Muchlikethefoodservedatthefeast,objectspresentedfollowingthemealare describedinamannerthatbringsforwardtheendlessquantitiesinwhichtheywere provided,whichwasthendirectlytiedtothesultan sunendingbeneficence.infact,to underscorethispoint,thegreatnessofthesultan sgenerosityandfavorsaresaidtofill thewholeworld: theuniverse,drownedinfavors/thefaceoftheearthwasfullofsugar andsweetmeats. 23 Whilethiscoupletimmediatelyfollowsthedescriptionofthefeast, thecoupletfollowingthediscussionofthesultanicgiftsareasfollows: sprinkling alwaysunparalleledfavors/thepeopleofgodwerethankful. 24 Thewordusedto indicate favor inbothcontextsisthesame:ni#met(pl.ni#m).themultipleconnotations thatthiswordembodieshelpsdemonstratetheextenttowhichephemeralandmaterial offeringsweresimilarlytiedinprincipletothesultan sgenerosity.whileitmightwellbe %ançergevhernig$r,yükleriles&müzerb&'esab/ak(mie)ielv$nümüzehhebsiy$b, yüklük(a"$r&lemih$r)ıfüz*n/çetr)ıdilfür*zl$leg*n,lu"fü#a"$itd&ehin$hdan/bezlü sa%$&me+)idil%$hdanbladd7931,119a. 22 Steingass,Persian)EnglishDictionary,166,660,853,1123;Redhouse,Turkishand EnglishLexicon,349,1044,1305, ni#metemüsta,rik(olubk$yin$t/yeryüz&meml*id&k- anduneb$ ( "BLAdd7931,118b. 24 ni#met)ib&ç*n&eküpd$&m$/$kirid&zümre+)iehl)ihüd$bladd7931,119b. 145

162 understoodsimplyasfood,basicfoodorbread,itisalsotranslatedas blessing, beneficence,kindness,bountifulgift,delight,comfort,pleasure,riches,wealthand prosperity. 25 Inallcases,itistobeunderstoodassomethinggivenfromamore powerful,moregenerouspartytoalesserbeinginneed.inthequr an,therecurrenceof thisterminavarietyofforms reinforcesthekeyislamicideathatallblessingsarefrom Godandthatheistheonlyonethatbestowsthem,onwhomsoeverhewills. 26 Aclose parallelisdrawnhere,then,betweenthefavorsfromthesultanandfavorsfromgod. Theparalleltreatmentofephemeralfavorsconsumedatthespotandtangibleones thatthesafavidscouldcontinuetousethroughtheirjourneyandbeyondisalsoevident inottomannarrativesofhowthesafavidsperceivedandconsumedthem.asmentioned inthelastcouplet( sprinklingalwaysunparalleledfavors/thepeopleofgodwere thankful ),theexpressionofsafavidfeelingsofgratitude,aswellashappinessandawe, inreactiontothesultan sfavorabletreatment(a"#$m)andfavors,isatropethatappears againandagaininottomanaccountsoftheembassy sreception.thesafavidamazement isparticularlybroughttothefore,forexample,atthesightofeverythingthatwasoffered tothem: thisfeastofgreatcare/leftinawethehighandlow[people]. Thecouplet immediatelyfollowingthislastoneisparticularlyimportantandhardtomiss,foritis inscribedatthetopofadouble"spreadleftblankforpaintings: thesonofshah,seeing gloryandpower/becamemuchcheerfulwiththevizier 27 Attheendofthefeastgiven byferhadpashasoonafterthatofthesultan,itissaidthatthefoodwaseatenwith 25 Steingass,Persian%English&Dictionary,1412;Redhouse,Turkish&and&English&Lexicon, RafikBerjak Ni#ma, The&Qur an:&an&encyclopedia,(londonandnewyork: Routledge,2006), ib'&z(iy)fetden&"a#$m&ihtim)m&/&olma*la&k+)ld$&"aceb&,)-&u&")m,&görd$&ah&o*l$&eref&&ü& "izzet$&/&old$&ziy)d&)-afile&behcet$bladd7931,120a"121a. 146

163 feelingsofgratitudeandappreciation,followedbyprayers. 28 Sincethesefavorswerein essencetobeunderstoodtohavebeengivenbygod,thesultan,havingprovidedthemin thisinstance,gainsaddedprestige. ThefeastgivenbyFerhadPashacommunicated,throughitsextent,hispositionin thestricthierarchyoftheottomanpoliticalestablishment,whileconcurrentlyedifying thatofthesultan.hisfeastwasservedingoldandsilverdishesandspreadover40 tables 29 (thatofthesultanhad60).rahimizadeexplainsthepurposeofthisfeastas follows: andonthethirddayofthementionedmonth,whichwasadayoftheramadan Holiday,thecommanderofgoodjudgement,withallofhismightandwhatisinhis power,summonedfortytablesoffoodonhisownaccountfortheprotectionandhonorof theruleroftheworld. 30 Thesweetrefreshingdrinks(erbet)cameincupsinscribedingold(zeralle" yaz#lu"ehk$se"hep).themodesty,ornamentsandaccessoriesoftheservers(çanig#rlit. taster)aredescribedasanextensionofthefood spresentationonthetablesinan exaggeratedmanner: hundredsofserverswithpolitemanners/withsilverbelt(s)and excellentornaments. 31 Atthesametimeasthecommander sfeastisdistinguishedfromthesultan sby itslesserscope,intermsofactualcontent,itmimickedthelatterclosely.sweets dominatedthemealsimilartothefeastafewdaysbefore.moreimportantly,the 28 BLAdd7931,122a. 29 TSMK,R1296,49a. 30 TSMK,R1296,49a. 31 birn#ce"yüz"çanig#r"üslübile"/"s#m"kemer"z#net%i"mer&'bile,"eyled#ler"cümles#"(idmet"ü" ed$"/"bezme%i"füz'n"old#"ni$)"u"*ef$bladd7931,122a. 147

164 excessiveamountsoffoodandunmatchedfavorsaregivenmuchemphasisinlokman s text: thedelicacieswereinthiswayspilledontheground/ itwasenoughforthepresentandtheabsent sweetsstacked(likedomes)everywhere/ fruitswouldnotbereveredbylaypeople, thedelicacieswereactuallyheart"cheering/ tray(s)ofsweetwouldexciteplunder 32 Sincetheendofthisfeastcoincidedwithprayertime,everyoneperformedtheirprayers inunison,followingtheimam slead.aftercommunalprayers,propertreatmentofthe guestscontinuedwiththeservingoffruitsandsweetdrinks(o"b). 33 Duringthislast serving,theguestswereentertainedwithmusic,which,ofcourse,pleasedeveryone. Finally,FerhadPashapresentedhisowngiftstotheembassyjustlikethesultan. The"ehn"me#i$%l#i$&Osmangivesadetailedaccountofthesegifts,whicharereferredto aspike,awordusedinbothturkishandpersiantodenoteagiftfromaninferiortoa superior.thecommandergavespecificallytoprincehaydar50smallbags(k'se)filled withgoldandsilver,fivehorses,manyslaves,abejeweledswordandabejeweledbelt,a daggerencrustedwithbrightniluferidiamonds,andhundredsofbundles(bok(çe)filled withsumptuousfabrics(f"ir$lib"s).theonlyitemsdescribedingreaterdetailarethe 32 öyle$dökülmid'$nef"'s$yere$/$k"f'$id'$)"'be$ü$*"z+ıra$$ k(ubbelenüb$$heryañ"$mı,r#ı$neb"t$/$miyveye$alk($itmez$id'$iltif"t$$ n"z$u$ni&m$gerçi$dil"r"$id'$/$"n#ı$eker$b"&is#i$ya)m"$id'bladd7931,122a. 33 Thedrinkswerescentedwithanbergisandcontainedhoneyandrosewater.BLAdd 7931,122a. 148

165 horses,thefirstoneofwhichissaidtohavehadablanketfullyembroideredwithgold (yapu"#zerdu$te#badan#baa),whichwouldevokewonderinwhoeverwouldseeit.the otherhorseshadhorseclothswithdotteddecorations(dört#ba#at#dahi#benek#çulla).book# of#treasury#of#the#conquest#of#ganjapointsoutthatthesegiftscloselyemulatedthose givenbythesultanhimself,andthattheywerepresentedinkeepingwiththeappropriate mannerofservingafeast,allofwhichdelightedthesafavids. 34 JustastheamountsandqualitiesofOttomangiftswerestrictlydictatedbythe presenter srank,thereceiver srankcorrespondinglydeterminedthequalityofgiftsthat theywouldcollect.tobesure,inthiscase,itwasthesafavidprincethatreceivedthe mostpreciousgifts.followinghimwerethemostprominentmembersofthesafavid embassy($%nlara#vesult%nlara),whoweregivengoldandsilver,inadditiontorobesof honor.safavidkeepersofthearmory(zümre&'i#k(urçilere)werealsohighlyrankedasto receiverobesofhonor.inadditiontotheseeminentmembersoftheembassy,therewere others,referredtosimplyas therest (ayr"lere),whoweredistributed 400piecesof fabrics (ak(mie#dörtyüz#k(ı)a) 35 Allofthesegiftsweremeanttodisplaytheextentofthemightandgenerosityof thesultan,whichwasbuttressedandenhancedfurtherbythosepresentedtothesafavids bythecommanderferhadpasha,whichweresmallerinscalebutverysimilarincontent. SuchextravagantandcompetitiveexchangesinErzurumwouldprefigurethosetocome inistanbul,butatamuchlargerscaleandinvolvingamorediverserangeofparticipants. MeanwhileinIstanbul,extensivepreparationswerebeingmadefortheprince s staythere.thegrandviziersinanpashaappointedselanikimustafaefendias 34 TSMK,R1296,49a. 35 BLAdd7931,122b. 149

166 mihmandar,whosedutiesincludedoverseeingrepairsandredecorationofthepertev PashaPalacefortheprinceandhisentourage.Thepalacehadelevenrooms,includinga councilhall(dv"nh"ne).tworoomswerepreparedfortheprinceandtwofortheenvoy. Theroomsfortheenvoyweresumptuouslydecorated(iki#oda#f"hir#esb"b#ile#döenüp), butthosefortheprincereceivedbestqualitydecorations(hassü l$has#iki#mükellef#oda). Besidesthese,oneroomwasspecificallyassignedtotheprince swetnurse(d"ye),oneto thedoctor(tabb),andtwototheotherhigh"rankingofficials(sultanlara). 36 Extraordinarymeasureswerealsobeingtakentoorganizepublicandprivate welcomingceremoniesfortheprince.thewholearmywasmobilizedfortheembassy s entryintothecity.rahimizadedescribesthissceneasfollows: Afterthat,onthetwelfthdayofthemonth,whichwasa Thursday,whenitwascertainthatPrinceHaydarwould come,hasanpasha,sonofthelatemehmedpasha,andthe previousgovernorofdamascus, 37 methimnearthegarden offener(fener#bak%çesi)ontheanatolianside(üsküdar# &arafında)togetherwiththeaghasofthestirrupandthe commandersofthestandingcavalry,headoftheimperial messengersandheadofthecorpsofarmorersandtheir ownmen,allofthemdressedinfullceremonialand combatgear.janissariesandcavalrycorpswerewaitingat thedock,displayingthepompandpowerofthekingofthe worldandthesplendorofthisbravegroupwasviewed.it wassuchthatnoteventhosewhosawnoah,northosewho studiedthestoriesofdaraandjamshidcouldnothave heardofsuchanaccount.thecrowdofthepeoplewasat suchalevelthatitseemedlikethedayofjudgement Selaniki,Tarih,I:217"8. 37 HasanPashawasthesonofthelateSokolluMehmedPasha,whowasagrandvizier duringthereignsofsultansüleymanandselimii.lokmannotesthataftercomingto Istanbul,HasanPashawasappointedtothepostofgovernor"generalofAnatoliaBL,Add 7931,126b;Selaniki,Tarih,I: TSMK,R1296,51a"51b. 150

167 TheextraordinaryimportanceandcarethattheOttomanstatelaidonthe receptionandhostingoftheprinceissimilarlyemphasizedinothersources.lokman notesthattheottomansoldiersformedranksfromüsküdartomaltepe,whichisquitea lengthydistanceofabout20kilometers.thismightbeanoverstatement,butevidently therewasenoughmovementinthecityanditsoutskirtsthatothereye"witnessaccounts similarlyspeakofthemagnitudeofthecrowdsconsistingofmenandwomen,who traveledfarandwidewiththehopeofseeingthelittleprince. Thisprevented,accordingtoSelaniki,HaydarMirzaandhisentouragefrom movingforwardinatimelymannertoreachthehistoricalpeninsula: theabundanceof thepeoplewassounboundedthatthefeastofthesultanhadtobedelayeduntilthe evening(kesretuizdih"mnih"yetdeolma#laziy"fetveni$met%isım"t%ıp"di"h&ahama kalup.) Duringthefeast,Selanikinotesthatnotonlycountlessamountsoffoodand drinkswereserved,buttheprincewasalsogivenloadsofhardcash(yükyükakçalar harçlıkvirildi). 39 Althoughmostsourcespresenttheprince sjourneyasaseamlessprogressionof perfectlyorchestratedevents,thevenetianbailogiovannimoro sreporttothesenate mentionsanincidentofmilitarymisconduct,which,ifaccurate,musthavedismayedthe OttomansmuchmorethantheSafavids.Hewrote: thereweremorethanonethousandmenonhorseback andabout5000onfoot,allofthemlavishlydressed.of thesetherewerenotmorethantwohundredcavalrymen (spahi),whowerenotallowedtocrossovertoüsküdar 39 Selaniki,Tarih,I:218.Othersourcesdonotmakenoteofafeastgivenfortheembassy inüsküdar.rahimizadealsonotesthatbecauseofthelargenessofthecrowds,theprince wasnotabletoreachhisdestination(menzil%imu$ayyenesine)bysuppertime,whenan extravagantmealwasserved(veolzamandasim"'çekilüpenv"$%ı'a$"mveelv"n%ı (ulviyyatbirmertebedebezlolındıkitakrir) 151

168 (Scutaretto),eventhoughbeforeitwasorderedthat3000 shouldgothere.thischangeofplanswascaused,itwas rumored,thattheirkingwasrequiredtogivethemacertain donativegift(donativo)thattheydemandedalongwitha raiseintheirregularpay.theywouldnotletthepersian crossfromüsküdartoconstantinopleunlesstheywere givensatisfactionbythesultan.and,nottoshowhow muchthisrevoltoutragedthesultan,hechangedhistarget andgotapetition(arz)fromthejudge(cadi)ofüsküdar, whichexplainedthatfewercavalrymenhadpassed accordingtothereleasedorderandtheyhaddonemuch damageinthattown,anditinstructedthattheygoforward inthequantityoriginallyordered.theynearlydestroyedit. Thejurist(Mufti)issuedajudicialruling(fetfi),whichisa decreegivenbythesupremeleaderofthereligionofthe TurkswithwhichhemadetheGranSignorknowthattheir lawdoesnotsupporthonoringtheschismaticpersiansso greatlyandthatheshouldgrantfewer[soldiers]to accompanytheminconstantinople,butthecavalrymen, whowerewell"informedaboutallofthis,showed resentment,reasoningthattheywouldwaitforan opportunity,whichwouldmakethemseemlikethey deservesuchanincreaseintheirpay.otherprevious emperorshadmadeitahabitofgivingthisdonativegift whenevertheyreturnedvictoriouslytoconstantinople. Whereasthesehaddeservedtogetmuchmorepaymentsas such,theirsignorenjoystorestandstayinhispalace, puttingtheirlivesindanger.theyconqueredmanyplaces inhisname,suchthatpreviousimpressionsdonoteven comparetothese. 40 Althoughothersourcesmakenomentionofamilitarydiscontentthatdelayedthe prince stimelymovement, 41 thereisimplicitmentionofsuchadelay,asnotedearlier. TheOttomanhistorianSelanikistatesinmorethanoneoccasionthattheembassy 40 ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinpoli,filza30,333b. 41 Inaletter(telhis)tothesultan,thegrandvizierSinanPashaexplainsthathehadheard that somemerciless[people] (baz"ı#b$"ins%flar)provokedsoldierstotakeadvantageof theprince sarrivalinordertogetasalaryincrease(terakki)byholdingtheprincein Üsküdar.Afterquestioningtheircommanders,however,SinanPashalearnedthatthey hadnotevenheardofsuchaplan.halilsahillio#lu,ed.,koca#sinan#paa nın#telhisleri (Istanbul:IRCICA,2004),

169 proceededwithdifficulty,whichhesayswasbecauseoftheoverwhelmingnumberof curiouspeopleandsoldiersthatfilledthestreetsofthecityanditsoutskirts.thebailo s reportisalsoplausiblebecauseatthistime,ottomansoldierswerefrequentlyangeredby currentpoliticalandeconomicdevelopments,whichtheysometimesexpressedinopen rebellion.onesuchincidentofaggressionovereconomicinstabilitytookplaceright insidetheimperialpalaceseveralmonthsbeforethearrivaloftheprince.accordingto Selaniki,cavalrymenreturningfromtheGanjaCampaignfoundthatthemoneythey receivedasstipendhadbecomemuchlessinvalue.thefurioussoldiersevenattacked theirownsuperiors(aalarına"dahi"kötek"çalup).attributingthecauseofthedevaluation tothewarswiththesafavids,theyinsistedonpunishingviziermehmedpasha,whowas namedresponsibleforthemintingofsilver.intheend,thesoldierswerepowerful enoughtotakemehmedpashaandexecutehimonthespot. 42 InÜsküdar,theheadoftheOttomanfleetwaspresentwaitingwiththesoldiers underhiscommand.besideshisowngalley,therewerefourteenotherlargeshipswaiting toaccompanytheembassyontheirwaytoistanbul.giovannimoro sreportrecordsthat theseshipswerenotalreadyexistingones,butwerespeciallyconstructedforwelcoming FerhadPashaandthePersianprinceintoIstanbul. 43 Whentheembassyembarkedonthe ships,thecommanderoftheottomanfleetserved amealwithoutcompare accordingto Lokman. 44 Itwasprobablyduringthismealthatcannonswerefiredfromtheships,which musthavelefteveryoneinistanbulawestruck.butforthesafavids,whowereinsidethe ships,thismusthavebeenmorefrighteningthandelightful.thisispreciselyhow 42 Selaniki,Tarih,I:209" ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinpoli,filza30,334b. 44 BLAdd7931,128b. 153

170 StephanGerlach,amemberoftheAustrianembassy,relatedtheSafavidenvoyToqmaq Sultan sexperiencein1576: Intheshipwassetatablecoveredwithagold"embroidered tablecloth,onwhichwerevariousdishes.uluçali[commanderofthefleet]hadtoldhis mentofireallofthecannonsassoonastheenvoytookhisfirstbite.accordingto tradition,oncethecannonswerefired,thepersiansweresoscaredthattheycollapsedon eachother. GerlachalsonotedhowmuchthesightofthisterrorrejoicedUluçAli,who mischievouslytoldthemnottobeupset. 45 Thebailo sreportalsonotesthatthearrivalof thepersianswascelebrated withthefiringofartillerynotonlyfromthegalleysbutalso fromthepalaceofthegrandsignor. 46 HaydarMirzaentersIstanbul Theprince sentryintoistanbulhasinspiredmultipleauthorsandpaintersto recordtheirimpressionsinlivelyaccounts.selanikirecordedthatwhentheembassyset sailfromüsküdar, Istanbul swomen,noblesandcommoners,youngandold,filledup alltheshopsandmarketstoobserve[theembassy]. 47 Lokman,inhisehnme"i#$l"i# %Osmanwrote: 45 Gerlach,Türkiye#Günlü&ü,I: lo#aspettavano#à#scutaretto#honorandolo#con#molti#tiri#d artiglieria#sbarati#non#solo# dalle#galee#ma#anco#dal#seraglio#del#gran#sg r ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinpoli, filza30,333a.othersourcesfromthisperiod,however,noteonlytophane namedafter theimperialcannonfoundrythere"asthedistrictfromwhichcannonswouldbefired duringpubliccelebrations.seesalimayduz,tophane"i#amire#ve#osmanlı#devletinde# Top#Döküm#Faaliyetleri(Ankara:TürkTarihKurumu,2006),470"4. 47 Theprincearrivedlateintheday,whichmadepeople stripbackhomedifficultor impossible.thisposedaproblemparticularlyforwomen.thosewhohadacquaintances livingnearbystayedwiththem.othersstayedoutonthestreetorinsideabathhouseuntil thenextday,whichcausedmanywomentobedivorcedbytheirhusbandswho questionedtheirloyaltythepreviousnight.selaniki,tarih,i:218"9;bladd7931, 129b.Inalettertothesultan,thegrandvizierSinanPashaacceptsthatwomencouldnot 154

171 Thefortunateonescametothedock/ ThesonoftheShahdisembarkedfromtheshipandmountedahorse TheRedheadsembracedtheprince/ Artistsdrewhislikeness HisgloriousprocessionwasledbyHasanPasha/ Andvariousaghasandhigh"rankingofficialsfollowingbehind 48 Thisdescriptionoftheprinceenteringthecitywasalsomeanttohavebeenpicturedin thesamebook.inthisincompletedouble"pagecomposition,inplaceareonlytherulings andacoupletinscribedrightbelowtheupperendoftheframesoneitherpage. 49 Thoughnotinthisbook,theprince sprocessionwasindeedpaintedbypaintersas Lokmanrecorded,forseveralimagesoftheprocessionareextant,twoofwhichdepict theprincehimself.(figure3.4)oneofthesebelongsinagroupofpaintingsinanalbum commissionedforrudolfiiprobablybyhisambassadortotheottomancourt, BartolomeodiPezzana. 50 Inthispaintingtheprinceismountedonablackhorsewith getbackhomeduetotheprince sdelayedarrival,butdisputestheaccusationsthattheir safetycouldnotbeprovidedbyottomansoldiers.sahillio#lu,ed.,kocasinan,134"5. 48 iskeleyek"aruçık"#bkamy$b/çık"d%aho&l%gemidenbind%$t mirz$ya'arıld%k"ızılb$lar/resmininak"eyled%nak"k"alar düd%(asanpaaöñeanla/s$yira&alarda)%erk$nlabladd7931,128b. 49 BLAdd7931,130b"131a. 50 ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626(hereafterCod. 8626),123r"128r.Thepainter(s)ofthealbumareunidentified.Itmusthavebeen completedsometimeinorafter1590sinceitincludespaintingsofthesafavidembassy thatarrivedinistanbulin1590.thepaintingoftheprinceinthisalbumismentionedin ZerenTanındı, TransformationofWords, 134n25;FranzBabinger, Drei StadtansichtenvonKostantinopel,Galata( Pera )undskutariausdemendedes16. Jahrhunderts, ÖsterreichischeAkademiederWissenschaftenPhilogisch*Historische Klasse,Denkschriften77,Band3(1959).Forthealbum,seeAlbertoArbasino,ITurchi: CodexVindobonensis8626(Parma:F.M.Ricci,1971);F.Unterkircher, TheImperial Codex FrancoMariaRicci5(1984):112"4.Unterkircherdatesthealbumbetween

172 goldtrappings,ledinfrontandoneithersidebythreesafavidmen.comparedtothose men,heismorelavishlydressed.mostnoticeably,agold,profuselyjeweledbandgoes aroundhisturban,whichistoppedbyasinglefan"shapedblackbirdfeatherandan extensionthatisalsojeweledallaround.theinscriptiononthelowerpartofthepage creditsthegrandvizierfortheprince stransfer: TheKingofPersia'sson,whobythe wilyplansofsinanpashawassenttoconstantinoplein Thesecondoneisapaintingfromadisperseddv"n(collectionofpoetry)ofthe renownedottomanpoetb#k$%currentlyatthemetropolitanmuseumofart(met)in NewYork(Figure3.5). 52 Thissinglefoliodepictingtheprince sceremonialentryinto thecityhasrecentlybeenidentifiedassuchbyzerentanındı. 53 Itwaspreviouslythought tobeaprocessionofanottomansultan,ormuradiii,leadinghisarmyintoacity. 54 An accuratereadingofthecoupletsinscribedaboveandbelowthepaintingintandemwitha closeexaminationofthepaintingitselfledtothisnewattribution.basedonstylistic analysis,tanındıfurtherarguedthatitwasmostlikelyproducedintheottomanprovince ofbaghdadattheendofthesixteenthorbeginningoftheseventeenthcenturies.this argumentfoundfurthersupportthroughtheoriginalmanuscript slikelytiestohasan and1593,thedatesofthepersianprince sentryintotheottomancapitalandthe beginningoftheottoman"habsburgwar. 51 Des#kinigs#[Koenigs]#aus#Persia#son#[Sohn]#so#1590#auff#Constandinopll#durch#list# unnd#prattica#des#sinam#wascha#ist#geschickt#wordencod.8626, MetropolitanMuseumofArt, Thissinglepageisthoughttobelonginoneof thefourknownillsutratedcopiesofb#k$% sdv"n.foradiscussionofthethreeintact copiesandthedispersedone,seerachelmilstein,miniature#painting#in#ottoman# Baghdad(CostaMesa:MazdaPublishers,1990), Tanındı, TransformationofWords, 133"4,NorahM.Titley,Persian#Miniature# Painting#and#Its#Influence#on#the#Art#of#Turkey#and#India(Austin:UniversityofTexas Press,1984), ErnstJ.Grubeetal., TheOttomanEmpire The#Metropolitan#Museum#of#Art#Bulletin 26,no.5(1968),215;Milstein,Miniature#Painting,

173 Pasha,whowasresponsibleforaccompanyingtheprinceintoIstanbulasnotedabove. Between1598and1602heservedasthegovernorofBaghdadandisknowntobean activepatronofthearts.moreover,heprobablyknewthepoetb"k#$personally. Therefore,asTanındıargues,itisentirelypossiblethatthisdispersedmanuscriptwas originallypreparedforhim. 55 Inthispainting,itisanOttomanfigureonhorsebackthatisattheheartofthe compositionratherthanthesafavidprince.thiscentralfigureisdistinguishedthrough hislargeandtallwhiteturban,whichcontrastswiththebackground,andthespace separatinghimfromsoldiersathisfrontandback.thisfigure,aszanındısuggested,is mostprobablyhasanpasha.heisledinfrontbyottomansoldiersonfootcarrying firearmsthatappeartobemuskets,andfollowedbehindbymountedsoldiers,whoare alsointheirmilitarygear;mostofthemarewearinghelmetsandcarryingshields.this processionisalignedwiththecitywallsandismovingtowardsthecitygate,through whichtheheadoftheprocessionhavealreadypassed.abovethegateway,weseemany musiciansblowingtheirhornstoannouncetheentryofhaydarmirzaintoistanbul. Beyondthecitywallsandaroundthegatecuriousresidentsofthecity,menandwomen, hadgatheredtoseetheprince.theprincehimselfisseenintheforeground,separated fromthecitywallsbyasmallhill.infact,thewholesafavidprocessionissandwiched betweentwolinesoftheottomanprocession%thefirstabove,movingalongthewalls, andthesecondborderingthelowerframeofthecomposition. 55 Tanındı, TransformationofWords,

174 TheSafavidsaredistinguishedfromtheOttomansmostnoticeablybytheir turbans,whicharewrappedaroundatallredextension(tjortj"i#haydar$). 56 Thoseof theprinceandhistwoattendantsaredecoratedadditionallywithtall,thick,androunding whitebirdfeathers,whichcontrasteffectivelywiththetallroundturbansofthetwo Ottomanofficialsinthescenewhichareadornedwithblack,fan"shapedfeathers.Gülru Necipo#luhasshownthatanewOttomanvisualvocabularywasformulatedduring SultanSüleyman sreign,whichfavoredlargefloralmotifsincontrastingcolors, multipliedinfinitely.thisnewaestheticnotonlyredefinedthepreviouslypopular intricatemotifsinsubtlecolors,butitalsostrictlyeliminatedhumanimagery,whichwas sowidelyusedinsafavidartisticproduction.necipo#lufurtherargued,byunderscoring thefrequencywithwhichforeignobserversnotedthedivergentattitudesofsafavidsand Ottomanstowardstheuseofhumanforms,that theaniconicismoftheofficialottoman decorativeartsmightindeedhavebeenaconsequenceoftheorthodoxreligiousclimate whichtookshapeinresponsetoconstantconflictswiththehabsburgsandsafavids. 57 It ispossibletoexpandthisformulationofimperialidentitybywayofanemphasison visualdifferencetoincludethenoticeablycontrastingshapesofottomanandsafavid turbanshere ThedistinctiveSafavidheadgearconsistsofatallredbaton,wrappedaroundawhite turban.sourcesemphasizetheturban sreferencetotwelvershi$ism,somestatingthat theturbanwasfoldedtwelvetimesaroundtheredbaton,andotherssayingthatthebaton itselfwasdividedintotwelvesections.forvisualrepresentationsofthesafavidheadgear throughoutthesixteenthcentury,anditstransformationduringthereignofshahabbas, seeseebarbaraschmitz, OnaSpecialHatIntroducedDuringtheReignofShah$Abb%s thegreat Iran22(1984):103" Necipo#lu, KanunfortheState, 214. " #$%#&'()*#+,-+./+0+Necipo#lumentionsthattheroundwhiteOttomanturbanwith manyfolds(mücevveze)wasinventedduringthetimeofsultansüleymantodistinguish high"rankingmembersofthestatefromtheregularfolk,necipo#lu,age#of#sinan,

175 MirroringtheOttomanorganization,theprinceisheadedinfrontbymembersof theembassyonfootandfollowedbythoseonhorses.thisway,heisalsovertically alignedwithhasanpashainthecomposition.bycontrastwiththepasha,however,the princedoesnotleadthehorseonhisown,forthehorse sreinsareheldinfrontbyan attendant.moreover,theprinceisflankedbytwosafaviddignitarieswithgreybeards. TheylookforwardbutwiththeirhandstheymakesurethatHaydarsitsproperlyonthe horse.thesetwofiguresarethoughttobetwoofthefourmosthonoredmembersofthe embassy:theprince sguardian(lalaoratabeg)shahimqulikhalifa(orahımk"uli #al$fe),andaliqolikhan(%ali#al$fesultan,or%alik"ulisultan). 59 Thisimageofthedependentprinceenhancestheideathathewasforcedtocome asamanifestationofthereachofthesultan spower.whenthepaintingisreadtogether withthepoemthatitisinspiredfrom,itbecomesmoreclearthattheprincehimself objectifiestheottomanconvictionthattheirsisthesuperiorrulertoallothers.the prince sarrivalatteststothesultan sabilitytoreceivethoseotherrulersandcommanders whocometopayhomagetohim.furthermore,adirectlinkishereformedbetweenthe Ottomansultan simageasarulerabletotransmitcountlessfavorstotheentireworldand theprince sarrival. PriortotheOttoman&Safavidwarsimmediatelybeforethepeacetreatyof1590,itwas duringsultansüleyman stimethattheottomansandthesafavidsmoreintensely confrontedoneanotheronthebattlefield. 59 Tanındı, TransformationofWords, 136.Thesenamesarerecordedthereinasah KuluHalifeandAliA'a.Thesecondpersoncouldalsobetheenvoy snamesakewho camesecondinranktotheenvoy.heishonoredassuchwhentheprinceisreceivedby thesultanatthecourt,andbasedonthedocumentrecordingthegiftsdistributedtothe highestrankingmembersoftheembassy. 159

176 Withsplendidwordsofpearlsandjewels,poetsoftheworldtoldpoemsand stories 60 Attheendofhisaccountontheprince sarrival,thehistorianselanikimentions thiswayhowthiseventpromptednumerouspoets.indeed,therearetwosuchpoems (ka"#de) 61 writteninpraiseofsultanmuradiiithatdrawdirectconnectionsbetweenthe mightofthesultanandthesubjugationofallrulersoftheworldtohim.moreprecisely, theprince stransferembodiesthesafavidshah ssubjugationwithinthisscheme. Thefirstpoemisfoundinthed#v$noftherenownedOttomanhistorian GeliboluluMustafa"liandistitled Panegyricpoeminpraiseoftheesteemedprincefor thecomingofthesonoftheshahofiran (kas#de%der&med'&i%ehz$de&i%muhterem%ber$y&ı% $meden&i%püser&i%$h&ı%(acem). 62 Thesecondpoemisthesameonethatinspiredthe paintingoftheprince sprocessionatthemet.inmostcopiesofb#k$% sd#v$n,itistitled: InpraiseofSultanMuradKhan (der%sit$yi&i%sul)an%murad%*an). 63 Thereareother copies,however,inwhichthechangeinthetitlerevealshowthesectionaboutthe prince sarrivalhadapowerfulimpactonthepoem sreception.thisalternativetitleis: InpraiseofSultanMuradKhan,onwhombeGod smercyandpardon,bywayof 60 Ve%halk&ı%$lem%ua(r$sı,%fusah$&i%devr$n%a(l$%dürer&i%gurer&i%cev$hir&nazm%ile% kas#deler%ve%t$r#hler%didilerselaniki,tarih,i: Ka"#deisapoeticformwrittenmostoftentoeulogizeapersonofhighrankandpower. SeeWalterG.Andrews, SpeakingofPower:The OttomanKaside, inqasida%poetry% in%islamic%asia%and%africa:%classical%traditions%and%modern%meanings,eds.stefansperl andchristopherschakle(leiden:brill,1996),281&300.theestablishedformatsand creativestrategiesofitsconstructionarediscussedine.j.w.gibb,a%history%of%ottoman% Poetry,6vols.(London:LuzacandCompany,1958[1900]),I:83&7. 62 GeliboluluMustafa"l%,Divan:%Textual%Analysis%and%Critical%Edition,ed.,I.Hakkı Aksoyak,3vols.(HarvardUniversity:TheDepartmentofNearEasternLanguagesand Literatures,2006),I:230& Forexample,D#v$n&ı%B$k#,(Istanbul:Muzıka&iHümayun&ıHazret&iMülukane LitografyaDestgahı,1276/1859&1860),

177 congratulationsforthearrivaloftheson 64 oftheshahofiran (Dermed"#iSul$%nMur%d &%n'aleyhi r#ra"metüve l#(ufr%nber%y#ıtehniye#ik)ud*m#ıciger#g*e#i"%h#ı'+cem.) 65 Thispoem simpactwithinottomanscholarlycirclesisalsoattestedbyacitationtoit. Theseventeenth"centuryOttomanhistorianPeçevirecollectedB#k$% spoeminreference totheprincebycitingthoselinesinscribedontopofthepaintinginhishistory: 66 Letthe Persiansbehappy,lettheireyesbeillumined 67 /PrinceHaydar,lightoftheeyesofthe Persianking,comes. 68 Sincetheprecedingpageisnotextant,thetitlegiventothepoem intheoriginalmanuscriptisunknown.however,weknowthatthelinesabouttheprince arefoundtowardsthemiddleofthepoem,followedbyfivecoupletsthatareomittedin thisparticularcopy.thisiswhythetwolinesinscribedatthebottomofthepainting seemtobearnorelationtothoseatthetop.theyread: Onthesurfaceofthesilver morningenduresthegoldenglobe(i.e.thesun)/untilthecurlofthehookedstickofthe skybewildersone. Inordertoplacethesecoupletswithinthecontextoftheentirepoem,andtobetter explicatemyargumentsaboutthereceptionofthesafavidprince,itisworthgivingthe secondpartofthepoem 69 initsentirety: 64 Thewordtranslatedas son here,ciger#g*e,literallymeans acorneroftheliver or apartoftheliver andisusedinthegenitivecaseinpersian,inaffectionatereferenceto achildorlovedone.seetheentryjigar#g*shainsteingass,persian#englishdictionary, 336;Loghatn%ma#yiDehkhuda. 65 Baki,B%k,D,v%nı,ed.SabahattinKüçük(Ankara:T&rkDilKurumu,1994), Peçev%(Peçuyi),Ibrah%mEfendi,T%rih#iPeçev,,2vols.(Istanbul:EnderunKitabevi, 1980[facs.ofthe1281"83/1864"67ed.]),II: ThisisanexpressioninTurkishusedtocongratulatesomeoneortoexpressgood wishesforsomeonewhosefamilymemberorfriendcamebackafteralongtimeof separation,orwhoreceivedgoodnewsforsomethings/hehadbeeninanticipationof. 68 Tanındı, TransformationofWords, 136.Ihavechangedhertranslationslightly. 69 Thefirstpartofthepoemfollowstheformatofagazel,andisthereforeaddressedtoa beloved.thisisacommonstrategyinconstructingak)a-,de.gibb,ahistory,83"7. 161

178 Itwouldaddlifetomysoulifnewsofthearrivalofthebelovedcame Asifabreezeoffavorsfromtheillustriouskingofkings[MuradIII]comes SultanMurad,theprosperousqiblaoftheuniverse Towhosecourtofpilgrimagecomekingsanddervishes Fortheexpertswhocontemplateyourcapitalcityofjustice Thelandofmilkandhoneyseemstobeinruins Forhehasservedfeastswithnoobligation Kingsandprincescometohiscourtasguests ThekhanofCrimeamadetheearthofhisthreshold[his]mansion OnedayyouwillseethattheemperorofTurkistancomes Ifhesuspectsanoffenseandcontractshiseyebrows 70 TheemperorsofChinaandCentralAsiastrivetocometohiscourt SolongastheflockofhairspringingfromyourstandardtroublesFrengistan (Europe) Longingfortheshadowofyourcypresstallofstature,thecatkin 71 comes LetthePersiansbehappy,lettheireyesbeillumined PrinceHaydar,lightoftheeyesofthePersianking,comes Wherearethoseignorantoneswhowouldbethewouldnotcome Thetruthisthattothewiseonesthoseseemextremelyuninformed Afternow[he]mountedonthehorseofthereed [But]donotthinkthatskillfulcavalierscanshowtrickslikeBaki Nowtheworldlistenseagerlytomypoem WhereverIpraiseyou,alllivingthingsgather [AsI]stateyoureulogy,fromeverycornercometolisten ThelifeofSelman 72 [and]theimmaculatesoulofhasan 73 Itisimpossibletomatchandreturnyourinfinitefavors Althoughendlessideascometomind Onthesurfaceofthesilvermorningenduresthegoldenglobe(thesun) Untilthecurlofthehookedstickoftheskybewildersone 70 Twowordsusedinthisline,at"(error,mistake,offense)andç#n(toturn,twist,bend) bothalsomeanchina,foreshadowingandunderscoringthereferencetothatcountryin thenextline. 71 Thewordforcatkin, b"n issynonymouswiththewordforaslavonianprinceor governor.ananalogyismadeherebetweenthecontrastbetweenthetalltreeandsmall bushontheonehand,andontheotherhandtheottomansultanandab"n,oraforeign prince. 72 Thissemi#legendaryfigureismorecommonlyknownasSalmanthePersianinthe Islamictradition.AcompanionofprophetMuhammad,heisbelievedtobethefirst converttoislamofpersianorigin.seevida,g.levidella, Salm"nal#F"ris$orSalm"n P"k Encyclopedia$of$Islam,$Second$Edition,XII: TheeldestgrandsonoftheprophetMuhammadandthesecondimamintheShia tradition.see %asanb. &Alib.Abi'"leb Encyclopedia$Iranica$Online$Edition.Zeren Tanındıhasdrawnattentiontothepoet sevokingherethenameofhasanb.&aliwhen thegovernorchargedwithleadingtheprinceintothecityhadthesamename(hasan Pasha). 162

179 Maytheenemyofrebellionbesubmissivetothedustofyourfootstep Ifherefusestobecomesubmissive,onedayhisheadcomesrollingdown Similartomanyotherexamplesinthisgenreofeulogisticpoetry,thispoem consistsofmultiplesectionstiedtooneanotherratherloosely.hereitakethelines referringtotheprince sarrivalasonewiththeprecedingsectioninordertoexamine B"k#$ sstrategyofconstructingacertainviewoftheprince sreceptionattheottoman court.accordingtothisview,thesultanislikenedtoasortofsun.heissuperiortoall otherrulers,bothpoliticalandspiritual.thesourceofhissupremacycomesfirstfromhis powertoruleoverthemostexaltedcapitalcity,i.e.istanbul.second,heisabletoendow endlessfavorsonallthelesserrulers.thesourceoftheirdependenceonthesultan,in turn,ispreciselythesefavorsthattheycometoreceiveathiscourt.moreover,although thepoemprojectsanimageofthesultanthatattractsallrulers,fromboththeeastand westofhisempire,somecomemoreeagerly,beingstruckwithawe,suchasthekhansof Crimea. 74 Others,suchastheEuropeans,cometotheOttomancourtratherhalfheartedly andoutoffear.withinthisscheme,thesafavidprinceissaidtocomewithmuchjoyand enthusiasm,whichalignshimclosertotheformergroup,thelong%timevassalsofthe Ottomans. 75 TheSafavidprincehenceembodiesSafavidcompliance,andisunderstood tobeanobjectoftheirsubmission. Thefinalcoupletsstatealloftheseideasmoreforcefully.Aproclamationofthe matchlessandinfinitenatureofthesultan sfavors,orgenerosity(luf),isfollowedbythe 74 Mustafa&lidrawsthesameanalogyinhispoem: youarethatrenownedking,whois thekhanofcrimeortheshahofiran? o"#h$ı"n#mversin"kim"k%ırım"&#n ı"'acem"#hı MustafaAli,Divan,I: Lokman,too,drawsasimilarparallelbetweenthekhansofCrimeaandtheshahsof Iran:(#n$ı"k%ırım"bende)$i"d*r*nes*"/"#h$ı"'acem"ç#ker$i"b*"k*nes*BLAdd7931,133a. 163

180 vertiginouseffectofthesun.last,b"k#$statesthattheunendinggenerosityofthesultan andhisdizzyingpowerbyextensionshouldinciteaweanddrawthosenourishedbyhis favorscloseandbesubmissivetohim.finally,however,inthelastcouplet,hewarnsthat ifthisprocessdoesnothappennaturally,thesultanhimselfwillseverelypunishany disobedientelements. Thelinesaboutthedizzyingsunareonesthatareinscribedrightbelowthe painting.theleaptotheselinesfromthecoupletindicatingtheexcitementandhappiness ofthesafavidsforthetransferoftheirprincemightbedeliberateratherthanaccidental. Lokman stextsimilarlyunderscoresthewonder("re#k$alub)thattheprince,alongwith alltheresidentsofistanbul(%ayretle#bak$ub),feltastheembassyenteredthecity. AlthoughB"k#$portraystheobedienceoftheSafavidsasnaturalandexpected, Lokmanengagesmoredirectlywiththerealityofthestateofaffairsbetweenthetwo powersbyplacingmuchmoreemphasisonhowthesafavidswereobligedtobe obedient.thisideawasalsomeanttobecapturedinapaintinginthemanuscript.(figure 3.6)Thisblankdouble%spreadisinscribedatthetopasfollows: FirstwentHasanPasha mountedonhishorse/theaxisofobedience,theprince,followed[behind.] 76 This obligationwasmadepossiblebythemilitarysuccessoftheottomans,butmore significantly,itwasorderedbygodhimself: Whatwasunknownbecamevisiblewith[theaidof]thosewhoarrivedatthe truth/ GodrenderedtheRedheadspowerless Withwar,theEastopenedjustastheWest/ 76 öñce#hasan#paa#yürürd"#süv&r#/#peyrev"#m"rz&y#i'a(&t#med&rbladd7931,130b% 131a. 164

181 WithGod sconsenttheenemywasinjured Nomanofobstinacywasleftintheworld/ [They]becamesubmissivetotheking,fulloffirmbelief 77 ThehandingoveroftheprincefromShahAbbastoMuradIIIisportrayedfurther asthetangibleproofofhissubmissiontothesultan.theprince stransferwasunderstood asacrucial,inevitable,andeagermoveonthepartoftheshah.lokmanwrote: Persians openedtheircountryfromoneendtotheother/theredheadsavedhisheadthankstothe [arrivalofthe]hostage. 78 Theshah soffertosendtheprinceisalsounderstoodasanact thatstoppedtheottomansfromconqueringallofthelandsthatthesafavidsruledover ratherthananagreementreachedwiththejointconsentofbothsidesinordertoprevent thedepletionoffurtherhumanandmaterialresources.however,asmuchasthereissuch emphasisontheshah sobligationtobesubservienttothesultan,mosttangiblyexpressed throughhissendingofhaydarmirzatothesultan,b"k#$ spoemgivesawaytheelusive natureofthisconceptbeforetheactualarrivaloftheprince.thelinesinthepoemthat ridiculethosewhopreviouslydidnotbelievetheprincewouldcomeatteststothe existenceofsuchadebate,andtheexistenceofdoubt,possiblyamongthehigh%ranking officialsofthecourt. Istanbul 77 az"ır#olub#$%yib#erenlerle#hep#/#k&ıld'#k&ızılb%'#berüft%d#rab# $arb#gib'#ark&#açıl(b#arble#/#k&%bil)i#ak&#old'#*aduvv#z"arble#(darble)# k&almad'#*%lemde#bir#ehl)i#*in%d#/#old'#mu+'*#aha#p%k#i*tik&%d#bladd7931,131b. 78 açd'#*acem#memleketin'#serbeser#/#rehin#ile#k&urtard'#baın#sür,serbladd7931,132a. 165

182 WhentheprincereachedPertevPashaPalace, 79 theresidenceassignedtohimand hisentourage,itwasalreadydarkandtheprincewasexhausted.inthemorning,thechief administratoroftheimperialkitchen(mabah"em#n#)cameheretobringsomepresents fromthesultan,includinglargeamountsoffruitsandheavyrobesofhonor(miyve$%i" b#&ad"geturüb"ahdan"/"'il(at%ı"vazr"s)ye%i"allahdan).sinceitwasalsocustomaryforthe Ottomanstatetosupplythekitchenstaplesofforeignembassiesduringtheirstay, 80 Lokmanexplainsthatthemabah"em#n#alsobroughtwithhimsuchitemsassugar, honey,butter,sheep,lamb,chickenandgoosemeats,fish,variousgrains(&ub*b)t),as wellaspowerfulpharmaceuticaldrugs(edviye$%i"&arre). Followingthesultan sexample,thegrandviziersinanpashaalsosentsimilar itemsoffoodstuffs,especiallyloadsofsugarandsweetmeats,andfruits.additionally, thispashasentchestsfullofgold"embroideredrobes,andotherunidentifieditemsfor whichtheprinceandeveryoneunderhiscommandwere,accordingtolokman, grateful. 81 Likethegrandvizier,othervizierstoometwiththeprinceandtheenvoy. Theseencountersweremandatedbycourtlytraditionandprefacedtheeventualaudience oftheenvoywiththesultan.butbeyondthat,thesewereintegraltothenegotiations betweenthetwosides,forduringthesemeetingsheateddiscussionstookplacethatcould potentiallyhavechangedthewholedirectionofnegotiationsbetweenthetwostates.for 79 AbdulkadirErdo#an, PertevPaa nınhayatıveeserleri Vakıflar"DergisiII(1942): 233"40;A.SamiÜlgen, PertevMehmedPaa nıneserlerihakkındamimariizahat, Vakıflar"DergisiII(1942):241"4. 80 MehmedIpirli, Elçi Türkiye"Diyanet"Vakfı"Islam"Ansiklopedisi,(Istanbul:ISAM, 1995),XI:3" ayr%ı"lev)zım"da'#"añ)"göre"/"bezl"ü"nis)r"eyled#ler"hepsiyle lüfile")h"o+l#"ol*b"serfer)z"/"eyled#"'üdd)m"vez#re"niy)zadd7931,137a.ina correspondencewiththesultan,sinanpashaaskedthesultanforapprovaltograntrobes ofhonortotheprinceandtheenvoywhentheycametoseehiminhisownresidence. Sahillio#lu,ed.,Koca"Sinan,

183 example,thesafavidhistorianafushtah"inatanzinotesthatottomanofficialstriedto recruitmahdiqulikhanbyofferinghimtherulershipofbaghdad,whichhepolitely refused. 82 ThoughtheOttomansrelativelyhadagreaternegotiatingpoweratthistime, whichrenderedthetreatytheysignedintheendamuchgreaterdiplomaticsuccessfor them,theselittledetailsrevealtheextenttowhichtheysoughttopushthisnegotiating powerintheprocess.thegiftstheypresentedtomahdiqulikhanandtheprinceshould beseeninthislightandbeinterpretedasdirectparticipantsinthisprocess.accordingto Ottomansources, followingancienttradition, thesecondandthirdviziers,andother high"rankingmembersofthecourtsentgiftsinabundancetotheprinceandtheenvoy. Amongthegifts,orfavorsfromthesecourtiers,Ottomansourcesonlymentionrobesof honor(il"at)withnofurtherdescriptionofanyofthesegarments. 83 However,thegiving ofrobesofhonorconnotesahierarchicalrelationshipbetweenottomanofficialsandthe Safavidenvoy,assigningtheformerasuperiorpositionwithintheexchangeandthelatter aninferiorone. Sourceshintatthepresentationofotherobjectsinadditiontorobesofhonor duringvizierialexchanges.thesewerepresentedindiminishingamountsbasedon courtlyrank;however,thespecificnamesandqualitiesofobjectsseemtobesecondto theexchange,ortheactofgivingitself.insteadofdetaileddescriptions,theseobjectsare oftendescribedcollectivelyasnuzl,tomeananythinggiventoaguest.moreover, qualifyingadjectivessuchas#b$%ad#(withnobounds),fir&v&n(many),orfüz'n#az#%is&b 82 Thoughtheenvoyrefusedthisoffer,thatitlatercirculatedamongSafavidrulingclass, coupledwithnewsoftheintimacywithwhichhewaswelcomedinistanbul,angeredthe shahandcosttheenvoyhislifeshortlyafterhisreturntoiran.mahmudb.hid#y#tall#h Afushtah"iNa$anz%,Nuqavat#al(&s&r#f$#zikr#al(akhy&r,ed.IhsanIshraqi(Tehran, 1350/1971), Add7931,137b. 167

184 (morethancanbecounted)areusedtoindicatethattheseweregiveningreatnumbersor amounts.verbssuchasbezlandnis"r,meaning togiveliberally, or toscatteror disseminate arelikewiseusedfrequentlytoconveythissameidea.thisformsquitean interestingparalleltothemannerinwhichthepresentationoffoodisdescribedduring thefeastsgivenfortheprince. 84 Furthermore,asagroup,thesegiftsaresaidtotreatthe princewithrespect,tohonorhim(eref),andtoelevatehimortomakehimeminent. 85 Onewordusedthisway,ikr"m,translatesas ashowinghonorto;atreatingasnobleor illustrious. Butitcanalsomean agifttoaninferior. 86 Thissubtleexpressionofthe flowofobjectsfromasuperiortoaninferioriscommunicatedmuchmoreforcefully whenweturntothewordmostregularyusedforthegiftspresentedfromtheprinceto theottomancourtiersduringthefollowingweek.thiswordisp#ke,meaning a magnificentpresent,suchasisonlypresentedtoprinces,greatmen,superiors,or sometimestoequals(particularlyonreceivingagreatappointment);tribute,quit"rent TSMK,R1296,51b.Rahimizadewrote: andatthattimetablesweresetandall sortsofdishesandvarioussweetmeatsweredisseminatedatsuchanextentthatitis beyond(verbalandwritten)expression (ve$ol$zam"nda$sim"%$çekil&b$env"'(i$%a'"m$ve$ elv"n(ı$)ulviyy"t$bir$mertebede$bezl$olındıki$tak*r#r$ü$ta)r#rden$müsta+n#$id#.)noticealso herethatthehelpingverbusedintheexpressiontranslatedas tableswereset isçekmek (literally,topull).thesameverbisusedofteninbothottomanandsafavidsourcesto saythatgiftswerepresentedi.e.p#ke$çekmekandpishkash$kash#dan 85 Forexample,old#$ahun$o+lına$,a%ırnüv"z$/$ba,i(i$i'c"mile$hep$serefr"zAdd,7931, 136b. 86 Redhouse,Turkish$and$English$Lexicon,172;yollad#$herbir#n#$ikr"m$ile$/$ak*mie$ü$,il'at(i$i'c"m$ileAdd7931,137a.Rahimizade schoiceofwordsisconsistentwiththis whenhedescribesexchangesofgiftsbetweentheprinceandtheenvoy,andtheottoman officials:ve$m"h(ı$mezb&ruñ$onsekizinci$güni$ki,$yevm(i$erba'"dür,$erdeb#l$-anı$mehd#$ K*ulı$-an$vez#r(i$a'.am$Sin"n$Paa$)azretlerine$ve$s"yir$vüzer"(yı$mükerrem$)azretlerine$ böliüp$hed"y"ların$ve$n"melerin$tesl#m$idüp$anlar$da$/adr(ı$sa'"detlerine$l"yık*$olan$ kem"l(i$ri'"yet$ü$i)s"n$birle$ta'z#m$ü$ikr"m$eylemeleriyle$,o)"l$olmılard#.tsmk,r 1296,51b. 87 Steingass,Persian(English$Dictionary,267.AlthoughinmodernPersianpishkashis understoodsimplyasgiftorpresent,inboththesafavidandottomancontexts,its 168

185 Thesegifts,identifiedthiswayasgiftsfrominferiorgiverstosuperiorreceivers,arenot specifieditembyitembutpraisedcollectivelyasfollows: hisgiftswereheart"rejoicing/ theroyalpersianpresentswerebeautiful (pike"cümle"dil#r#"id"/"$a%%a"&acem"tu'fes" zb#"id). 88 Afterafewdays,onJanuary29th1590,theprincewouldfinallybereceivedby thesultanhimself.atthepalace,extensivepreparationshadbeenmadefortheceremony toreceivetheembassy,theprinceandthegiftstheyhadbroughtforthesultan.thetwo high"rankingofficialsofthecourt 89 senttotheprince sresidenceledtheembassyintothe palaceonhorseback.everyonewasdressedlavishlyfortheoccasion(müretteb"ü" mükemmel). 90 Lokmanexplainsthatthegifts,describedas giftsoftaxandtributeofthe world (pke"b#c"u"$ar#c(ı"cih#n)werebroughttothepalacepriortotheembassy. Thisauthoronlysingledoutatentamongthesegifts. 91 Theprominenceofthistentwas surelyduetothelargesizeandweightofitsvariousparts,carriedbymultipletent" meaningwascloserto tribute, giventoapersonofhigherstatus.annlambtonhas shownthatinpersia,fromthemid"fifteenthcenturytillthenineteenth,itwasusedto meanpaymentsinkindandincashpaidorgivenbothonaregularandad"hocbasisas gifts,taxes,tributesandlevies.ithadacomparablywideandpervasivescopewithinthe Ottomancourtsystem.Lambton, PresentorTribute? ;FilizKaraca, P#ke, Diyanet" Ileri"Ansiklopedisi,(Istanbul:ISAM,2007),34:294"6. 88 BLAdd7931,138a.Thiscustomaryritualofvisitswhichoccasionedtheexchangeof giftsbetweenenvoysandthehighestrankingottomanbureacratswasinthisinstancea matterofcontroversybetweenferhadpashaandsinanpasha.accordingtothevenetian bailo sreport,ferhadpashainsistedthat itdidnotmakesensethatthesonofsucha greatprinceshouldgotothegrandvizier. ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopoli,filza 30,390.ThisisconfirmedbyalettertothesultanfromSinanPasha,whocomplained thatferhadpashawouldnotlettheprincevisithim.sahillio$lu,ed.,koca"sinan,210" Thesewerethesa)"ul*feci"baıandtheçavubaı. 90 TSMK,R1296,52a;BLAdd7931,138b"139a. 91 oldlar"#g#h"+ızılb#lar"/"yüklediler"ç#dır"ferralar" old"+a,#r"ile"mu+addem"rev#n"/"pke"b#c"u"$ar#c(ı"cih#n"bladd7931,138b." 169

186 pitchers.however,wewillseebelowthatotherauthorstoodiscernedthisparticulargift beacuseofitsbeauty. PassingthroughtheImperialGate(bb"ı#hümy$n),theprinceissaidtobemost impressedbytheornamentandsizeofthefirstcourtyardofthepalace. 92 Inkeepingwith tradition,haydardismountedhishorseatthemiddlegateasdidallothers. 93 According tolokman,awestruckbythemagnificenceofthepalace,whichsignaledthereachofthe sultan spower,haydarmirza loweredhisheadwithwonder/contractedhistwo eyebrowswithshame. 94 TheprincewasthentakentotheImperialCouncilHalltogetherwithhisguardian (lala)andtheenvoy.here,hewasgivenaseatbetweenthegrandviziersinanpashaand thecommanderferhadpasha.acrossfromthemachairwasfixedformahdiqulikhanto sit.thisinitialceremonialencounterwasfollowedbythemostmagnificentofthefeasts servedtotheembassysofar.thisisanotherscenethatwasplannedtobepicturedinthe ehnme"i#%l"i#&osman. 95 Theaccompanyingtextgivesadetaileddescriptionofthe varioustypesoffood,thedishesandcontainersinwhichtheseserved,andthemannerin whichthesewereserved.whatisemphasizedthroughrepetitionistheunendingquantity andmatchlessqualityofthefavorsbestowedonthesafavids.throughout,muchlikethe mannerinwhichgiftspresentedtotheprincebythehigh"rankingmembersofthecourt, adjectivessuchascountless(b'(esb),peerless(b'misl),andimmeasurable(b'k)ıys) 92 sa(a*"i#z'bende#ar'z+#u#ves'&#/#bünye*"i#cedrn'#met'n#ü#ref'&# çekse#alay'#nda#hezrn#süvr#/#yüzb'ñ#alay'n#da,'#bo"#yer'#vrbladd7931,138b. 93 Necipo#lu,Architecture,#Ceremonial#and#Power,50"2.Rahimizadeinsteadcallsitthe GateofFelicity(bb"ı#sa&det). 94 (ayretle#dikd'#yere#ba"ın'#/#çtd'#,acletden#ik'#-"ın'bladd7931,139a. 95 BLAdd7931,139b"140a. 170

187 describingeachdishabound. 96 Thefoodservedtotheembassyisalsodescribedas appealingtoallsenses.someofthemdiffusedfragrancesofsaffronandambergris. Moreover,thesightofsuchabundancewasmeanttoevokefoodspromisedinheaven, whichisdescribedinthequr anasaplacewithendlessamountsoffruitsandmeatsof variousbirds. 97 Thisreferenceexpressedthroughtheabundance,varietyandperfect harmonyofdifferentflavorsisalsostatedopenlyinreferencetothesweetsservedtothe embassy: thebowlswerefilledwithsweetsandsugar"candy/resemblingthefoodin heaven. 98 Afterthemeal,theprincewastakenoutandsatdownbytheGateofFelicity,or thethirdgate.(figure3.7)here,hewasdonnedthreerobesofhonor oneofthemlined withsablefur"infrontofthepublictreasury,wheretherobesprobablycamefrom. 99 The envoywasalsobestowedheretworobesofhonor.finally,fifteenmosteminentmenin theembassyweredistributedoneeach. 100 AstheSafavidswaitedunderthevestibuleof thegateoffelicity,aroundthemwerelavishlydressedcourtierslinedupwaiting patientlyinanorderlymanner. 101 LokmantellsusthatthisscenestupefiedHaydarMirza, whose lipsspread,lostinthought. 102 Meanwhile,thesultanproceededtotheChamber ofpetitions.customarily,afterthesultansettledinhisthrone,thegiftswouldbebrought 96 BLAdd7931,141a,141b :20"21,38:53"54;55:68; 98 kseleri"pür"eker"ü"#and"id$"/"a%&ime'(i"cennete"mnend"id$bladd7931,140b. 99 Necipo#lu,Architecture,"Ceremonial"and"Power, Foralloftheserobesofhonor,seetheAppendix. 101 BLAdd7931,144a;Necipo#lu,Architecture,"Ceremonial"and"Power,101" #ld$"bu"y$ne"ah"o)l$"&aceb"/"fikre"%l*b"+ayretle"çd$"leb"" itd$"ne",o"leker(i"z$bendedür"/"resm(i"dilfür*z"u"ek$bendedürbladd7931,144a. 171

188 andparadedbygatekeepersinfrontofaceremonialwindowofthishallsothesultan wouldseethem. 103 Theseobjectswerecollectivelycharacterizedinonesourceas countlessgifts (tuaf"ı#b$es%b).thevenetianbailogiovannimoro,whowasawitnesstothe procession,wrotethattheyincluded books,carpets,bows,andothersimilarthings. Besidesthebailo sreport,afulllistofthesegiftsaregiveninthreesources.oneisa previouslyunknownarchivaldocument(seetheappendix),andtheothersarefoundin Ottomanillustratedmanuscripts:theBook#of#Treasury#of#the#Conquest#of#Ganjaandthe Book#of#Kings#of#the#House#of#Osman.Inallcases,thelistbeginswiththebooks,among whichwereonesmallandtwolargegildedandjeweledcopiesofthequr an,andfifteen otherbooksincludingashahnamaandamuraqqaglowinglydescribedbylokmanas follows: amuraqqa,orcaligraphyalbum,repletewithnumerouscalligraphicspecimens/ itssectionssweetentheheartandthesoul,likehoney mostofitbeautifullywrittenintalik/ ruledwithlineslikethefaceofthebeloved sayifitsrulingsandilluminations,anddrawingswereseenbyanexpert/ hewouldbeimpressedinhismindandsoul/hewouldthinkitistheessenceof figuration Thegiftswouldordinarilybebroughttothepalaceadaybeforetheaudiencesothat theircontentswouldberecordedandsotheywouldbearrangedfordisplayundertheleft porticoofthethirdgate.necipo"lu,architecture,#ceremonial#and#power,66, dürl&#'u(&(ile#mura))a*#tam%m#/#)ı(*alarından#dil#ü#c%n#ehdk%m# eks+er$#ta*l$)#ile#'o'a((#id$#/#çehre,"i#c%n%n#gib$#mu'a((at#id$# cedvel#ü#tez+h$blerin$#mis+%l#/#ba)sa#te-%v$rine#ehl"i#kem%l# fikr#idin&b#*a)l#ile#c%nlar#c%n$#/#r&"ı#mu-avver#-%n&r#id$#%n$bladd7931,145a. 172

189 Besidesthesebooks,thegiftsincludedagoldembroideredtablecloth,ahandkerchieffor thesultan,ninepiecesofgoldembroideredwoolenclothswithseraserborders,feltsfrom Khorasan,twelvesmallPersiancarpetsintotal"mostofthemgold"woven(zerduhte)",an antidoteinagoldeninkwell,andamineraldruginitsownsmallbag. ThelastitemmentionedinallsourcesincludingtheaccountoftheVenetianbailo isthelargecommandingtent.thistwelve"partbluesatintentwasgoldembriodered insideandout,andthroughitsjeweledsilkrobesrangoldthreads.thedomelikewise wasdecoratedalloverwithpreciousstones.lokmanlikensittothefirmamentboth beacuseofitsmagnificenceandheight.indeed,hesaysifitwastobesetup,onewould thinkitamountain.whilethevenetianbailo,too,describesthejewelsandthelargesize ofthetent,hesharesadifferentviewabouthowthisgiftwasreceivedattheottoman court.hewrote:...thesejewelsweremorelargethanfine,andtheysaythatthese presentsweregreatlyinferiortothosethatotherpersiankingshavesentherewiththeir ambassadors. 105 Thisisanobservationthatfindssupportnotbyothercontemporary accountsbutbywayofacomparisonbetweenshahabbas gifts,andthosesentbyshah Tahmasp.Forexample,in1576,anuninvitedembassyoftheshahhadcometo congratulatetheenthronementofthesamesultan,muradiii,carryingasignificantly highernumberofgifts.thatgroupofgiftsincludedeighteencopiesofthequr an,sixty dv"nsofpersianpoets,severalmuraqqas,amagnificenttent,fortysilkcarpets,ten thousandbirdfeathers,chestsencrustedwithpreciousstones,bows,arrows,swords, antidotes,drugs,andevenwildanimals ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopoli,filza30, Kütüko#lu,"III.Murad'aCül$sTebriki,"375"97.Thespecificamountofeachtypeof giftdiffersonoccasionfromsourcetosource. 173

190 Inthepresenceofthesultan,theenvoywasaskedwhetherhehadanythingto say.herespondedbysayingfirst: ShahAbbas,aloyalsubjectofthesultan,asksfor mercyandforgiveness. Continuinginthesametone,headdedthatallofthelands conqueredbyottomanarmiesbelongtothesultan.and,ifthesultanwishes,whatisleft totheshahisalsohis.indeed,accordingtotheharshconditionsofthepeacetreatysigned afterwards,thesafavidsagreedtorecognizeazerbaijan,georgia,qarabagh,khuzistan, Shirvan,KurdistanandevenTabrizasOttomanterritory.Thetreatyalsodictated,asin theearlieramasyatreatysignedbetweenshahtahmaspandsüleymanthemagnificent in1555,thatthesafavidsceasecursingthefirstthreecaliphs. 107 Paralleltothepeacetreaty,thegiftspresentedinthiscontext,areunderstoodby theottomansassignsofobedienceandsubmission(ub"diyyet).eventhoughfewerin numberandinferiorinquality,asagrouptheywerecomposedofobjectsthatottoman sultanswereaccustomedtoreceivingfromsafavidkings.however,itistheprince himselfthatstandsoutasthesafavidgiftpar#excellence.inapoembytheottoman authorrahimizadeabouttheembassy sreceptionatthecourt,hewrites: TheShahbecameyourslaveofservitude/ Andthecaptivebecameyourprisonertiedonhisneck Theworldishumbledbyyoursword/Andyouhaveopponentsnomore Fromoneendoftheworldtotheother,there snothingperpetual/ Thatequalsyourpeerlessdomain 107 ThetermsofthetreatyarerecordedinFeridunAhmedBeg,Müne$tü s%sel$&in,2 vols.(istanbul,1264"65/1848"49),ii:249"252.seealsokütüko#lu,osmanlı%iran,197; RemziKılıç,XVI.#ve#XVII.#Yüzyıllarda#Osmanlı%Iran#Siyasi#Antlamaları,($stanbul:Tez Yayınlari,2001),129"

191 Theprince,inthisway,becomesanobjectthatembodiesSafavidsubordinationandthe sultan sdominanceovertheshah sdomain.theottomanhistorianmustafa"li spoem forsultanmuradmakesasimilarcaseintheopeningcoupletbyassertingthatthe Safavidshah: OhkingUniversalrulershipbecamepossiblewithyourpurenature/The sonofthekingofirancameandbecameaslaveinyourdomain 108 Buthowisthisconceptexpressedvisually?Onanumberoflevels,theonly survivingpaintingofthesultan saudiencewiththeembassydepartsdramaticallyfrom theestablishednormsofdepictingtheottomansultangivingaudiencetoasafavid ambassador.(figures3.8,3.9,3.10,3.11)intheseearlierdepictions,thesubservienceof Safavidenvoysisconveyedthroughtheirprostrateposebeforethesultan,heldontheir armsbyottomancourtiers.intheseearlierimages,giftscomingfromthepersianshah horizontallydominatethelowersectionofthepainting,therebyparticipatinginthe envoy sactionandtheytakepartintheceremony.inreality,however,theywouldbe heldandparadedbycourtiersoutsideoftheaudiencehall.inthescenefromthebookof TreasuryoftheConquestofGanja,bycontrast,ShahAbbas materialgiftsare completelyomittedfromthesceneandratherthantheenvoy,theprinceconfrontsthe sultan.wemightsay,then,thattheprincehimselfreplacesboththegestureofobedience (i.e.theenvoy sprostration),andthematerialsofobedience(i.e.thematerialgifts).with VeliAgha sassistance,haydarstandsclosetothesultan,holdinghisrobewithtwo handstokissit.thoughottomanandforeignauthorsfrequentlynotethatinthepresence ofthesultan,envoysandcourtiers kisshishands or kisshisrobe, theseexpressions arefigurativeratherthanliteral,forespeciallyforeignerswouldnotevenbestrictlykept 108 eh"#"$ib%k&ıranlık&z"t%ıp"küñletem"moldı/'acem""hınuño(lıgeldik)yuñda (ul"moldımustafaali,divan,

192 atadistancefromthethrone. 109 Theprince sclosenesstoandhisactualactoftouching andkissingthesultansignalsakindofintimacythatwouldonlybepossiblewiththe sultan sownpermission.suchclosenessvisuallydistinguisheshimfromothergifts, whichwereacceptedinaformal,almostcoldmanner.iwouldarguethatsuchawarm welcomefortheprincestemmedinpartfromottomananticipationthattheprincewould notsimplyliveatthecourtfromthenonasaprisoner,butwouldeventuallybe incorporatedintoitsohecouldonedaybecomeshahhimselfandmakeirananottoman vassalstateonceandforall. Bypurelypoliticalstandards,ShahAbbas agreementtothishumilitaingpeace treatycouldbeinterpretedasanadmissionofhisinferiorpositionbeforethesultan. However,inordertoclarifythispositionhealsohadtosendamaterialobject,thelittle PrinceHaydar,forthesultantokeep.Thesultan,then,bymakingtheprincehis dependent,hisslave(orkul),renderedtheshahofiran,too,inthewordsoflokmanand Mustafa"li,slavetohiscommandandservantto[his]domainalongwithhisprogeny. However,suchexcessiverhetoricaboutthesultan sdominationorenslavementofthe prince,and,byextension,theshahhimself,isatthesametimeindicativeofacertain Ottomananxietythatthisconvictionstandsonshakyground.Wehaveseenthatsome authorspoeticallyrelatetheamazementandthankfulnessofthesafavidembassyforall thefavorsbestowedonthemandtheireagersubjugationasaresult.butanother contemporaryottomanhistorian,selaniki,givesusaverydifferentpictureofthe Safavids behavior.inhisdiscussionoftheprovisionsdispatchedtotheprince spalace, hewrote: whilecountlessabundantfoodsandfavorsweregenerouslygivenandsuch 109 TheItalianexpression kissingthehand[ofthesultan] (baciarelamano)isoften usedinsourcestorefertohavingaudiencewiththesultan. 176

193 powerwasdispatched,itwasobservedthattheingratitudeoftheill"behavingqizilbash wasbeyondmeasure;theirblasphemeandperditionseemedworsethanthedeedsof infidelsandsinners. 110 Similarly,theVenetianbailoGiovanniMororaisedhisowndoubtsaboutthe effectivenessofottomandiplomacy.inhisreport,heinsistedthatsafaviddiplomatsin theembassyhadtoldhimthatshahabbassurrenderedhisnephewonlytoputanendto theottomanattacksonhiswesternborders,atatimewhenhehadtodealwiththeuzbek threattotheeast.thesafavidshadthereforecometoistanbulknowingthatthetreaty wouldnotbepermanentbecauseofitsunacceptableconditions.meanwhile,healso reportedthattheottomans,inturn,wereafraidthatiftheyputtoomuchpressureon Abbas,hewouldbeunabletostandstrongagainstthepowerfulUzbeks,whomight ultimatelyrepresentanevenmoreseriousthreattotheottomansthanabbas. Furthermore,unabletolearnthedetailsofthepeaceagreementdespiteconsiderable effort,morosuspectedthattheextravagantandexpensivepubliccelebrationswere intendedmoretoconvincethedissatisfiedottomansoldieryaboutthehealthofthe empire sfinances,ratherthancelebratingameaningfulpoliticalvictory. 111 Thoughthisclaimisupfordebate,itisworthyofnotethataboutayearafterthis embassy sreturntoiran,newembassiesbegantocomefromabbas,becauseof disagreementsabouttheexactplaceofbordersbetweenthetwostates.theseembassies alsocamewiththerequestofcheckingontheprinceandprovidingwhateverneedshe mighthavehad.theprince,unfortunately,diedinistanbulfromtheplagueaboutfive 110 Selaniki,Tarih,I: ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopoli,filza30,

194 yearsafterhisarrival,whenhewasaboutelevenyearsold. 112 AVenetianaccountnotes thatwhileanembassyfromshahabbascametoconstantinopleafewmonthsafterthe prince sdeath,therewasmuchottomandiscontent,expressedopenly,aboutthe suspiciousconditions underwhichtheprincediedatsuchayoungage. 113 Sadly,theenvoytoodiedsoonafterhereturnedtoIran.TheSafavidhistorian Afushtah"iNatanzirelatesthattheshahwasinfuriatedbyhowfavorablySultanMurad s letterspokeofmahdiqulikhan,andorderedtheenvoy simmediateexecution. 114 Itis equallylikelythattheshahwasunsatisfiedwiththepreciseconditionsofthepeace treaty.mahdiqulikhan sexecutionisalsobroughtupintheviennaalbum,(figure3.12) inadoubleportraitofhimwithabeardedottomanofficial,bothontheirhorses.here, whiletheenvoyreturnsourgaze,theottomanofficiallooksforward.theextravagant dressoftheenvoyishighlightedbytheturbanheiswearing,whichisverysimilartothe oneontheprinceinthesamealbum.thebrightcolorsofhisdressandthehumanfigures thatdecoratehisinnerrobearelackingintheotherperson,highlightingthelatter s modesty.theinscriptionbelowthepaintingreads: Thechild'smasterofceremonies, 112 Kütüko#lu,OsmanlıIran, ASVe,Senato,CopieOttocenteschedeiDispacci,Registro11,254.TheOttoman historianselanikilikewiseclaimsthatthesafavidswereplottingtopoisontheprinceto breakthepeace.selaniki,tarih,i:268;kütüko#lu,osmanlıiran,216.accordingto tradition,theprince stombwasstolenonenighttobebroughtbacktosafavidiran. HasanbeyzadeAhmed,Hasan"Beyz#de"T#r$hi,ed.NezihiAykut,3vols.(Ankara:Türk TarihKurumu,2004),II: Natanziisopenlycriticaloftheshahonthisissue,forhereferstoMahdiquliKhanin thisinstanceas thataggrievedguiltlessone (#n"b$gun#hi"ma%l&m).afushtah"i Natanzi,Nuquvat,

195 whobrought[him]frompersiatoconstantinople,laterhadhisheadstruckoffbyhis king,becausehedidnotbringthechildbackagain. 115 Conclusion Itisthemultiplicityandcirculationofsuchtales,poemsandimages,aswehave seen,abouthaydarmirza stransfertotheottomancourtthatenrichthestoryofthe princeandhighlighttherelationsandmemoriesitsetinmotion.furthermore,allofthese attesttotheprince sroleasa socialagent. AlfredGellhasdefinedanagentmost succinctlyas thesource,theorigin,ofcausaleventsindependentlyofthestateofthe physicaluniverse. 116 Causalityandintentionneednotbedirectlyoriginatingfroma humansourcehere,whichopensthemethodologicalpossibilitytosee artobjectsas persons. 117 ThistheoryisinspiredinpartbyMarcelMauss,whoarguedthat thething givenisnotinactive.[itis]investedwithlife,oftenpossessingindividuality For Mauss,itisthisagency,orthespiritthatthegiftcarries,thatistightlytiedtothe obligationtoreciprocate.mycasestudyhere,theprince,isimportanttoconsiderasa suchasocialagent.thespecifichistoricalcircumstances,especiallytheottoman"safavid historicalrivalryoverterritoriesbutalsothesunni"shiidivideamongthem,imbuethe storyoftheprincewithmanylayersofmeaningthroughthisgift sjourney.theprince, andthevisualandliteraryresponsestohistransfer,illuminateottoman"safavidrelations byformingadirectlinkbetweenanottomanvictoryandasafaviddefeat.atthesame 115 DesKindts[Kindes]Hoffmeisterders[deres]ausPersthiahattgen[gegen] Constantinopllbrachthtimdarnachvonseinemkinig[Koenig]denkopffabgeschlagen wordendaserdaskindtnichthattwider[wieder]gebrachtcod.8626, Gell,ArtandAgency, Gell,ArtandAgency, Mauss,TheGift,

196 time,thespecificliteraryandvisualstrategiesemployedtoargueforsuchalinkaswell astheexcessiveinsistenceforitpointstomanyuncertaintiesandinsecuritiesaboutit ratherthanitstruefirmness. ModernhistoriansoftheSafavidandOttomanempiresconcurthattheIstanbul PeaceTreatywasaclearpoliticalachievementfortheOttomans.However,thissuccess cameatatimewhentherewasmuchdoubtaboutthestatusquo.withinthiscontext,we haveseenthatobjectsthatmovedbetweenthetwocourtscarriedpotentmessagesand significantlyshapedthepowerfulimagethattheottomansultansoughttoproject.the giftsthatshahabbassenttomuradiiifortheconclusionofthepeace,inparticularhis nephewsentasahostage,werereceivedattheottomancourtasmaterialexpressionsof ShahAbbas subjugationtothelevelofvassalage.inturn,morethanhisabilityto receivegiftsastributefromtheinferioradversary,whatpulledthesultanuptothelevel ofasuperiorkingwashisabilitytooverwhelmwithendlessfavorsthemembersofthe embassyandtheprincehimself.thisottomanconceptofasecondstageofsafavid defeat,afterthemilitaryone,wasdirectlytiedtothesafavidobligationtorecognizethe sultan sfavorspreciselyinthismanner. 180

197 APPENDIX 1)GIFTSPRESENTEDTOSULTANMURADIIIBYTHESAFAVIDPRINCE HAYDARMIRZA(BabakanlıkArivi[PrimeMinistryArchive],KamilKepeci1772, fol.153) [Yev]mü l"ehad.f#22ehr"ireb#$ü l"evvelsene998(1/29/1590). Anpike"i$AbbasM#rz%"%h"ıVil%yet"i$Acemdervak&t"ifirist%den"iM#rz%'aydar bir%derz%de"i(odbe"derg%h"ı$%l#ber%"yıme)%li*.f#22reb#$ü l"evvelsene998 Kel%m"ık&ad#m,cild3 Küçükanzer"imura))a$,cild1 Büzürkmünakkavemüzehheb,cild2 Kitabh%"imütennevi$a,cild15 "%hn%me+"imüzehhebvemu)avver,cild1,amse"i"ey(ni-%m#,cild1 Külliy%t"ı'%k%n#,cild1 YusufuZüley*%,cild1 Bostan,cild1 D#v%n"ı'%fı-,cild1 Ma(zenalesr%r,cild1 HeftMan-ar"ıH%tif#,cild1 Rub%$iyy%t"ı,ayy%m,cild1 Cem#du,ur#d,cild1 Külliy%t"ıehl?,cild1 Sev%hiral?,cild1,ul%)atalahb%r,cild1 Külliy%t"ı"ey(Sa$d#,cild1 Murak&k&a$"imüzehheb,cild1 Dest%r"ı,ak%n#altundok&uma,$aded1.ofra"izer"du(te,kıt$a1 $Ab%"yizer"du(te,kıt$a9 K&%liçeh%"i$Acem,k&ıt$a3 k&adife"izerdu(te,k&ıt$a1 zerd"id#zzer"du(te,k&ıt$a1 anzer"du(te,k&ıt$a1 Keçeh%"i,oras%n#,k&ıt$a2,ayme"i a/las"ı muk&a//a$? d#z ve bilezik zer"i mura))a$ ve muamma$ an? d#z,b%b1 181

198 K"#liçeh#$i%Acem,k"ıt%a9 anzerd$id&zzer$du'te,k"ıt%a2 k"adife$iheft$renk,k"ıt%a2 and&zut#rzer$du'te,l#civerd,k"ıt%a2 and&zut#rzer$du'tek"ırmızı,k"ıt%a4 P#n$zehrb#$(ok"k"a)$izer,k"ıt%a1 Mumy#n$ıma%den&,aded27 B#$kise)$it#fta$ik"ırmızı,memh*r 182

199 BabakanlıkArivi [PrimeMinistry Archive],Kamil Kepeci1772,fol

200 2) THINGS GIVEN TO THE SAFAVID PRINCE HAYDAR MIRZA AND HIS RETINUE (Babakanlık Arivi [Prime Ministry Archive], Kamil Kepeci 1773, fol. 231) [Yev]mü l"ehad.f#22ehr"ireb# ülevvelsene998(29.i.1590). Ter#fbe"mezk$r#nkianvil%yet"i&Acembe"derg%h"ı&%l#ber%"yımu'%la(a%medend Be")aydarM#rz%bir%derz%de"i"%h"ı&Acem Nak*diye C%meh%"i mir%($r# an d#b%+"i freng#+"i ba,r%k*#+"i %&l% b%"bit%ne+"i a,las ve sencef"ia,las,sevb2, ba,r%k*#,sevb1 freng#,sevb1 Dolamaand#b%+"ifreng#+"izerdb%"bit%ne+"itafta+"i"%m# AnEnder$nd%de Be"Mehd# K*$l#-an(%kim"i Erdebil, elçi+"i"%h"ı mü%rünileyh ki b%"pike behem" %mede Nak*diye C%meh%+"imir%h$r#anser%ser"i.stanbul&al%,sevb2 Be"ci(et"imerdüm%n"ı"%h"ımü%rünileyhkib%"M#rz%"yımerk*$mveelçi+"imezk$r behem%medend Be"Mehd#K*$l#SultanH%kim"iT%li? C%me+"imir%($r#anser%ser,sevb1 Be"&Ali)al#feSultan C%me"imir%($r#,sevb1,misli Be""%hımK*$l#)al#feLala C%me"imir%h$r#anser%ser,1sevb Be"HakemEb$/%lib C%me,misli Be")amzaBeg C%me,misli Be")%ceA0aEm#r C%me,misli Be"&AliBeg C%me,misli Be".m%mKuli C%me,misli 184

201 BeFet"i#Beg# C$me,#misli# BeMehd%#K&'l%#Beg# C$me,#misli# BeOtmaz?#A(a# C$me,#misli# BeMihter#K&ubbed%n# C$me,#misli# BeMu"ammad#)Ali#Beg# C$me,#misli# BeVeli# A(a# merdümi# *az+reti# P$di$hı# )$lempen$h# hullidet# hıl$fetuh'# ki# b$# M%rz$#behem#$mede# C$me,#misli# Yek'n:#Nak&diye# ,#guru#d$de#üd,#1875#aded# C$meh$,i#mir$"'r%,#18#sevb# Dolama,#1#sevb# # 185

202 BabakanlıkArivi[PrimeMinistryArchive],KamilKepeci1773,fol

203 CHAPTER4: TheNewRulesofShahAbbas: HowtheSafavidShahRe"inventedaTraditionofDiplomacy InAugust1599,theOttomansultanMehmedIIIreceivedanambassadorfrom ShahAbbas,bearingahighlysubmissiveletterthatdescribedtheshahasthesultan's slaveandthedustbeneathhisfeet.yetthegiftsaccompanyingthismessage,twelvegold andtwelvesilverkeystofortressesthattheshahclaimedtohaveconqueredinthename ofthesultan,infuriatedmehmed""totheextentthat,accordingtovenetianarchival sources,heangrilyorderedthekeystobereturnedtotheenvoy.bythen,shahabbas hadalreadybeensendingnumerousembassiestoeuropeanrulersaskingfortheirsupport againsttheottomansinexchangeforhigh"qualitypersiansilk. Thischapterexaminestheagencyandinstrumentalityofgiftsinnegotiating poweratatimewhenpoweritselfcametodependasmuchonthecontroloftradeas territories.itopenswithadiscussionoftherevolutionarymilitary,administrativeand religiousreformsundertakenbyabbas,andhowtheserelateandrespondspecificallyto thehistoricalottoman"safaviddialogue.itisinlightofthisdiscussionthatiinterpret ShahAbbas scompletebreakwiththeestablishedtraditionofottoman"safavidgift exchange.thisinvolvedasea"changenotonlyinthetypesandamountsofobjectssent andreceived,butalsointheceremonialetiquetteoftheirpresentation.intheopening decadesoftheseventeenthcentury,abbas sactivesearchforpoliticalandcommercial alliesineuropeagainsttheottomansforcedboththeshahandthesultantore"negotiate 187

204 thegiftstheycametoexchange.thenatureofthesenewgiftswasdirectlycorrelatedto theextenttowhichtheserulerscouldparticipateinagloballyconnectedtradenetwork. Fromdevastatedstatetoworldempire:ShahAbbasandhisreformswithin Ottoman"Safavidrivalry ThehistoricalmemoryofShahAbbasasastrongpoliticalleader,acultivated patronofthearts,andadeterminedmilitarycommanderbecomesevermoreimpressive whenitisweighedagainsttheconditionsunderwhichheinheritedthesafavidstate.he wasonlyinhisteenswhenheascendedthethronein1587.theperiodbetweenthedeath ofhisgrandfathershahtahmasp,in1576,andthebeginningofhisownrulewas characterizedbyaweakercentralauthority,ideologicaluncertainties,andevennumerous confrontationsamongcourtiersandqizilbashelites,whosesupportthecourtdepended on. 1 Thenewshahalsofacedoppositionondynasticgrounds,whichquestionedhis legitimacyasaruler,forhisfatherwasstillalive.addedtothiswasaspiritualchallenge, initiatedbymillenariansufimovementssuchasthenuqtavi,whose propheticforecast predictednewleadershipatthebeginningofthenewmillennium. 2 Meanwhile,the neighboringpowers,withwhomthesafavidstatehadaconsiderablehistoryofmilitary andideologicalstruggle,werequicktoattempttotakeadvantageofitsvulnerabilities. Duringthisperiod,thelandsunderSafavidrulecameunderattackbytheOttomansinthe westandtheuzbeksintheeast. 1 ForanoverviewofthereignsofIsmailII(1576"1577)andMuhammadKhudabanda (1578"1587),seeAndrewNewman,SafavidIran:RebirthofaPersianEmpire(I.B. Tauris:London,2006),41"49;SheilaCanby,TheGoldenAgeofPersianArt,1501"1722 (TheBritishMuseumPress:London,1999),81"91. 2 KathrynBabayan,Mystics,Monarchs,andMessiahs:CulturalLandscapesofEarly ModernIran(Cambridge:HarvardMiddleEasternMonographs,2003). 188

205 Withinthiscontext,Abbasagreedtothepeaceconditionsputforthbythe Ottomans,whichassignedtothemGeorgia,Armenia,andAzarbaijan,includingthecity oftabriz,andthoseterritoriesthatwerelooselyheldornewlyattackedbyottoman forcessuchasnahavand.moreover,similartothepreviouspeacesignedbetweenshah TahmaspandSultanSüleymanin1555,theOttomansstipulatedthattheSafavidritual practiceofcursingthefirstthreecaliphsbestopped. 3 AlsoinlinewithOttomandemands, thechild"princehaydarmirzawastakentoistanbul,tobeheldthereasacaptive. Duringthefollowingdecade,Abbasfirstturnedhisattentiontosubduing rebellionsandconstructinghisstatewithastrongmilitaryandadministrative establishment.theqizilbash,turkomanfollowersoftheearlysafavidswhowereso influentialinbuildingthestateduringthereignofshahismail,hadbynowgainedso muchpowerthattheycametounderminetheauthorityoftheshah.significantly,during theformativeyearsofthesafavidpolity,thesesufidisciplesviewedtheshahnotjustas apoliticalleader,butalsoasadivineorsemi"divineleader.duringtheopeningdecades ofthesixteenthcentury,qizilbashtriballeaderswereappointedasgovernorsand generals,constitutingthemilitaryandadministrativebackboneofthenascentsafavid stateuntilthereignofshahabbas.theoccasionalclashesamongthesepowerfultribal leadershitthestrengthofthestateparticularlyhardduringtimesofweakcentral authority,forinstanceduringthecivilwarthatprecededshahabbas sreign. 4 Atthe 3 FeridunAhmedBeg,Müne"tü s#sel"$in,ii:249"252;kütüko#lu,osmanlı#iran,197; Kılıç,Osmanlı#Iran,129" ApreviouscivilwarthathadbrokenoutfollowingthedeathofShahIsmail(1524"36) propelledshahtahmasptopursueanalternativemilitaryforceformedbycircassian, GeorgianandArmenianslaves(ghul"m).However, itwasshahabbaswhofully institutionalizedmilitaryanddomesticslaveryandbrokewiththesafavidtribaland messianicpast. Babaieetal.,Slaves%of%the%Shah:%New%Elites%of%Safavid%Iran(London 189

206 beginningofhisreign,italsobecamecleartoshahabbasthattherewasuncertaintyand evenclashingviewsamongtheqizilbashwithregardtohisspiritualleadership. Inordertoconfrontthechallengestohisleadership,andtodiminishtheinfluence oftheqizilbash,shahabbasthenwentontobuildingacentralarmyformedby convertedslavesoldiers(ghulam),similarinprincipletotheottomanmilitary organization.inadditiontoanewstandingarmy,theseslavesoldiersalsoformeda newlydesignedadministrativeclass.theshah srelationshiptohisnewclassesof militaryandadministrativeleadersinvertedthe master"disciple principlethathad previouslygovernedhisrelationshiptoinfluentialtriballeaders,forghulamhood dependedontheslaves completebreakwiththeirsocio"culturalbackgroundsandtheir conversiontoislam. 5 Thenewidentitygiventotheseslaves,combinedwiththeireconomicandsocial dependenceonshahabbas,weremeanttoguaranteefullandcontinuousloyaltyand devotiontotheshah.whereaspreviously,safavidmilitaryforceswereformedbythe qizilbash,summonedonanadhocbasis,shahabbasinitiatedastandingarmyconsisting andnewyork:i.b.tauris,2004),6;seealsorogersavory,iranunderthesafavids (NewYork:ChicagoUniversityPress,2007;reprint,CambridgeUniversityPress,1980), 76"78. 5 Babaieetal.,SlavesoftheShah,7.TheauthorsalsodiscussthemannerinwhichShah Abbasrecruitedindividualtribalmembers,referredtoasshahsevan,orthosewholove theshah.theshahsevanalsohadasecularattachmenttotheshahasopposedtothe militantsupportersofshahismail,whowereexpectedtohaveaspiritualattachment,or "#f$g%r$(conductsuitableforsufis).v.minorsky, Shah"sewan E.J.Brill sfirst EncyclopediaofIslam,1913&1936(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1993;reprint,E.J.Brill,1927), 267"8;Roemer, TheSafavidPeriod, 214;MoojanMomen,AnIntroductiontoShi'i Islam:TheHistoryandDoctrinesofTwelverShi'ism(NewYorkandLondon:Yale UniversityPress,1985),111;RichardTapper,FrontierNomadsofIran:APoliticaland SocialHistoryoftheShahsevan(Cambridge:UniversityofCambridgePress,1997). 190

207 ofcavalry,musketeers,andanartillerycorps. 6 Meanwhile,theequipmentofthearmy withthelatesttechnology,weaponsandfirearms,hasbeeninterpretedasameasurethat ShahAbbastookinordertofaceuptothetechnologicallyup"to"dateOttomanarmy. 7 In ordertopaythearmydirectly,theshahmadeappropriatechangestothesafavidland system.hetookawaythefiefsassignedtotheqizilbash,andincorporatedthoseinto crownlands.hethenbegantocollecttaxesdirectly,withtheaidofhisnewslavesas administrators.thisway,helimitedthepowerandinfluenceoftheqizilbash,whoused tohavethelibertytoactasindependentlocalprinces. 8 Anothermajorblowonqizilbashpowerwasthetransferofthestatecapitalfrom QazvintoIsfahanin1597/98(Figure4.1). 9 Thenewcapitalwasdesignedsoasto emphasizeastronglinkbetweentheroyalcourtandcommerce.attheheartofthenew citywasbuiltagreatpublicsquare(maydan),knownasthemaydani"naqshi"jahan(lit. thesquareoftheimageoftheworld)(figure4.2).thisgreatquadranglewasorganized aroundbuildingswithpublic,royal,religiousandcommercialfunctions.assuch,in additiontotheroyalquadrangle scentralityincommercialactivity,shahabbas envisioneditalsoasaceremonial,entertainmentandfeastingarena.ononeendofthe 6 ForthevariousunitsofthearmybeforeandafterShahAbbas sreign,seem.haneda Army,iii.SafavidPeriod inencyclopedia"iranica,online, 7 Aswillbediscussedbelow,onvariousoccasions,ShahAbbasorderedfirearmsfrom Europe,orreceivedthemasgifts.FortheuseandhistoryoffirearmsduringtheSafavid period,seerudimatthee Firearms,i.History inencyclopedia"iranica,online, GunpowderandArtilleryinSafavidIran,"inSafavid"Persia:"The"History"and"Politics"of" an"islamic"society,ed.charlesmelville(london:i.b.tauris,1996),389" RogerSavoryestimatesthefullarmytonumberabout40,000soldiers.Inaddition, ShahAbbasexpandedtheroyalbodyguardtoabout3,000officials,formedentirelyby theghulams.foracomparisonoftheshahabbas sslavestotheirottomancounterparts (kapıkulları)seesavory,iran"under"safavids,79"80. 9 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,II:

208 squarewasanimperialbazaarcomplex(qaysariyya).directlyontheotherendwasan imperialcongregationalmosque(masjidi"shah)(figure4.3).thebuildingsattheheart ofthetworemainingsidesofthesquare,alongtheeast"westaxis,werearoyalpalace (Ali"Qapu)(Figure4.4),andaprivatemosqueforroyaluse(Masjidi"Shaykh"LutfAllah) (Figure4.5). 10 TheconstructionofacongregationalmosquebyShahAbbaswasparticularly significant. 11 InSafavidIran,theissueofcongregationalprayerhadbeenasourceof debateforoveracenturybythistime.beyondpurelyareligiousissue,thisdebatehad importantpoliticalimplications,withrootsgoingbacktothetimeoftheprophet. FollowinghishistoricmigrationtoMedinain622,theprophethimselfhad,forthefirst time,ledthefridaynoonprayer.soon,attendancetothiscommunalprayerwasmade obligatory,whichwasalsosupportedbyqur anicrevelation. 12 Moreover,fromthevery beginning,fridayprayerhadbeenloadedwithpoliticalmeaning.participationnotonly 10 ThereisagrowingliteratureonShahAbbas sisfahan.anexcellentnewbookwitha comprehensivebibliographyissussanbabaie,isfahan"and"its"palaces:"statecraft," Shi#ism"and"the"Architecture"of"Conviviality"in"Early"Modern"Iran(Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversityPress,2008).SeealsoBabaieetal.,Slaves"of"the"Shah,esp.80" 113;StephenBlake,Half"the"World:"The"Social"Architecture"of"Safavid"Isfahan" (CostaMesa:MazdaPublishers,1999);RobertMcChesney, FourSourcesonShah Abbas sbuildingofisfahan, Muqarnas5(1988):103" SussanBabaiearguesthateventhoughthefoundationsfortheMasjidi"Shahwerenot laidtill1611, thereasonsforraisingsuchacongregationalmosquemusthavebeen rootedintheveryinitialplansfortherefashioningofisfahanasthecapital. AsBabaie pointsout,unlikehispredecessors,shahabbasdidnotmakeanyadditionstothegreat MosqueofIsfahan,theveneratedSeljukmosquethathadreceivedsomesortof architecturalimprintfromallofthatshah spredecessors.rather,hedevotedhiscomplete attentiontobuildinganewcapitalcity.babaie,isfahan"and"its"palaces, Qur an,62:9"10: OyewhobelieveWhenthecallisproclaimedtoprayeronFriday (thedayofassembly),hastenearnestlytotheremembranceofallah,andleaveoff business(andtraffic):thatisbestforyouifyebutknew AndwhenthePrayerisfinished,thenmayyedispersethroughtheland,andseekofthe BountyofAllah:andcelebratethePraisesofAllahoften(andwithoutstint):thatyemay prosper 192

209 fulfilledareligiousobligation,andpubliclydeclaredone sfaith,butalsoconnoted allegiancetotherulerwholedtheprayer,orwhosenamewasreadaftertheprayer, duringtheimam ssermon(khutba). 13 FromtheperspectiveofMuslimrulers,this utteringoftheirnameinthefridaysermonhadtraditionallybeenafundamentalsource oflegitimacybothfortheestablishmentandthecontinuousdeclarationoftheirauthority. Fromatheologicalperspective,however,whilethelegalityofFridayprayerswasan uncontestedissueinthesunnitradition,shi"iteclericsdisagreedonwhetheritwas desirableorevenpermissibletoperformthem.oneissuethatcomplicatedmatterswas, ofcourse,theshi"iterejectionofthesunnitraditionofleadershipafter"aliibnabitalib (d.661),thecousinandson#in#lawofprophetmuhammad.inimamishi"ism,thedebate alsoinvolvedthequestionofwhetherperformingcommunalprayerswaspermissiblein theabsenceofthelastimam(occultation,orghayba),hencewithouthisconsent. 14 IntheSafavidperiod,theissueofFridayprayercontinuedtodominate theologicaldebates,withvariousclericsexpressingtheirsupportandothersfiercely opposingit. 15 TheabsenceofthispublicritualposedachallengeforSafavidrulers,who sawhoweffectivelythefridayprayerhadbeenusedasatooloflegitimacybysunni 13 S.D.Goitein DJuma EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearmanetal., (Brill,2011).BrillOnline. 14 Infact,Shi"itereligiousscholarshadbeenexpressingavarietyofopinionsontheissue sincethe10 th century.seehamidalgar Em$m#eJom"a inencyclopediairanica, online, 15 ForthisdebateandthevarioustreatisesontheissuewritteninSafavidIran,seeDevin J.Stewart, PolemicsandPatronageinSafavidIran:TheDebateonFridayPrayerduring thereignofshahtahmasb, BulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies72, no.3(2009):425#457;rulaabisaab,convertingpersia:religionandpowerinthe SafavidEmpire(LondonandNewYork:I.B.Tauris,2004);AndrewJ.Newman, Fayd al#kashaniandtherejectionoftheclergy/statealliance:fridayprayeraspoliticsinthe SafavidPeriod, inthemostlearnedoftheshi"a:theinstitutionofthemarja"taqlid, ed.lindas.walbridge(oxford:oxforduniversitypress,2001),34#

210 rulers.thoughsafavidrulersdidordertheperformingoffridayprayersundertheir rule meanwhileencouragingscholarlydebatesontheissue thepracticecouldnever beinstitutionalizedandwasexecutedonlyintermittently. 16 Asaconsequence,upuntilthereignofShahAbbas,noSafavidrulerbuilta congregationalmosqueinhisownname.ottomansultans,bycontrast,builtgreat congregationalmosques,whichproudlydeclaredtheirauthorityandeffectivelytestified toottomansunniorthodoxyinarchitecturalterms.intheottomancontext,thisvisual articulationwassupportedandpraisedbyvariousauthorsthroughoutthesixteenth century.chroniclersofthereignofsultansüleyman,forexample,frequentlypraisedthe prosperityofthesultan skingdombyemphasizingitsmosquesandpiousfoundations builtaroundthem(figure4.6).thesesocio"religiouscomplexesprovidedvarioussocial, educationalandcommercialservices,facilitatingurbanizationandcomfortabletravelfor merchantsandtravelers,especiallythosegoingonpilgrimage. 17 Atthesametime,they weretestamentstothesultan sauthorityandhisadherencetotheshari#a. 18 AsGülru 16 Forexample,duringthereignofShahTahmasp,Syrian#Amilischolars,al"Karakiin particular,encouragedparticipationinfridayprayerbyarguingthatadeputy(mujtahid) ofthehiddenimamcouldleadtheprayer;inthatcase,theritualcouldbeoptional,but notobligatory.duringthereignofshahabbas,leadingreligiousscholarsconcurredthat itwas licitbutoptional. Abisaab,ConvertingPersia,esp.20"22,37"39,56,79"86,112" 114;DevinJ.Stewart, NotesontheMigrationof#$mil%ScholarstoSafavidIran, JournalofNearEasternStudies,55,no.2(1996):81"103;Arjomand,ShadowofGod, 134" Necipo&lu,AgeofSinan,31"32,34"35.ForOttomanmosquecomplexes,seealso GodfreyGoodwin,AHistoryofOttomanArchitecture(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins UniversityPress,1971). 18 TheFridaysermon(khutba)inallofthesemosqueswouldbereadinthesultan s name.asdiscussedabove,thefridaysermonalwayscarriedpoliticallegitimacyforthe rulingpower.butthemarkedemphasisonthestate ssunniorthodoxyduringsultan Süleyman stime,coupledwiththesultan snewtitlesofthe caliphoftheworld (hal"fe# ir$#yizem"n),and caliphofallmuslims (hal"fet #ülmüslim"n)gavethefridaysermon addedsignificance.forthesystematicintegrationofsunniorthodoxyintoottomanstate 194

211 Necipolu"has"demonstrated,"Ottoman"authors "emphasis"on"the"prosperity"of"ottoman" lands"often"makes"implicit"or"explicit"reference"to"the"lack"of"mosques,"and"hence" congregational"prayer,"in"safavid"iran. 19 "" The"long"struggle"between"Sultan"Süleyman"and"Shah"Tahmasp"prior"to"the" Amasya"Treaty"of"1555"must"have"played"a"significant"role"in"the"Ottoman"formulation"of" rulership,"which"projected"the"sultan"as"the"caliph,"and"the"sole"defender"of"sunni"islam" against"safavid"heresy. 20 "In"fact,"as"Colin"Imber"has"argued,"such"formulation"of"the" sultan s"position"directly"depended"on"a"definition"of"safavid"shahs"as"shi#ite"heretics," who"distorted"sunni"islam"by"amending"clear"rules"of"the"religion,"such"as"congregational" prayer,"who"denigrated"the"prophet s"wife,"aisha,"and"publicly"cursed"the"first"three" Rightly"Guided"Caliphs."All"of"these"figures"were,"of"course,"highly"respected"in"the" Sunni"tradition."In"the"mid$sixteenth"century,"during"the"reign"of"Sultan"Süleyman,"the" eminent"ottoman"jurist"ebusuud"was"highly"influential"in"explicating"the"idea"that" Safavid"shahs"and"all"of"their"subjects"were"heretics."This"argument"was"in"turn"integrated" flawlessly"into"official"propaganda,"and"ebusuud s"fatwas"legitimated"fighting"the" Safavids."This"way," Ottoman"Sultans"were"able"to"present"all"their"campaigns"as"holy" identity"and"its"relationship"to"state$sponsored"architecture,"including"the"legal" enforcement"of"friday"prayer,"see"necipolu,"ageofsinan,"47$70." 19 "For"example,"in"his"chronicle"of"the"conquest"of"Tabriz"in"1585,"the"Ottoman"court" historian"talikizade,"for"example,"mentions"how"the"akkoyunlu"congregational"mosque," which"was"abandoned"under"safavid"rule,"was"immediately"put"to"use"by"initiating"the" call"to"prayer"from"the"mosque"and"by"holding"the"communal"friday"prayer"there." Necipolu,"AgeofSinan,"34." 20 "Concurrently,"Süleyman s"ambitions"respond"to"the"roman"imperial"title"of"the" Habsburg"king,"and"his"claim"to"rulership"over"all"Christians."Indeed,"the"Ottoman$ Habsburg"peace"treaty"of"1547"refers"to"Charles"V"as" Spanish"king "rather"than" Emperor. "With"this"treaty,"Charles"V"and"his"brother"Ferdinand"I"agreed"to"pay"a"yearly" tribute"to"the"ottoman"sultan,"which"was"understood"as"signifying"the"formers " subordination.""colin"imber,"ebu s"su ud:theislamiclegaltradition"(stanford:" Stanford"University"Press,"1997),"74,"85$86."" 195

212 wars. 21 IfEbusuud sfatwaswereaudacioustoolsofmilitarypropagandaaimedat persuadingtheottomanmilitarytofightamuslimenemy,thefoundationinscriptionof SultanSüleyman scongregationalmosquebyebusuud spenwasamoresubtle, symbolicgesturethatcommunicatedthesameideabydefiningthesultanastheuniversal caliph.thisinscription,placedovertheportalofthesüleymaniyemosque,addressesthe sultanas PossessoroftheKingdomsoftheWorld/ShadowofGodoverallPeoples, SultanoftheSultansoftheArabsandthePersians. Moreover,heissaidtohave achievedthistitlebothwiththehelpandsupportofgodhimself,andhissuccessful armies,indicatinghisownexcellencyinleadership. 22 Buthowwasthesultan sclaimtouniversalrulershipthencommunicatedtothe Safavids?Duringthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury,Safavidembassiesto ConstantinoplewereoftentakenonexcursionsintheOttomancapital,whichfeatured especiallythehammamsofthecapital,thehagiasophia,andthemosquecomplexesof SultanSüleymanandhisfatherSelimI. 23 Thesetours expressedanunabashedpridein 21 Imber,Ebu ssu ud,86.forebusuud sfatwasonthesafavids,seealsom.ertu"rul Düzda"eyhülislam"Ebussuud"Efendi"Fetvaları"Iı#ında"16."Asır"Türk"Hayatı(Istanbul: Enderun,1972) 22 Foratranslationoftheentireinscription,andforadiscussionofSüleyman sclaimto universalsovereigntybybothsecularanddivineright,seeimber,ebu ssu ud,75#76, andnecipo"lu,age"of"sinan,207# Forexample,in1568,theembassysentbyShahTahmasptocongratulatethe enthronementofselimii,whosucceededsultansüleyman,weremadetostopin IstanbulontheirwaytoEdirne.Selaniki,TarihI:69.Suchjuxtapositionofthe SüleymaniyeMosquewiththeHagiaSophiamayalsobeseenasquitestrategic,asboth monumentscitedthemythicaltempleofsolomon,andtheformerbyzantinechurch servedasamodelforsüleyman smosque.thelatterinfactsoughttosurpasstheformer byrefiningitwithuniquelyottomantechnicalandaestheticelements.many contemporaryauthorsandmodernscholarshavecommentedonthecitationofthehagia SophiainOttomanarchitectureingeneral,andintheSüleymaniyeinparticular.See especiallygoodwin,ottoman"architecture;do"ankuban, TheStyleofSinan sdomed 196

213 thespectaclevalueofistanbul,designedasashowcaseforsultanicmosquecomplexes builtasvictorymemorials. 24 Furthermore,thesevisitscompelledtheenvoyandhis retinuetoobserveandtakepartinprayeratthesefridaymosques.these propagandistic tours wererathersymbolicgesturestoimpress,ifnotintimidate,messengersofsafavid shahs.butthelackofmosquesinsafavidlandswasstatedmuchmoreforcefullyin officialcorrespondencewiththeshahsbydirectlyquestioningtheirreligiosityandhence theirauthorityasmuslimrulers.inonesuchlettertoshahabbas sgrandfather,shah Tahmasp,theOttomangrandvizierwrote: You(ShahTahmasp)claimtobeofthetruefaithofIslam. Inyourletters,youciteversesfromtheQur an.[however,] thosepadshahssubscribingtothetruefaithhaveintheir countriesmosquesandplacesofprostration(cmi"ler#ve# mescidler),whereinareheldcommunallythefivedaily prayers,followingthecalltoprayer(eznorad$n)[from theseplacesofworship].fridayprayersareheldinthose mosques,andfridaysermons(khutba)areread,inwhich theprophet,hisfamilyandcompanionsarepraised.inall fairness,then,canyousaythereisahintofpietyandislam inyourconducts? 25 ThelettergoesontoarguethattheSafavidcustomofcursingthecompanionsofthe prophetisflawedandthatkingswhoallowpeopleundertheirruletopracticesuch profanitywouldinturnbeinfidelsthemselves.pushingtheinsultfurther,andinorderto assertthattheshahsareinfactworsethaninfidels,andthattheyareratherheretics just asebusuuddescribesthesafavidsinhisfatwas,thegrandviziergoesbacktotheissue Structures, Muqarnas4(1987),84;Necipo"lu,Age#of#Sinan,221#222;J.M.Rogers, Sinan(LondonandNewYork:I.B.Tauris,2006),41# Necipo"lu,Age#of#Sinan, IbrahimPeçevi(Peçuyi),Tr%$&i#Peçev%,2vols.(Istanbul,1283/1866#67),I:

214 ofworshipandsaysthatinfidelswouldatleasthavechurchesundertheirdomains, whereasiranundertheshahs evenlackchurches. 26 BythereignofShahAbbas,thislineofargument,whichopenlyaccusesSafavid shahsofblasphemy,hadbecomeacommonplaceinottomanpropaganda,andcontinued toappearagainandagaininsimilarharshlanguageinofficialcorrespondencewiththe Safavidcourt,especiallyduringtimesofmilitaryconflict.Asaconsequence,in1590, earlyinhisreign,thepeacetreatyshahabbassignedwiththeottomansobligatedhimto agreetostoptheritualcursingofthefirstthreecaliphs.in1555,shahtahmaspsimilarly hadpromisedtodothesamewhenhehadconcludedthefirstofficialtreatywiththe Ottomans.Infact,justasthegrandvizierpointedoutinhisabovementionedlettertothe shah,tahmaspalwayswrotelongornateletterspepperedwithversesfromthequr an, whichattestedtohisknowledgeofislamandhispiety,andwithcoupletsfrompersian epicsandtheworkoffamedpoets,inordertoasserthisintellectualdistinctionand sophisticatedtasteinliterature.asihaveargued,hisselectionofpricelessgiftsfor Ottomansultansstatesthissameideaevenmoreforcefully. Inturn,overthecourseofthesixteenthcentury,Ottomanshadrespondedina varietyofwaystotahmasp suseoffiguralexcessinhisgiftsandrhetoricalexcessinhis letters.oncertainoccasions,suchasin1576and1582,someottomanhighranking officialsandauthorshaveremainedsilentaboutsuchsuperfluity,assumingthatthiswas thenaturalandexpectedmanneroftreatingthesultan.atothertimes,suchasin1590, Ottomanauthorsmadeaspecialefforttoshowthattheshah sextraordinarygifts declaredhisimperativeandvoluntarysubordinationtothesultan.in1590,shahabbas s 26 Peçevi,Tr"#,I:

215 strategyinselectingandpresentinghisgiftstothesultancloselyfollowedthetradition establishedbyshahtahmasp.however,wewillseethatasshahabbasreformedhis stateandbecamemorepowerfulpolitically,commercially,andmilitarily,themannerin whichherespondedtoottomanaccusationsbegantodeviatesignificantlyfromthatof ShahTahmasp.WhereasShahTahmasphadalwaysletQur anicandliterarycitations engagewithottomanchallenges,andsentottomansultanspreciousgiftsofenormous monetary,culturalandhistoricalvalue,shahabbaschosetocompletelybreakwiththis trend.undershahabbas snewrulesofdiplomacy,iargue,giftsfiguredasaprimary mechanismtoexpresshisrefusaltobe,orappeartobe,subservienttotheottoman sultan. TheIstanbulPeaceTreatyof1590andShahAbbas ssubsequentembassies totheottomancourt AlloftheconditionsputforthbytheOttomanswereacceptedinprincipleby ShahAbbas,sothatpeacewouldbeconcludedin1590.Inmodernscholarship,thispeace treatyhasbeeninterpretedasaclearvictoryfortheottomansultanandahumiliating defeatforthesafavidshah. 27 However,asBekirKütüko"luhaspointedout,numerous disagreementsabouttheexactplaceofbordersalreadybegantosurfaceduringand immediatelyaftertheconclusionofpeace. 28 ShahAbbasexplainedinhislettersto 27 See,forexample,AndrewNewman,SafavidIran,52;Kütüko"lu,Osmanlı"Iran;Kılıç, Osmanlı"Iran,126# Forexample,whethertheregionofKaracada"(orQarajad$gh)shouldremainunder Safavidrulewasanissueofdebateduringthenegotiations.Therewasdisagreementeven amongottomanofficialsonwhetherthatregionwasconquered,whichencouragedthe SafavidenvoytoinsistthathecouldnotagreetoleavethoselandstotheOttomans. Kütüko"lu,Osmanlı"Iran,202#6. 199

216 IstanbulthatMahdiquliKhan,theSafavidenvoysenttoIstanbultoconcludethepeace treaty,wasexecutedafterhisreturntoiranbecauseofhisfailuretoraisesomeofthe shah sobjectionstotheottomanterritorialdemands. 29 Complicatingthesituationeven moreforabbaswasthetransferofhisnephew,haydarmirza,totheottomancapitalasa conditionthattheottomanshadputforthinordertosignthepeaceagreement.keeping HaydarMirzainIstanbulgavetheOttomansultansignificantdiplomaticleverage.The Safavidshah svulnerabilitywithregardtothisissueisalsoevidentinottoman"safavid exchangesthroughouttheprince sresidenceinistanbul. ThefirstSafavidambassadortodiscussthedisagreementsaboutborder designationwasqaraahmadsultan,whoarrivedinistanbulattheendofaugust Aweeklater,hewasreceivedattheOttomancourt.Thereisnorecordofanygiftsthat thisenvoymighthavebroughtwithhim.basedontheweightoftheissueshecameto discuss,andthemodestmannerinwhichhewasreceived,however,itseemslikelythat hedidnotbringasignificantgroupofgiftsthatparticipatedintheexchange. Furthermore,alsoabsentinthisinstancearetheextraordinaryOttomancareandeffortin givingreturngiftsasobjectsandfavorstosafavidenvoys(asinourcasestudiesof1568 and1590),fortheenvoywasgivennothingbutarobeofhonorandsomecashtocover hisexpenses. 31 Beforetheenvoy saudiencewiththesultan,seeingthattheshah sletterraised objectionsaboutleavingtheregionofnahavandtotheottomans,thecourtierspressured 29 Kütüko#lu,OsmanlıIran, Selaniki,Tarih,I: Selaniki,Tarih,I:

217 QaraAhmadtonotevenmentionthisissuetothesultan. 32 QaraAhmadwasalsocharged withaskingthesultanforareassignmentofthehostageprincehaydarmirza sguardian. Thiswasrejectedsaying theprincehasafineguardian 33 Theshah sfinaldemand, whichwastoreceivemilitarysupportfromtheottomansagainsttheuzbeks,wasalso refused,fortheottomansdidnotwanttobreaktieswiththesunniuzbeks. 34 Asifreceivingcoldresponsestoalloftheshah sdemandswasnotharshenough, afinaldisappointmentforqaraahmadwasthearrivalattheottomancourtofanenvoy fromkhanahmad,thegovernorofgilan. 35 AccordingtotheOttomanhistorianSelaniki, uponseeingthelavishfestivitiesorganizedforthereceptionofkhanahmad senvoy, andthegiftsandfavorsshoweredonhim,qaraahmadwasdevastated. 36 Indeed,the envoy sworrieswerenotungrounded.inadditiontothemanygiftsthegovernorofgilan hadsent,inhisletterhewasofferingtograntthesultanhalfofthelandsunderhisrule. 37 KhanAhmad,whowasaSunni,alsocomplainedaboutreligiousandpoliticalpressure 32 Selaniki,Tarih,I:253.ForthedisputeoverNahavand,seealsoKütüko"lu,Osmanlı Iran,204#6. 33 Selaniki,Tarih,I: Kılıç,OsmanlıIran, FallingonthesouthwestcorneroftheCaspianSea,theregionofGilanheldgreat political,geographicandcommercialsignificanceforboththeottomanandsafavid states.besidesmazandaranandshirvan,gilanwasoneofthemajorprovidersofrawsilk iniranthatottomancentersofsilkproductiondependedon.amajormotivationfor OttomansinfightingtheSafavidsinthe1580swasananticipationtotakecontrolover theseregions.ontheimportanceofgilaninsilkproductionseeinalcık,economic"and" Social"History,219#230;RudolphP.Matthee,The"Politics"of"Trade"in"Safavid"Iran:"Silk" for"silver," (cambridgeuniversitypress:cambridge,1999),esp.chapters 2&3.Foranoverviewofthecompetitionoverthisarea,seeCarlMaxKortepeter, ComplexGoalsoftheOttomans,Persians,andMuscovitesintheCaucasus,1578# 1640, innew"perspectives"on"safavid"iran:"empire"and"society,ed.colinp.mitchell (LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2011),59# Selaniki,Tarih,I:252#3. 37 Selaniki,Tarih,I:

218 thatshahabbassupposedlyputonhim,andwasaskingforthesultan shelp. 38 In response,shahabbassentanenvoytotheottomancourtwithaletterofprotest regardingapossibilityofalliancebetweenthesultanandkhanahmad.inthisletter, ShahAbbasexplainedthatGilanhaslongbeenasemi"autonomoustributarytothe Safavids,andthereforeitwasnotKhanAhmad sterritorytoofferthesultan. 39 Fearing theshah,khanahmadfledtotheottomancourt,leavingbehindhiswifeanddaughter, whowereatthesametimethedaughterandgranddaughterofshahtahmasp. 40 The OttomanresponsetoShahAbbaswascautious,butvagueatbest.Theletterdated June/July1592explainedthatthegovernorsofGilanhavelongpaidhomagetothe Ottomansultans,andthatKhanAhmad srequestforprotectionwasthereforenotan impedimenttotheottoman"safavidpeace. 41 WhenKhanAhmadreachedIstanbul,he wasreceivedandhostedforthreemonthswithmuchreverence.infact,thehistorian Selaniki,whowasassignedasthegovernor shost(mihmandar),compareshimtoother rulersandprinces,suchasshahtahmasp sbrotheralqasmirza,whohadtakenrefugeat theottomancourtduringthereignofsultansüleyman.unlikealqasmirza,however, KhanAhmadcouldneversecureOttomanmilitaryandpoliticalsupport.Givenalsothat GilanwasconqueredbyShahAbbasinthemeantime,hecouldnotgobackhome,and 38 AccordingtoSelaniki,theOttomanestablishmentdidnotcreditsuchapressurefrom ShahAbbas,fornosuchnewshadpreviouslycometotheirattention.Theyalsodidnot wanttojeopardizethepeacetreatytheyhadjustsignedwithabbas.selaniki,tarih,i: 255.ForamoredetaileddiscussionoftheactualcorrespondencebetweentheOttoman court,khanahmad,andshahabbas,seekütüko#lu,osmanlıiran,207"8,n Selaniki,Tarih,I:267.SeeingthatKhanAhmadwasdenyinghavingappealedtothe Ottomansultan,ShahAbbasalsoproceededtoassignhisforcesonGilan.EskandarBeg Monshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,II:622" ShahTahmasp sdaughtermaryamsultanbegomwasmarriedtokhanahmadin 1578.EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"#Abbas"the"Great,I:339,II: Kütüko#lu,OsmanlıIran,209"210.Itisalsoclearfromthecorrespondencebetween thetwocourtsthattheottomanswerethreatenedbytheshah soffensiveongilan. 202

219 diedinexileinistanbulin Intheend,then,itwasShahAbbaswhoemerged victorious,forheincorporatedgilanintohisterritories.thisissueofgilanaddedtothe problemsandfrustrationsleftunresolvedintheistanbulpeacetreatyof1590. Furthermore,thewayinwhichthisincidentunfoldedwithinOttoman"Safavidrelations alsoatteststothegrowingtensionandmistrustbetweenthetwosidesintheaftermathof thepeacetreaty. DuringandfollowingtheKhanAhmadincident,ShahAbbasoccupiedhimself furtherwithrenewingtheinfrastructureofhisstate,anddealingwiththeuzbeks,who hadattackedandtookaholdofkhurasan,includingthecitiesofheratandmashhad. 43 TheOttomansultan,too,wasconfrontedwithmajorchallengesinsideandoutsidethe confinesofhisempire:inthewest,warhadbrokenoutwiththehabsburgsin1593,when theyrefusedtosendtheheavyyearlytributetheyhadbeenpayingtheottomanssincethe peacetreatyof1547.therewasalsomuchunrestamongtheottomanmilitary,which extendedtothefamousturn"of"the"centuryincidentsofbanditryandrebellionin Anatolia Afterhisthree"month"stayinIstanbul,KhanAhmadheadedforIraqtovisittheholy Shi#iteshrinesinNajafandKarbala(withOttomanpermissionandfinancialsupport). Later,heplannedtoappealtheUzbeksbutfailedandreturnedtoIstanbul.ForKhan Ahmad sstayinistanbul,seeselaniki,tarih,i:295"301.forfurtherdiscussionofthe KhanAhmadincident,includingOttomanandSafavidsourcesregardingtheissueand howtheissuecontinuedtodominateottoman"safavidrelationsinthefirstofhalfofthe 1590s,seeKütüko$lu,OsmanlıIran,206"213;ManouchehrKasheff G%l&n,v.History underthesafavids, inencyclopedia"iranica,online, 43 RobertD.McChesney, TheConquestofHerat995"96/1587"88:SourcesfortheStudy ofsafavid/qizilbash"sh%b&nid"uzbakrelations, inétudes"safavides,ed.j.calmard (ParisandTehran:InstitutfrançaisderechercheenIran,1993),69" MustafaAkda$,Türk"Halkının"Dirlik"ve"Düzenlik"Kavgası:"Celali"Isyanları(Ankara, 1975);WilliamJ.Griswold,The"Great"Anatolian"Rebellion," / " (Berlin:KlausSchwarzVerlag,1983);KarenBarkey,Bandits"and"Bureaucrats:"The" Ottoman"Route"to"State"Centralization(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1994).Fora 203

220 Allthesame,asmentionedearlier,theSafavidprinceHaydarMirza sresidence inistanbulcontinuedtokeeptheottomansatatruediplomaticadvantageintheir relationswiththesafavids.withthemissionofrenewingpeaceandleavingbehindall thefrictionsthataroseafter1590,shahabbassentanembassytoistanbulinearly1595. TheenvoyKeremKhanalsowished tocheckontheprince andhadbroughtwithhim theprince snurse(dyaordye). 45 Bythetimethisenvoyandhisretinuereachedthe capital,however,sultanmuradiiihadpassedawayandhissonmehmediiihadassumed thethrone. TheenvoyandHaydarMirzatookaudiencewiththesultantogether,forthe princehadnotyetcongratulatedmehmediiionhisenthronement.theottomanhistorian Selanikirefersonlyto excellentpersiantextiles (nef"s#acem#kuma larıyle)amongthe giftsthatshahabbashadsentthesultan. 46 MehmedIII slettertoshahabbasgavenews ofmuradiii sdeath,hissubsequententhronement,andaskedfortheprayersandgood wishesofthesafavidreligiousestablishmentinthewesterncampaignthesultanwas preparingtoembarkon.mehmediiialsograntedpermissionthatabbassendtwo officialstobaghdad,whichwasunderottomanrule,sothepoorandneedyaroundthe holyshi"iteshrinestherewouldbefed. 47 recentanalysisthattakesasthemainsourceoftroublesasdrasticchangesinclimate,see SamWhite,The#Climate#of#Rebellion#in#the#Early#Modern#Ottoman#Empire(Cambridge andnewyork:cambridgeuniversitypress,2011),163# ehzde#haydar#mirza yı#pürsi"$i#htır#itmek#ve#dyesin#getürmek#takribiyleselaniki, Tarih,II: Thegiftsarereferredtocollectivelyas tuhaf, thatis, gifts ratherthantribute. 47 Thesultandidnot,however,allowtheShahtocompletetheprojectofchangingthe pathoftheeuphrates,soitwouldgobytheholyshi"iteshrineinnajaf,whichwasa projectfirstformulatedbyshahismail.acopyoftheletterisgiveninferidunahmed Beg,Mün"e%tü s$sel&in,ii:328#31.shahabbas slettertosultanmuradispartlycited 204

221 Despiteitsmodestscale,thisexchangemarksahighpointinOttoman"Safavid relationsassuggestedbythecourteouscorrespondenceandthepleasingqualityoffavors presentedbackandforth.atthispoliticallyvulnerablemomentforbothstates,itwas mostsensibletopreserveamicablerelations.furthermore,thoughsourcesdonotgivea completelistofthegiftsexchangedhere,wealreadybegintoseeabreakwithtradition. Asnotedabove,highlightedonlyarePersiantextiles,possiblysilks,ratherthanalong listofnumerousobjectsledbymanuscripts. Assuch,whileatthismomentitmightbepossibletodetecttherootsofchangein ShahAbbas spatternofgift"giving,ontheottomanside,thisideawouldtakeawhileto bedigested.theopeningdouble"pagepaintinginamanuscriptonmehmediii se#ri (Erlau)Campaignof1596(thecampaignthatthesultanreferstoinhislettertoShah Abbas)makesasignificantallusiontoHaydarMirza scongratulatoryaudiencewiththe sultan.thismanuscript,titledtarihi"fethi"e#ri"(historyoftheconquestofe#ri)is undatedandwasrecentlysoldatasotheby sauctioninlondon(figure4.7).the paintinginquestiondepictssultanmehmediiienthronedinthechamberofpetitions, beyondthethirdgateofthetopkapıpalace.theinscriptionsonthedouble"spreadread: WithfelicitySultanMehmedwasenthroned/Theexaltedonecommanded,and kettledrumswerebeaten,soldierskissed[his]hand,andfavorsweredispensed/the khansofcrimeaandthepersianprince. 48 anddiscussedinnasrallahfalsafi,zindag$n%yi"shah"&abbasi"avval,5vols.(tehran, 1364/1985"6),V:1688" Sa&$detle"sul'$n"Me(med"cül)s"/"buyurd%"bülend"old%"av$z"k)s"" el"öpd%"sipah"çık*d%"in&$m"hem"/"k*ırım"+$nlar%,"m%rz$yı"&acem Arts"of"the"Islamic"World"Including"Fine"Carpets"and"Textiles"London"7"October"2009" Sotheby s,lot58,fols.30"

222 ThisrarepaintingofMehmedIII senthronementdepartssignificantlyfrom Ottomanpaintingsdepictingaccessionceremoniesinthesecondhalfofthesixteenth centuryandbeginningoftheseventeenthcentury.paintingsfromthisperiodshowingthe accessionceremoniesofsultansselimi(r.1512"20),süleymani(r.1520"66),selimii (r.1566"74),muradiii(r.1574"95),andahmedi(r.1603"17)allfollowacompositional andthematicprograminaccordancewithpreviousmodelsaswellaslegalcodesand protocolregisters. 49 Iftheceremonytakesplaceinthepalace,thesultansitsinhisthrone inthesecondcourtyard,surroundedbythehighest"rankingofficialsofthecourt.those sultanswhoassumedthethroneoutsidethepalace,suchasselimiandselimii,are showninimperialtents,buttheorganizationoftheceremonyisconsistentinallcases. Furthermore,facingthethroneisasoldierorastatesmanbowingdown,takinghisoath ofallegiancetothesultan,asanindicationoftheapprovaloftheentiremilitaryand politicalestablishment. 50 Bycontrast,ratherthantakingthisestablishedmodeofvisualizingthesultan s enthronementasitsmodel,thepaintingofmehmediii senthronementfollowsa differenttradition:thatofthesultanreceivingforeignenvoysandhishigh"ranking officials.intheupperleftside,thesultan,thegrandvizierandotherviziersareshownin thechamberofpetitionsinthethirdcourtyardofthepalace. 51 Verticallyalignedwiththe 49 ThesepaintingshavebeenanalyzedinZeynepTarımErtu#, TheDepictionof CeremoniesinOttomanMiniatures:HistoricalRecordoraMatterofProtocol?, Muqarnas27(2010):251" TarımErtu#, TheDepictionofCeremonies, 255"8.AsTarımErtu#argues,anovelty inthepaintingofahmedi saccessionisthedepictionofthesecondcourtfromawider angle.also,unlikepreviousexamples,thestatesmanbeforeahmedikisseshishand ratherthankeepingadistancefromhim. 51 Forthethirdcourtyard,wheretheroyalhouseholdlived,andtheChamberofPetitions, wherethesultangaveaudience,seegülrunecipo#lu,architecture,ceremonial,and 206

223 sultan saudience,attheupperleftsideofthecomposition,istheimperialcouncilhall, wheretheheadofthechancery(ni ancı),financeministersandsecretariesarebusyat work.intheforegroundonthesamepagearelaidboxesandbagsofcashtobe distributed.thoughthereisharmonywithineachgroupofofficialsscatteredthroughout thepalace,unlikeotherottomanaccessionpaintings,thewholeceremonyandattention isnotaimedtowardsonedirection,namelythesultan.instead,thismanneroforganizing thesecondandthirdcourtyardsinadouble"spreadverycloselyfollowspaintingsin whichthesultanreceivesforeignambassadors.compare,forexample,mehmediii s accessioninthiscopyofthehistoryoftheconquestofe"ri,withapaintingofthe previoussultanmuradiii saudiencewiththemoroccanambassadorinthesecond volumeofthebookofthekingofkings( ehin ehn#me)(figure4.8). 52 Theaccession paintingisunmistakeablyacopyofthisearlierone.buthowshouldwereadthisclear anddeliberatecitation?insteadofbringingforthexclusivelytheseamlesstransferof powertothenewsultanmanifestedintheenthusiasm,deference,andapprovalofthe stateestablishment,thisrepresentationofmehmediii saccessionequallyemphasizesthe submissionofthekhansofcrimea,thehistoricalvassalsoftheottomans,togetherwith thesafavidprince.inthepainting,thefigureofthesoldierorthestatesmankneeling beforethesultanisalsoabsent.perhapsthisfigureisreplacedherewiththevassalsorthe prince.indeed,alignedroughlywiththegateoffelicityontheleftpage,infrontofthe cypresstree,isatinyfigure,muchsmallerinscalethanthosesurroundinghim,and Power:TheTopkapıPalaceintheFifteenthandSixteenthCenturies(Cambridge,Mass. andlondon:mitpressandthearchitecturalhistoryfoundation,1991),esp.91" TSMK,B.200,142b"143a.Otherpaintingsinthismanuscript,forexample28b"29a and36b"37a,whichareaboutthesultan saudiencewithsafavidambassadorsmaqsud KhanandIbrahimKhanin1580and1582respectively,alsoarecopiesofthissame composition. 207

224 wearingadifferentstyleturban.ifthisishaydarmirza,thenhispresenceinthispainting surelyindicateshowsignificanthehadbecome,notjustforthecontinuationofthe Ottoman"Safavidpeace,butatthispointhecametobedirectlyassociatedwiththe sultan simage,asymbolthatassertshislegitimacyandpower. TheDeathofaGiftandItsAftermath ThecourtchroniclerofShahAbbas,IskandarBegMunshi,mentionsamongthe eventsoftheyear1595onethat allthepeopleofiran,considered[as]yetanother manifestationofthegoodfortunethatattendedthisdynasty(thesafavids). Hewas referringtothedeathofhaydarmirza,theeleven"year"oldnephewofshahabbas,who wasbeingheldashostageinistanbulsince1590.iskandarmunshifurtherelaborateson thereliefthiseventprovidedasfollows: SincehewastheShah snephewanditwasnot fittingthatasafavidprince,aseyyed ssonandashi iteofpurefaith,shouldsire childrenwhilehewasinottomanhands,amongtheenemiesofthefaith,itwasa mercifulprovidencethatdecreedheshoulddieanaturaldeathoftheplagueatistanbul, beforehehadhadanychildren. 53 OntheOttomanside,bycontrast,thesuddendeathof thisyoungprinceinstigatedmuchanxiety,andevensuspicion.theottomanhistorian Selaniki,whowasalsotheprince shostattheottomancourt,wrotethatduringthekhan 53 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"AbbastheGreat,II:707.WhiletheOttomanhistorian IbrahimPeçevialsoconfirmsthattheprincediedsuddenlyoftheplague,headdsthatata latertimesafavidssecretlyduguphistombineyüp,andtookhisbodybacktoiran,for theydidnotwantittoremainonottomansoil.peçevi,t#r$%&ipeçev$,i:

225 Ahmadaffair,thehigh"rankingofficialsfearedforHaydarMirza slife,fortheybelieved thesafavidswereschemingtokilltheprinceinordertobreakthepeacesettlement. 54 BeforethearrivalinIstanbulofthelastSafavidenvoy,KeremBeg,inFebrurary 1595,thenewsultanMehmedIIIhadwrittentotheSafavidcourtdeclaringthedeathof hisfatherandofhisenthronement.followingthedeathofhaydarmirzaindecemberof thesameyear,theworriesoftheottomancourtiersbegantointensify,fortherewasno newsofanenvoyheadedfortheottomancourttocongratulatethenewsultan.finally,in April1596thegrandvizierSinanPashawrotetoShahAbbastopressurehimsohewould sendanambassadortocongratulatethenewsultanandtowishcondolencesformurad III spassing.thegrandvizieralsoremindedtheshahthathehadpreviouslypromised, thoughorally,thathewouldsendoneofhisownsonshadthesultannotfoundhaydar Mirzaanappropriateprincetosignthetreaty.SinanPashaaskedtheshahtokeephis promise,sothatpeacecouldberenewed. 55 Then,ShahAbbasquicklyapprovedthedispatchofZulfaqarKhanQaramanlu, thegovernorofardabil,asambassadortothecourtofmehmediii.zulfaqarkhanleft KhurasanattheendofMay AgainstSinanPasha sexpectations,however,the envoywasnotgoingtobringwithhimadifferentsafavidprince.hisretinuewas 54 VebundaSüdde"isa#adet"med$rdaolanHamzaMirzao%lıHaydarMirza yabirtar&k ilegezendiridürmekkızılba"ıbed"ma#$t$'ifesinünaks$"yımer$mlarıolupvem$" beyndeolansulhusal$hıber"tarafeyeleüp,yineke'l"evvelh$l"i$lemz$r&olmakiçün k$r"z$rabalamakevb$larınunmur$dıidü%ir(enümüberhendür diyüh(mend$n i#$reyledileridi.selaniki,tarih,i: TheletterissummarizedinKütüko#lu,Osmanlı"Iran, MullaJalalal"DinMunajjimYazdi,Tarikh"iAbbasiyaRuznama"yiMullaJalal,ed.S. VahidNiya(Tehran,1366/1987),

226 sizeable,consistingofabout300people, allpickedmen,infullpanoply. 57 Whenthe embassyreachedottomanterritory,itwasheldinerzurumforashortperiod,forthe sultanhadleftthecapitaltogoonthee"ricampaignandhadreachedsofia. 58 Meanwhile,ordersweresenttoIstanbulsoappropriatepreparationsweremadeforthe embassy sentryintothecityandstaythere. SimilartotheceremonialentriesorganizedforSafavidembassiesthatarrivedat theottomancapitalin1568,1576,1580,1582,and1590,theottomanarmyandhigh# rankingstateofficialswereallassembledinmilitaryandceremonialgeartomeetthe envoyandhisretinueontheoutskirtsofthecity.additionally,onthisoccasion,1500 membersofthecommunityofartistsandartisansofistanbul(asitne"i#sa$detde#bin# be #yüz#nefer#ehl"i#hiref#cem$atı)joinedthewelcomefestivities.asintheprevious occasions,theembassypassedthebosphorusonlavishboats,feastingandwatchingthe firingofcannons.theparadecontinuedontheotherside,fillingthestreetsofistanbul.in theplazafrontingtheimperialgateofthetopkapıpalace,therewasanunprecedented displaywaitingfortheembassytopassby:agiraffe,lions,andanelephantscattering coins. 59 ThewayinwhichtheSafavidembassyrespondedtoOttomandisplaysof ornamentandpowerdidnotgounnoticedbycontemporaryobservers.theottoman historianselanikinotedthatsafavidofficialsweredressed inastrangemanner,notlike theformerqizilbashthatcamefromtheeasternland: thecapsontheirturbans(taçor 57 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah#$Abbas#the#Great,II:688.Selanikirccordsthatthe embassyconsistedof1000people.selaniki,tarih,ii: Kütüko"lu,Osmanlı"Iran, Selaniki,Tarih,II:640.Thedisplayoftheseanimalsisalsomentionedinareportfrom thevenetianambassadorstothesenate.asve,senato,copieottocenteschideidispacci, RegistroXI,

227 tj)werequitesmallandtheirturbanswereround,inthesufitradition,crownedwith heronfeathers.theenvoy sturbanwasdifferentfromallothers,madeofmulticolored Indiansilk.Somemeninhisimmediateretinuerodetheirhorsesalongsidehimon jeweleduzbeksaddles,braggingthattheyhadreceivedthoseastribute. 60 TheVenetian ambassadors(baili)marcovenierandgirolamocapello,whowerethenresidingatthe Ottomancapital,similarlymentiontheSafavids elegantdress,recordingespeciallythe pearlsandjewelsdecoratingtheirturbansandrobes. 61 AmbassadorsVenierandCapelloalsostate,contrarytoOttomanaccounts,that thesafavidembassywasaccompaniedbyrelativelyfewottomansoldiersandstatesmen onhorsebackduetothecurrentshortageofhorses,poortreatmentoftheexistingones, andbroaderproblemswithinthemilitaryorganization. 62 However,thedisplayofmilitary mightwasaparticularlyimportantconcernforottomansduringthisencounter.whenthe sultanreturnedtoistanbulfromthee"ricampaign,theenvoyandhisretinuewere summonedataplacecalleda çıba ıevleri,nearthefunerarymosquecomplexof ehzade Mehmed.There,theyweremadetojointhecrowdstowatchthetriumphalmilitary paradeasitenteredthecity.oneofthefourpaintingsinthewell#knownmanuscriptof 60 Ve"imdiye"dek"Asitne#i"sa$dete"diyr#ı""ark dan"gelen"kızılbalar"tavrına"muhlif" usl%b#ı"gar&b"ihtir$"eyleyüp,"taçları"gayet"küçük"ve"sendereslu"ve"sarıkları"müdevver" edebde"s%fiyne"haa"irsliyyesi"de"var"ve"üstüne"murassa$"balıkcın"sorguç"dahi" takınmılar"ve"han un"saru'ı"hind&"alaca"har&rden"vkı"olmu"hatta"önünce"bir"yedek" sar%'ı"dahi"getürülüp"giderdi."ve"yanınca"peykler"ve"ardınca"t&r"u"kemn"ile"kafadarları" ve"yedi"yorgun"ve"turgun"murassa$"e'erlü"yedekleri"ve"üç"e'eri"özbek den"alınmı" murassa$"kaltaklar"ki"aktarmamızdur"diyü"arz#ı"kl"eylediler.selaniki,tarih,ii:639# ASVe,Senato,Copieottocenteschideidispacci,RegistroXI, La"causa"di"cosi"poca"compagnia"Turchesca"che"viene"attribuita"al"mancamente"de" cavalli"essendo"comparsi"anco"maltrattati"quelli"che"vi"erano"et"perchè"ancora"la"gente" di"questa"militia"si"trova"in"male"statoasve,senato,copieottocenteschideidispacci, RegistroXI,253#

228 the ehnme"i#sultan#mehmed"i#slis(bookofkingsofsultanmehmed)ore$ri#fethi# Trihi(HistoryoftheConquestofE"ri) 63 depictsthisevent(figure4.9).inthispainting, theprocession,formedaroundthesultan,movesfromrighttoleft,passingthroughtwo linesofcuriousspectatorslinedupalongtheoppositesidesoftheavenue.thesultan rideshishorsenearthemiddle,dressedinroyalgarmentsdecoratedwithjewels,andhis largeturbanistoppedbytwoplumesofheronfeathers. 64 Theonlyotherturbanthathas 63 TSMK,H.1609,68b#69a.Threeofthesepaintingsaredouble#spreads.Theentire manuscriptwaswritteninverse,inthegenreofgazanama(campaignmonograph),and tellsthestoryofmehmediii se"ricampaign,inwhichthesultanconqueredthefortress ofe"ri,andhisdefeatofthehabsburgarmyatthebattleofhaçova(mezökeresztes). ThetextwaswrittenbyTalikizadeMehmed,whopersonallyattendedthecampaign.For Talikizade,seeChristineWoodhead, FromScribetoLitterateur:TheCareerofa Sixteenth#CenturyOttomanKtib, Bulletin#(British#Society#for#Middle#Eastern#Studies) 9,no.1(1982):55#74.ThepaintingsofthemanuscriptwereexecutedbyNakkaHasan. Forthismanuscriptanditspaintings,seeZerenAkalay(Tanındı), NakkaHasanPaa, Sanat#VI(1977):114#25;GézaFehér,Turkish#Miniatures#from#the#Period#of#Hungary s# Turkish#Occupation(Budapest:CorvinaPress,1978);VahidÇabuk, T$l%k%#z$de MehmedSubh%Efendi nine"riseferi"ehn$mesi (PhDdissertation,Istanbul Üniversitesi,1986);ChristineWoodhead, OttomanHistoriographyontheHungarian Campaigns:1596,theEgerFethnamesi, invii.#ciepo#sempozyumu(ankara:türk TarihKurumu,1994),469#477;ChristineWoodhead, TheOttomangazaname:Stylistic InfluencesontheWritingofCampaignNarratives, inthe#great#ottoman"turkish# Civilisation,eds.KemalÇiçeketal.,4vols.(Ankara:YeniTürkiye,2000),III:55#60; Ba"cıetal.,Osmanlı#Resim#Sanatı(Istanbul:T.C.KültürveTurizmBakanlı"ı,2006), 180# IntheHistory#of#the#Conquest#of#E$ri,TalikizadeMehmedhasalongsectionaboutthe militaryparadeenteringistanbul,inhighlyeulogisticlanguage.inthissection,thesultan, togetherwithhisdress,andallofhisequipmentinjeweledgold,islikenedtoasun.this textalsofrequentlyevokestheshahnamainreferencetothesultan,arguingthathewas superiortothebestkingsintheepic.consider,forexample: Bu#y%n#ü#bu#ferr#ü#bu#evketi# Bu#satvet#ile#hevl#ile#heybeti# Ne#gördi#Arab#ne#iitdi#Acem# Bu#ferri#Fir%d&n#u#bu#cem i#cem/ Thisritual,thisglory,thisgrandeur Thispower,thisaweandterror NeitherhastheArabseen,norhasthePersianheard [Nor]Faridunthisglory,[and]Jam(Jamshid)thisassembly 212

229 thesamefeathersisthatofthesafavidenvoy,whowatchesthesultanonhisfeetfroman observationboothatthetoprightcornerofthepainting.peoplestandingclosesttothe processiononbothsidesholduplongpiecesofluxurioustextilesindifferentcolors, whichformaspectacularbarrierbetweenthespectatorsandtheprocession.infact,these menhavebeenidentifiedasistanbul stextilemerchants,and Jews,Christiansand Armenians, (Yahd"ve"Nas#r#"ve"Ermeniyye"t#ifesi)whobroughttheirmostprecious merchandise,silks,satins,andvelvetsofthehighestquality. 65 Amongthelargecrowd, othersafavidsaredistinguishablethroughtheirelegantturbanswithextensionsingold wovencloth,insteadofthemoreconventionalred.someofthesemencanbeseenatthe frontline,holdingthetextiles.selanikirecordsthatthesafavidswereespeciallyhanded thesevarioustypesofeuropeanandpersiantextiles, 66 obligingthemtotakepartinthe celebrationsorganizedforthesultan striumph,ratherthanbeingitspassiveobservers. Amongthethousandsofpeoplegatheredtowatchtheparadewerereligiousfigures,who keptpraying,andrecitingthequr an,givingthankstogodforthesuccessofthesultan. Thewordfor glory here,is ferorfarr, whichisalsotranslatedas luminousglory or divineglory. InancientIranianconceptsofkingship,asintheShahnama,farr frequentlyappearsasthemostsignificantattributeofkingship.farrconnotesgod s approvaloftheking sauthority,whichendowshimwithsovereignty,beyondpure power.theapplicationofthisconceptisalsofittinghere,forfarrisbelievedtomanifest itselfasradianceandbrilliance.everythingaboutthemehmediiiinthismanuscript, fromhisturbantohisdresstothetrappingsonhishorsearesaidtoradiateblindinglight. Fortheversesabove,seeÇabuk, E"riSeferiehn#mesi, 243;fortheconceptoffarr, seeirajbashiri,firdowsi's"shahname:"1000"years"after(academyofsciencesof Tajikistan,1994),178$88;AbolalaSoudavar,The"Aura"of"Kings:"Legitimacy"and"Divine" Sanction"in"Iranian"Kingship(CostaMesa:MazdaPublishers,2003). 65 al$#"ser#ser"ve"d%b#lar"ve"atlas"ve"kemh#lar"ve"çatmalar"ve"sirenkler(serenkler) Selaniki,Tarih,II:652.Forthesefabrics,seeHülyaTezcan,Atlaslar"Atlası:"Pamuklu," Yün"ve"Ipek"Koleksiyonu,(Istanbul:YapıKredi,1993),30$34;JulianRabyandAlison Effeny,eds.,Ipek,"The"Crescent"and"the"Rose:"Imperial"Ottoman"Silks"and"Velvets (IstanbulandLondon:T.E.B.,2001), env#"ve"ecn#s&ı"akmie&i"acem"ve"frengi"çeküp"kızılbalar un"ellerine"virüpselaniki, Tarih,II:653." 213

230 Meanwhile,asMehmedIIIpassedthroughthestreetsofIstanbul,hundredsofsheepwere slaughteredinhonorofhisconquest. 67 Intheend,ifwearetotrusttheOttomanhistorianSelaniki sdetailedaccount, unliketheprevioussafavidambasadorsthathehadseen,zulfaqarkhanwasnot particularlyhumbledbythecourteousandaffablemannerinwhichhisembassywas treated.theenvoyrefusedtostayatthepalacepreparedforhim,foritwaspreviously assignedtothehostagesafavidprincehaydarmirza,whohaddiedthere.selanikialso accusedzulfaqarkhanforbeingill"fittedforthismission;hewas illiterateandvulgar,a black"heartedandignorantgood"for"nothing. Itseemsthatwhatreallyinfuriated Selaniki,ifaccurate,wastheenvoy srefusaltovisitthegrandviziersaying Ihavecome forthepadshah,notforthegrandvizier;thatisnotourcustom,iamakhanand sipahsalar(commander"in"chief) 68 Furthermore,aswehaveseeninpreviouschapters, itwasstandardottomanprotocolforimportantenvoystopayvisitstothegrandvizier andotherviziersbeforetheiraudiencewiththesultan.theconversationsandgifts exchangedduringtheseencounterswereinfactverymuchpartofthenegotiationwhen significantissueswereatstake,foritwasthesehigh"rankingofficials,thegrandvizierin 67 Selaniki,Tarih,II:652"54;Çabuk, E#riSeferiehn$mesi, 242"49.Wealsolearn fromtalikizade saccountthatwomenalsocametoseethesultan sentry.indeed,the paintinginthehistoryoftheconquestofe"rishowswomenwatchingtheparadefrom behindtwowindowsattheupperright. 68 SipahsalarwasoneofthehighestmilitarypositionsintheSafavidmilitarysystem, lowerinrankthanthepostofqurchibashi.seevladimirminorsky,trans.anded., TadhkiratAl#Muluk:AManualofSafavidAdministration(circa1137/1725)(London: Messrs.Luzac&Co.,1943),75"6;RogerSavory, TheOfficeofSipahsalar (Commander"in"Chief)intheSafavidState, inproceedingsofthesecondeuropean ConferenceofIranianStudies,eds.BertG.Fragneretal.(Rome:IstitutoItalianoperil MedioedEstremoOriente,1995),597"615;WillemFloor,SafavidGovernment Institutions(CostaMesa:MazdaPublishers,2001),17"18.Thegrandvizierdidgivea privatefeastfortheenvoybeforeheleftforiran(seebelow)inmarch1597.selaniki, Tarih,II:676"

231 particular,thatactedasthetrueliaisonbetweenthesultanandtheenvoy.wehavealso seenthattheottomanstateassumedcompletefinancialresponsibilityforthedaily expensesofsuchembassies,givingthemaperdiemincash,andprovidingtheirkitchen staples.consideringthesefavorsfromthesultaninsufficient,zulfaqarkhanissaidto havegoneshoppingformoreprovisionsathighpricesinistanbul. 69 Ifaccurate,these smallfrictionsmusthaveaddedtothegrowinguneasinessandsuspicionthatthe OttomansfelttowardstheSafavidsandthecontinuationofpeacewiththem. Onthedayofhisaudiencewiththethesultan,theenvoywasfirsttakenintothe ImperialCouncilHallattheTopkapıPalaceforabriefmeetingwiththegrandvizier. Duringthiscustomarymeetingthatprecededagreatfeast,thegrandvizierIbrahimPasha quizzedzulfaqarkhanaboutshahabbas.butfirst,ibrahimpashaaskedhimwhowas theheadofthereligiousclasses(sadrı"ulem#) 70 atthecourtofshahabbas.tothe surpriseofthegrandvizierandotherviziers,however,zulfaqarkhancouldnot rememberwhoitwas.ibrahimpashathenwantedtoknowwhethershahabbasengages inintellectualpursuit,likehisgrandfathershahtahmasp.butwhenpressedfurtherabout whatsciences,ordisciplinesofknowledge,interesttheshah,zulfaqarkhandidnothave muchtosay.accordingtoselaniki,then they(grandvizierandotherviziers)allsaw 69 Selaniki,Tarih,II:634,640, FortheofficeofsadrintheSafavidadministrativesystem,whichhadrootsinthe TimuridandTurkomancourts,seeMinorsky,Tadhkirat"AlMuluk,111;R.M.Savory, TheSafavidAdministrativeSystem, inthe"cambridge"history"of"iran,"vol."6:"timurid" and"safavid"periods,eds.peterjacksonandlaurencelockhart(cambridge:cambridge UniversityPress,1986),351"72;SaidAmirArjomand,The"Shadow"of"God"and"the" Hidden"Imam:"Religion,"Political"Order,"and"Societal"Change"in"Shi$ite"Iran"from"the" Beginning"to"1890(ChicagoandLondon:UniversityofChicagoPress,1986),123"125; C.P.Turner #adr,4.inthesafavidperiod Encyclopedia"of"Islam,"Second"Edition,eds. P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline;WillemFloor, ThesadrorHeadofthe SafavidReligiousAdministration, Zeitschrift"der"deutschen"morgenländischen" Gesellschaft150,(2000):461"

232 thattheenvoywashighlyineloquentandundistinguished,theyallagreedhewasarather ordinaryman. 71 Aswasthecustom,afterthefeast,thegiftsthatZulfaqarKhanhadbroughtwere paradedinthepalace,heldbythegatekeepers(kapıcılar).wherethegatekeepersfell short,thejanissarieshelpedwithcarryingtheremaininggifts.indeed,therewerean impressivenumberofgiftsthatshahabbashadsent,enumeratedinthelistprovidedby thevenetianbaili,attachedtotheendoftheirreporttothesenate,datedjanuary1597 (seetheappendix). 72 Inselectingthisgroupofgifts,ShahAbbashadunmistakablytakenhiscuefrom ShahTahmasp,ashedidin1590,forthelistfollowstheexamplesetbyhimclosely, bothintermsofthevarietyandnumberofeachtypeofobject.thelistbeginswithtwo copiesofthequr an. 73 Followingthesearesevenvolumesofvariousotherbooks, consistingofcollectionsofpoems,suchasadivanoftherenownfourteenth"century PersianpoetHafiz,andstoriesinverse,suchasaGulistan(RoseGarden)ofthe thirteenth"centurypersianpoetsa#di.thegiftsalsoincludedluxurytextiles,including velvets,brocades,anddamasks,allwovenwithgoldthreads.likeshahtahmasp,shah 71 Gördilerkiilçinünsuhan"verlikilemün#sebetiyok#miy#nekiimikd#rıncasöylediler. Selaniki,Tarih,II:656"7. 72 ASVe,Senato,Copieottocenteschideidispacci,RegistroXI,257"9.Ottomanand Safavidchroniclesmentionthesegiftsinpassing.ThoughSelanikistatesthattheyhave beenrecordedinanottomanprotocolregister,ihavenotyetbeenabletolocatethis document. 73 Thelistalsoindicateswhopennedthesebooks.ThoughunidentifiablefromtheItalian renditionoftheirnames,theyareprobablyinfluentialcalligraphers.shahtahmasphad sentaqur anallegedlybythehandof#aliibnabitalib,thecousinandson"in"lawof theprophet.ihavearguedthatthiswasadaringgesture,expressinghisshi#iteidentity andhisroyallineagegoingbacktothismostveneratedfigureinshi#ismafterthe prophet. 216

233 AbbassentMehmedIIIantidotesanddrugs,calledmumies 74 andbezoarstones, 75 bothof whichwereinhighdemandthroughtheearlymodernperiodamongthewealthy,and broughthighprofitstomerchantstradingthem.reminiscentofshahtahmasp stentto MuradIIIsentin1576,amongthegiftswerealargevelvettent,embroideredwithgold andsatinthreads.itsropesweremadeofsilkanddecoratedwithgoldringsandprecious stones.thecanopytogoovertheentranceofthetentwassimilarlymadeofgold"woven velvet,withsilkropesandsilvercolumns.otherhighlightsamongthegiftsweresmall andlargecarpetsfromkhurasanandkerman, 76 someofwhichareindicatedinthelistas velvetandgold"woven.thelistendswithbows,arrowsandhorsesthatcamewith damaskblankets. Thesegifts,then,conformedtothenormsofcourtetiquette,asagroupof properlyassembledluxuryobjectsthatottomansultanshadbythenbeenaccustomedto receivingfromsafavidshahs.eventhoughshahabbashasclearlyfollowedthetrendset byshahtahmaspinhisselectionofgiftsonthisoccasion,ashedidfortheistanbul 74 Mumia,ormumiyainPersianandTurkish,referstobitumenusedasadrugforhealing wounds,andaches.formoreonthesedrugs,seechapter1above. 75 BezoarorbezuarisawordderivingfromthePersianpnzahr,tomeanastrong antidoteagainstpoison.thesewerenotrocks,butconcrementsthatformedinvarious organsofanimals.intheearlymodernperiod,thebestbezoarswerebelievedtocome frompersia.forathoroughstudyontheorigins,circulation,andvariousattitudes towardstheeffectivenessofbezoarstonesintheearlymodernperiod,seepeter Borschberg, TheEuro"AsianTradeinBezoarStones(approx.1500to1700), inartistic" and"cultural"exchanges"between"europe"and"asia,"1400#1900:"rethinking"markets," Workshops"and"Collections,ed.MichaelNorth(Farnham:Ashgate,2010),29" AccordingtothePortuguesetravelerPedroTeixeira, therichestandfinestandmost esteemed carpetsofiranatthistimeweremadeinyazd. Thesecondbestarethose fromthekingdomofkermon(kirman),thethirdfromkarason(khurasan). Pedro Teixeira,The"Travels"of"Pedro"Teixeira,trans.W.F.SinclairandD.Ferguson,Hakluyt Soc.,Ser.II,vol.9(London:HakluytSociety,1902),243n2.Wehaveseenthatin1568, ShahTahmasphadlikewisesentSelimIIcarpetsfromKhurasan.In1576,thesame shah sgiftstothenextsultan,muradiiialsoincludedsimilarcarpets,thoughtheywere muchgreaterinnumber. 217

234 PeaceTreatyin1590,therelationsthatthisgroupofgiftsevokedandthereactionsthey elicitedwerenotthesame.wehaveseenthatduringthelastdecadesofthesixteenth century,safavidgiftstotheottomancourthadcometoacquireadefinitioncloseto tribute,symbolizingtheshah sservitudetothesultan.aparadoxicalqualityofthis servitudewastheinsistenceinottomansourcesthatsafavidgiftscamebecauseitwas theshah sobligationtodoso.atthesametime,however,ottomanauthorsdelightedly underscoredthattheshah sservitudewasadeliberate,ifnotanenthusiasticone.by contrast,in1597,theottomandelightinreceivingsafavidgiftshadturnedbittersweet. WidespreadsuspicionaboutShahAbbas scharacterandtheunpredictabilityofhisfuture plansweremixedwithcontempttowardstheseeminglydiscourteousambassador.the givingoftraditionalgifts,inthiscontext,farfromreaffirmingtradition,wererather understoodasremindersofamomentintimethatwasbythenlost.thecourtchronicler ofshahabbas,iskandarmunshi,wrotethefollowingaboutthegiftspresentedto MehmedIII: Onthismission,[ZulfaqarKhan]bestowedgiftswithsuchliberalitythat certainmean"spiritedottomansaccusedhimoffoolishnessandextravagance. 77 Duringhisaudiencewiththesultan,accordingtoSelaniki,ZulfaqarKhan presentedtheletterfromtheshah, 78 andwasallowedtospeakonlybriefly;hewishedthat thesultan srulebeblessed,andhisopponentsbeforeversuppressed.thevenetian ambassadorsvenierandcapellowrote,however,thattheambassadoralsobroughtup importantbusinessyettoberesolved.accordingtotheirreport,theambassadorremained 77 EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"AbbastheGreat,II: Theletterexpressedtheshah scondolencesforthedeathofmuradiii,and congratulationstothenewsultanmehmediiionhisenthronement.shahabbasalso apologizedforthedelayinthedispatchoftheembassy,whichwasduetohismilitary engagementinkhurasan.thisletterispartlycitedinfalsafi,shah"abbas#iavval,v: 1693"5. 218

235 inaudienceforaverylongtimetodiscusstheissueoftabriz.theystatethatwhenthe twopowershadsignedthepeacetreaty,thesultanhadpromisedtokeeptabrizuntil PrinceHaydar,whowasveryyoungatthetime,wouldreachacertainage.Sincethe princehaddiedinthemeantime,theshahwasdemandingthatthatterritorybereturnedto him. 79 OttomanandSafavidsourcesmakenomentionofsuchanegotiation.Thereisalso noambiguityinthetreatyof1590itselfabouttheterritorialassignmentoftabriz:the ShahagreedtorecognizeitasOttomanterritory.Still,itisquitelikelythateithertheshah singlehandedlyraisedanobjectionabouttheottomanclaimovertabrizorsomeother land,ortheottomansthemselvesquestionedtheambassadoraboutthesuspicious conditionsunderwhichtheprincehadsuddenlydied,toimplythatthesafavidshada handinit.inanycase,thepossibilityofsuchanunresolvedortension"raisingissuein 1597isalsosupportedbythefactthatZulfaqarKhanremainedinIstanbulforanother twomonths.theenvoyleftforiraninmarchthatyear,afterhavingafinalaudiencewith thesultan,afterwhich,hewaspresentedwithmanygifts.zulfaqarkhanreceivedahorse withsilverchainsandsaddle,andmanypreciousrobesofhonor;hewasalsogiven anotherhorsewithgoldchainsandsaddletobringtoshahabbas.additionally,fiftymen inhisretinueweregivenpreciousrobesofhonorofthehighestquality(hilat"ı#ser$ser"i# 79 [il]#persiano#habbia#egli#mandato#questo#suo#ambasciatore#a#far#l ufficio#di# congratulatione;#ma#essendo#stato#l Ambasciatore#lungamente#dentro#la#camera#del# Gran#Signore#a#trattar#seco#ciò#ha#dato#occasione#molto#di#discorrere#dicendosi#che# nella#capitolatione#di#pace#seguita#tra#questi#due#potentati#il#gran#signore#habbi# promesso#di#tenir#in#deposito#tauris#sino#a#tanto#che#il#figliuolo#del#persiano#all hora# piccolo#fusse#pervenuto#a#certa#età#ma#che#essendo#morto#il#detto#figliuolo#con#sospetto# che#possa#esser#stato#avitato#da#questa#parte#l Ambasciator#a#nome#del#Re#di#Persia# ricerche#hora#che#le#sia#restituita#questa#piazza,#il#tempo#farà#conoscere#la#verità#di# queste#trattationiasve,senato,copieottocenteschideidispacci,registroxi,254"5. 219

236 fhireler). 80 AmongSafavidsources,onlyIskandarMunshimentionsbrieflythat ZulfaqarKhanarrivedinIran bearingappropriategifts. 81 Significantly,beforehisdeparture,theenvoyalsopaidmultiplevisitstothe grandvizieribrahimpasha sownresidence.duringthegrandvizier sfeasts, boundless dishesbeyondcompare wereserved,andzulfaqarkhanwasgiventhreehundredrobes ofhonor,twohorses,silverdishes,and excessiveamountsofvariouskindsof textiles. 82 Anotheroneofthesemeetingswasaprivateaudiencethattookplaceatnight, inwhichthegrandviziershoweredtheenvoywithmanyfavors,whichincluded multiple giftsandrobesofhonor (env"#ı$tuhaf$ve$hila"#i$fhireleriyle). 83 Asnotedinprevious chapters,suchvisitswerecustomary,thoughtheywouldtakeplaceassoonasenvoys reachedistanbul,ratherthanmonthsaftertheiraudiencewiththesultan.accordingly,the favorspresentedtoenvoysandtheirretinuesintheseencountersweremeantforthemto puttouseduringtheirstay,ratherthanonlyasobjectstobringbackhomeandkeepas mementosoftheirmission.justliketherobesofhonorgiventothembythesultan, whichtheywouldbeforcedtowearduringtheiraudiencewithhim,allofthesegifts fromthehigh"rankingottomanofficialswereobjectsofdominationtobeusedandworn inpublicinistanbul.thetimingofthesespecificencountersisthereforequiteunusual andagainstestablishedtradition. 80 Selaniki,TarihII: EskandarBegMonshi,Shah$"Abbas$the$Great,II: Ve$env#ı$et"ime#i$nef%se#i$b%#hadd$u$b%#kıys$çekilüp$ve$s&ir$zamnda$vüzer#i$ mütekaddim%n$eyledikleri$harc$u$masrifden$fevka l#hadd$ve l#gye$olup,$üç$yüz$hil"at#ı$ fhire#i$serser$ve$iki$esb#i$mükemmel$ve$evn%#i$nukre$ve$akmie#i$mütenevvi"a$hadden$ efz'n$virilüp$selaniki,tarihii: Selaniki,TarihII:

237 TheEndoftheEraofBoundlessGifts SoonafterZulfaqarKhan sreturntoiran,shahabbasfoundhimselfina situationinwhichhecouldmakemilitarymoveswithrelativelymorefreedom, unrestrainedbytheuzbekthreattotheeast.in1598,abbashadalreadybegunmaking planstorestoretheregionofkhurasan,whichhadbeenconqueredbytheuzbeksearlyin hisreign.sovereigntyoverthisregionmusthavebeenaparticularlyimportantforshah Abbas,forhewasbornandraisedthere,inthecityofHerat,justashadhisgrandfather ShahTahmasp.KhurasanalsocarriedthelegacyofTimuridIran,andwashometothe shrineofimamrezainmashhad,themostimportantshi"iteholysiteinsafavidiran (Figure4.10). 84 Astheshah spreparationsforanattackonkhurasanwerealready underway,newsofthedeathoftheuzbekrulerabdullahkhanreachedthesafavid court.soonafterthat,theshahandhismilitarycommanderswereabletotakeback Khurasan. 85 ThereconquestofKhurasanwasagreatsourceofprideforShahAbbas,who extendedtaxcutstopeoplelivingunderhisruleincelebrationofhisregainingofthese territories,andpompouslyannouncedhisvictorytoneighboringrulers.tothisend,as IskandarMunshiwrites,theshahpromptlydispatchedembassiestotheOttomanand Mughalcourts. 86 Ledbythecourtier(ishik"gh"s#)Muhammad#quliBegArabgirlu, 87 the 84 KishwarRizvi,The$Safavid$Dynastic$Shrine:$Architecture,$Religion$and$Power$in$ Early$Modern$Iran(I.B.Tauris:London,2011),seeesp.159# TheUzbekthronewasshakenfurtherbydynasticquarrelsandstrugglesafterAbdollah Khan sdeath.forthesestrugglesandshahabbas seventualvictoryovertheuzbeks, seeeskandarbegmonshi,shah$%abbas$the$great,ii:727#63.forsafavid#uzbek relationsduringthereignofshahabbas,seefalsafi,shah$%abbasi$avval,iv:1435# EskandarBegMonshi,Shah$%Abbas$the$Great,II: Lucien#LouisBellan,Chah$Abbas$I,$Sa$Vie,$Son$Histoire(Paris:Geuthner,1932),76# 86;E.DenisonRoss,SirAnthony$Sherley$and$his$Persian$Adventure(London,1933),26# 221

238 embassytoistanbulreachedthereinjuly1599.inhisreport,thevenetianbailo GirolamoCapellonotedhowmuchsuspicionthearrivalofthisembassyarousedinthe mindsofottomanofficials,whowerechargedwiththewelcomingceremoniesin Istanbul.TheOttomanswerealsomuchdisturbedbythesheersizeofthedelegation, whichnumberedoverfivehundredpeople. 88 Certainly,unlikethisunexpectedmission, throughoutthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury,suchimpressiveembassiesfrom SafavidIranhadonlycometoIstanbulinresponsetoofficialcorrespondence,withthe aimofcongratulatingnewsultansontheirenthronements.ifthedisproportionbetween thepompandthepurposeofthesafavidembassyonthisoccasionmildlydisturbedthe Ottomans,thegiftsthattheybroughtweretoastound,evenscandalizethem. ShahAbbas svictoryovertheuzbekstrulymarkedaturningpointinottoman" Safavidrelations,whichwasmanifestedmostconcretelyandsignificantlyintheunusual giftshesentforthesultan.instarkcontrasttohispreviousgifts,whichcloselymimicked thosesentbyshahtahmasptotheottomancourtintheprecedingdecades,thistime, Abbassentnothingbutkeystothefortressesandcitieshehadjustconqueredin Khurasan.GirolamoCapellodescribeshowthesehighlysymbolicgiftswerepresentedas follows: [Theambassador]duringhisaudience,presentedtothe kingtwelvegoldkeysandtwelvesilverkeysplacedontwo illuminatedwoodenplatters.hesaidthathisking with thesupportofgod,andwiththekindfriendshipofthe GranSignore(thesultan) hadconqueredandthereby strippedhiscountryofhisenemyandimpostors.inan efforttorenewandconservepeacewithhismajesty,he 27.ThesesourcesciteIskandarBegMunshi;however,asKütüko#lupointsout,Munshi doesnotgivethenameoftheambassadorosmanlıiran,220.selanikinotesthenameof theambassadoras eika#asıkarahana#a. Selaniki,TarihII: ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza49,307a. 222

239 wassending[thesultan]twentyfourkeystocitiesand fortressesthatwerereconquered,andthesewerebeing offeredasiftheywerehis. 89 Againstestablisheddiplomatictradition,asCapellofurtherwrites,thekeyscame with noothersortofpresent,neitherwithanyoffering(donativo)forthesultan,norforthe high"rankingofficials(bassà),asiscommonpractice. 90 Significantly,thoughsome Ottomansourcesmentionthekeys, 91 thewidespreaddisappointmentwiththeseambitious giftscoupledwithprofoundfeelingsof doubtandsuspicion towardsthissafavid missionareunderscoredonlyinthebailo sreporttovenice. AsCapelloobserved,thecontentsofthesegiftsandtheirpresentationare differentfromallothersafavidgiftsinthelivingmemoryofanymemberoftheottoman eliteandsultan.thekeysdoevoke,however,someoftheobjectsexchangedbetween ShahIsmail,thefirstruleroftheSafaviddynasty,andhiscontemporary,theOttoman sultanselimi,intheearlysixteenthcentury.whilethoseopenlyoffensiveobjectscame withlettersthathadequallyprovoking,eveninsultingmessages,shahabbas sgifts 89 Eglinell audientiasuapresentòalredodecichiavid oro,etdodecidiargentosopra duepiattidilegnominiate;etdisse,chehavendochesuoreconilfavordidio,etconle buonaamicitiadelgransig[no]resoggiogato,etsuperatoilsuonemico,etimpostori cosidelsuopaese,egliriconoscendoiltuttodellapace,checonservacons[ua] M[aes]tàlemandavaàpresentarquellechiavidoventiquattrocittà,etcastelli requistati,lequalieglicomesueleofferivaasve,senato,dispaccicostantinopolifilza 49,340b"341a.TheOttomanhistorianSelanikiphrasesthemessagefromtheshahinthe firstperson: Myfortressesandmyownselfbelongtothepadshah,therefugeofthe world. Selaniki,TarihII: ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza49,341a. 91 TwoOttomansourcesbrieflymentionthekeysasBekirKütüko#luhasnoted.The seventeenthcenturyottomanchroniclerkaraçelebizadeabdülazizwrote: Whenthe shahofiranclaimedkhurasanandmashhadwithoutlitigation,hesenttwentyfourkeys tofortresseshehadconqueredasagifttotheporteofthekingofkingsbywayof reverence ("#ret$i"ad%k&atdentu'fe($iderg%h$ıehin%hsit%re).karaçelebizade Abdülaziz,Ravz)atü l$ebr%r(cairo:bulaq,1248/1832),487.inselaniki saccount,the twentyfourkeysaresaidtohavebeenpresentedinonegoldandonesilvertray(biri altuntebsivebirigümütebsiiçindekoyup).selaniki,tarihii:

240 madeacalculatedefforttodisguisesuchanovertproposition.ratherthandirectly challengingthesultanbybluntlyquestioninghispowerandlegitimacytoprovokehim intowar,shahabbas skeysmadeununabasheddeclarationofhisincreasingmilitary powerontheonehand,andontheother,theyaudaciouslydeclaredhisallegianceto TwelverShi"ism. Asstatedearlier,suchapresentationofkeystocitiesandfortressesasgiftswas unprecedentedwithinottoman#safaviddiplomaticgiftexchanges. 92 Nordoesthisact haveanyrootswithintheislamicgift#givingtradition.however,therewasanestablished practicethatatteststothefrequentmovementofsuchobjects:asbooty(ghanma). 93 Comprisingusuallyofcash,portableobjects,land,captives,andanimals,bootywouldbe 92 AttheTopkapıPalaceMuseum,thereremainafewdozenkeysoffortressesthathave eitherbeenconqueredorpresentedtosultansthroughthecenturies.mostofthese, especiallythosethatbearinscriptionsanddatesarefromthe19 th century.forthesekeys, seeismailünal, KaleAnahtarları, Ankara"Üniversitesi"#lahiyat"Fakültesi"Dergisi11 (1963):119#52;OktayAslanapa, TopkapıSarayındaKalmıBazıKaleAnahtarları, Sanat"Tarihi"Yıllı$ı11(1983):13#26.Thoughweknowlittleabouttheceremonialuseof thesekeystovariousfortresses,thereisrelativelymoreinformationaboutthekeystothe Kaba,whichwerealsoheld,withgreatpride,bytheOttomans.ForthekeystotheKaba, seetercanyılmaz,the"holy"ka%ba:"a"study"on"the"collection"of"locks"and"keys"kept" at"the"topkapı"palace"museum"in"istanbul(istanbul:ircica,1993)(inarabic);hilmi Aydın,Pavilion"of"the"Sacred"Relics:"The"Sacred"Trusts,"Topkapı"Palace"Museum (Istanbul:IıkYayınları,2004);SüleymanBeyo$lu, TheOttomanandtheIslamic SacredRelics, inthe"great"ottoman&turkish"civilisation,eds.kemalçiçeketal.,4 vols.(ankara:yenitürkiye,2000),iv:36#44;seealsotahsinöz,hırka&i"saadet" Dairesi"ve"Emanat&ı"Mukaddese,%stanbul1953;Yaar%slamandNebilFazılAlsan, Mukaddes"Emanetler,%stanbul1985;Haluk"ehsuvaro$lu, Müslümanlı$ınMukaddes Emanetleri, Tarih&i"Osmani"Encümeni"Mecmuası42(1923). 93 AccordingtoIslamiclaw,warbootywastobedistributedsuchthatonefifthwentto orphans,thepoorandtheneedy,andthedescendantsoftheprophet(qur an8:41).the restwasusuallysharedbetweentheruler,thepublictreasuryandthearmy.seef. Løkkegaard, Ghan&ma, Encyclopedia"of"Islam,"Second"Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal., (Brill,2011).BrillOnline.ForMedievalobjectsthatchangedhandsthroughlooting,or takenasbootyorransomseea'madb.al#rash&dibnal#zubayr,book"of"gifts"and" Rarities"(Kit'b"al&Had'y'"wa"al&Tu(af),trans.Gh(daal)ijj(w&al#Qadd*m& (Cambridge,Mass.:CenterforMiddleEasternStudies,1996),166#224,225#6. 224

241 taken,ofcourse,againstanenemy swill.notonlywereobjectsorlandtakenassuch significantfortheirmonetaryvalue,buttheirpossessionalsoepitomizedvictoryand dominationovertheadversary.itwasespeciallyobjectswithsignificanthistories,for examplethoseimbuedwiththeoriginalowner sidentity,thatweremostprized.the trajectoryofthistraditionthroughthefirstfivecenturiesofislamicrulecanbetraced fromibnal"zubayr sfamouseleventh"centurybookofgiftsandrarities.inthisbook, such inalienablepossessions 94 areemphasizedanddescribedinmostdetailwhen comparedwithcashorotherobjectsprocuredasbooty. 95 Insimilarfashion,throughoutthesixteenthcentury,suchinalienablepossessions playedasignificantrolewithinottoman"safavidrelations.infact,themovementofthese objects whethergivenvoluntarilyortakenforcibly notjustmirroredtheserelations butdefinedthemindiverseways.afterthebattleofchaldiranin1514,thevictorious OttomansultanSelimIbroughtbacktohiscourtfromTabrizasignificantamountof booty,includingartistsandmanyobjectsthatoriginallybelongedtothecontemporary SafavidrulerShahIsmail,hisarchenemy.ItwasthoseobjectsinscribedwithShah Ismail snamesandtitlesthatwerekeptassomeofthemostprizeditemsintheottoman treasuryforcenturiestocome,andsomeofthemareondisplayatthetopkapıpalace 94 AnnetteWeinercallsinalienablepossessionsthoseobjects thatareimbuedwiththe intrinsicandineffableidentitiesoftheirowners,whicharenoteasytogiveaway. When comparedtosimilarobjectsthatlacksuchqualities,becauseoftheirprestigioushistories, inalienablepossessionscarrymoreauthorityastheychangehands.annetteb.weiner, InalienablePossessions:TheParadoxofKeeping"While"Giving(Berkeley,LosAngeles andoxford:universityofcaliforniapress,1992). 95 Asal"Qaddumipointsout,cashandluxuryobjectsacquiredasbootyfromPersiatake prideofplaceinthiswork.ibnal"zubayr,bookofgifts,43,166"174,225"7. 225

242 Museumtoday. 96 Thesignificanceofsuchheirloomobjectsisevidentfurtherinthe enduringdemandforthembytheottomans,stemmingfromtheirstrongdesireto continueacquiringsimilarobjects.arequestsenttothesafavidcourtfromsultan Süleyman sgrandvizier,ibrahimpasha,inthe1530svividlydemonstratesthispoint.in hismemoirs,shahtahmasprelatesibrahimpasha srequest,writtenintheimperative,as follows: [You(ShahTahmasp)]sendasgiftssomeoftheweaponsandotherbejeweled equipmentleftfromthetimeofshahismail,i(ibrahimpasha)willpresentthemtothe sultanandmakeanefforttoconvincehimtoretractfromtheselandsandreturnthis countrytoyou. 97 Suchademandatteststothecentralityofuniqueobjects normally keptoutofcirculation inshapingottoman"safavidrelations.consequently,victorywas neithercontingenton,norcontainedin,winningbattles,acquiringland,orsecuringthe allegianceofpeople.objectsthatoncebelongedtoshahismailweredesiredatthe Ottomancourtfortheirpotentialtoactastestamentsofvictory,asremindersofpolitical dependenciesandasymmetries.furthermore,ibrahimpashawasaskingtheshahtosend hisfather spossessionsathisownwill,asgifts.buthisdoingsowouldonlyunderscore thelatterpoint,andensurethatbothsidesofthetransactionrecognizetheobjects 96 Theseconsistofjadecupsandflasks,aswellasanarmbandandbelt,seethe Introductionabove. 97 Italics,myemphasis.ShahTahmaspmentionsthattheletterwasaddressedto b#gum, whichprobablyreferstooneofhisdaughtersorhispowerfulsisterparikhankhanum. Headdsthatthissameladyhadalsopreviouslyreceivedaletterfromamemberofthe Ottomanreligiousestablishment("ulam#)withasimilarrequest:ma$m%n&ikit#bat#nki azyar#qumurassa"#l#tkiaz'a$rat&ish#hisma"(l("alaihial&ra'matvaal&ri$van) m#ndachiz(chandbitu'fabefrastandkiman#nharabi)idmat&i'a$rat&i)v#ndag#r firist#dailtim#s&isul'nim#yamvaneguz#ramki)udmutavajjih&i(ndiy#rshavadvab#z inmulkrabishom#musallamdaradvam#n(zb#zgard(m.vaulaman(zdar(nb#b "ar($abib(gumnavashtab%d.shahtahmasp,tazkira&yitahmasp,ed.d.c.phillott (Calcutta:AsiaticSociety,1912),

243 meaningassuch,asobjectsbearingmaterialwitnesstoottomanvictoryontheonehand, andsafavidsubjugationandhumiliationontheother. Inresponse,ShahTahmaspneversentheirloomstotheOttomancourtasgifts. Butamonghisgiftswereinalienableobjects,significantnotfortheirdirectandpure allusiontoshahismail,whowasfamouslydefeatedbytheottomans.instead,shah Tahmasp sgiftsexpressedstrongsafavididentities,withcompellingandevocativeties tothedynasty spersianculturalheritageandtoitsreligiousorientation,twelver Shi"ism.Atthesametime,theseimportantgiftswereaccompaniedandenhancedby manyothers,lesserinvalueandsignificance.allofthesecamewitheloquentletters fromtheshah,whereinherespondedtoottomanaccusationsofblasphemywithverses fromthequr anandselectionsfromtheworkoffamedpersianpoets,allthewhile adoptinganexcessivelysubmissivetone.inconsequence,thecomplaisantmannerin whichshahtahmasp sassertivegiftswerepresentedtothesultanopenedthemupfor interpretation,leavingenoughroomforthemtobereceivedasobjectsofsubmissionand obedience. Bycontrast,ShahAbbas sgiftsoftwosetsoftwelvekeystofortresseshe allegedlyconqueredinthenameofthesultanjustcouldnotbetakenassubmissivegifts attheottomancourt.regardlessofwhethertheexactnumberoffortressesconqueredby ShahAbbaswastwentyfour,thedistributionofthesekeysintwotrayswithtwelveon eachbeforemehmediiimustbetakenasanexplicitallusiontothetwelveimams 98 so veneratedbythesafavids. 98 InShi"ism,theprophetsarebelievedtobeaccompaniedandsucceededintheirmission byminorprophets,imamsandsaints,ordescendentsofimams(sing.immzda),which arecollectivelyreferredtoas FriendsofGod (val",pl.avliy#$allh).intwelveror 227

244 TwelverShi"ismwasinstitutedasstatereligionbyShahIsmailintheearly sixteenthcenturyinalanddominatedaboveallbysunnimuslims.whileismail s conceptofstateaccommodatedvariousmilitary,economicandpoliticalneedsofhis qizilbashfollowers,hisconceptofreligion,besidesbeingovertlytwelvershi"i, dependedalsoonhisself#fashioningasanewprophet,attimes"ali,orevenasgod himself.duringhissuccessor sreign,theruler simageassimultaneouslythesupreme warlordandtheholyimamunderwentsignificantchanges.adevouttwelvershi"i,shah Tahmasphimselfaimedtodifferentiatebetweenthepoliticalandreligiousspheresinhis state.thisinvolvedestablishingareligiousclassthatwoulddefineandexecutethe Safavidstate sreligiousagendabasedontwelvershi"iprinciples.tahmasp sprojecthas beenidentifiedasanunfinishedone,duepartlytothecontinuedexistenceofclashing theologicalviewpointsonkeyissues,suchasthedebateoverthepermissibilityoffriday prayerintheabsenceofthetwelfthimam.also,certainpracticesthatrecognizedthe rulerasafigureakintogod,suchasthesubjects prostration(sajda)beforetheshah, ImamiShi"ism,thisgroupconsistsfirstandforemostoftheFourteenInfallibleor ImpeccableOnes:theprophet,hisdaughterFatima,andtheTwelveImams(isn"#ashar). TheTwelveImamsinclude"AliibnAbiTalib,ProphetMuhammad scousinandson#in# law,hissonshasanandhusayn,andtheirdescendants.thetwelfthimam(imm$i" gh%ib)isbelievedtohavedisappeared,onlytoreappearatafuturedayasthemahdi,or messiah.theprimarypointofcontentionbetweentwelvershi"isandorthodoxsunnisis basedonthetwelverconvictionthat"aliandfatima sdescendents(ahl"al$bayt)were theonlylegitimatesuccessorstotheprophet.accordingly,shi"itesfiercelyrejectthe authorityofthefirstthreerightlyguidedcaliphs,whosucceededtheprophetinleading themuslimcommunity.foranintroductiontotheprinciplesoftwelvershi"ism,see Momen,Shi#i"Islam;S.H.Nasr, Ithn$"Ashariyya Encyclopedia"of"Islam,"Second" Edition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill,2011).BrillOnline;MohammadAliAmir#Moezzi Shi"iteDoctrine inencyclopedia"iranica,online, FourteenInfallibleones,seeHamidAlgar Charh$rdahMa"%&m inencyclopedia" Iranica,online, 228

245 werenotwhollyabandoneduntiltheseventeenthcentury. 99 Throughoutthesixteenth century,theottomanscontinuouslyaccusedthesafavidsofblasphemypreciselyfor practicesofthiskind. InlinewithShahAbbas smajorreforms,aimedprimarilytowardscreatinga strongcentralizedgovernmentwithrenewedmilitaryandadministrativeinstitutions,the faceofreligionanditsrelationshiptothestateinsafavidirantransformedconcurrently attheturnofthesevententhcentury.aftergraduallybutsystematicallylimitingpower heldbytheqizilbash,whohadposedathreattoabbas sruleatthebeginningofhis reign,theshahtookseveralmeasurestocreateanorganizedclassofreligiousscholars (ulam")topromotetwelvershi"ism.thisnewclassofsafavidclerics lentsupportto imperialconcernswithpoliticalintegration,socialdiscipline,andthepersianizationof Shi"ism. 100 ClericssuchasShaykhBaha#iandShaykhLutf$Allah,whobothservedas theshaykh#al$islam(chieftheologian)ofisfahan,wereinstrumentalincodifyingshi"i 99 Arjomand,Shadow#of#God,178$87;B.S.Amoretti, ReligionintheTimuridand SafavidPeriods inthe#cambridge#history#of#iran,#vol.#6:#timurid#and#safavid#periods, eds.peterjacksonandlaurencelockhart(cambridge:cambridgeuniversitypress, 1986),610$55;HamidAlgar Iranix.ReligionsinIran(2)IslaminIran(2.3)Shi"ismin IransincetheSafavids inencyclopedia#iranica,online, Tobesure,thehistoryofShi"iideas,theestablishmentofShi"iorthodoxyinIran,and thecountry sconversiontotwelvershi"ismundersafavidrulersaremuchmore complexandmultifacetedthanthesimplifiedsummarygivenabove.excellentrecent studieshaveprovideddeeperanalysesontheseissues.seeespeciallyarjomand,shadow# of#god;babayan,mystics,#monarchs;abisaab,converting#persia. 100 Abisaabalsoshowshow"Amilitheologianscametoprominence,withthesupportof ShahAbbas,afteraperiodinwhichtheyhadfallenoutoffavorintheaftermathofShah Tahmasp sdeath.duringthereignofshahabbas,"amilicommentariesonimportant legaltextsweremademoreaccessiblethroughtheirtranslationintopersian,whichwas usedeffectivelytopromoteandreinforcetheshi"itetraditionnotonlyamongthe religiouselitebutalsointhedailyactivitiesandworshipofawiderpublic.thecontents ofpredominantdebates,togetherwiththeresultingedictsandrulings,byreligious scholarsonmundaneissuesindicateaconsciouseffortfor politicalcontrolfromabove andthegradualdiffusionofsocialdisciplinefrombelow. Abisaab,Converting#Persia, 53$

246 orthodoxy,compliantwiththerulesofsharia.bothofthesetheologiansactively promotedtheperformanceoffridayprayer, 101 andwerefittinglyinvolvedinshah Abbas slargerdesignofweavingclosetiesbetweenhisstateandsharia"basedtwelver Shi#ism. 102 Accordingly,theentireprojectofShahAbbas srebuildingofisfahangave architecturalformandsymbolicfunctiontothepoliticalorderheconceived.amongthe mostsignificantandforcefulmaterialoutputsofshahabbas squestforspiritual legitimacyweretwomosqueshebuiltinisfahan,bothinthemaydan"i#naqsh"i#jahan (Figure4.2)Oneofthese,theMasjid"i#Shaykh#Lutf"Allahwassmallandforprivateroyal use,butwasstrategicallylocatedinthesquare,facingtheroyalpalace(figure4.5). 103 Theotherone,thegreatMasjid"i#Shah(Figure4.3),wasthefirstcongregationalmosque tobebuiltbyasafavidshah,andfacedthebazaarcomplex(qaysariyya). 104 Assuch,the 101 Thiscontention,however,wasnotbackedbyothercontemporarytheologians.For Baha#iandLutf"Allah,seeAndrewNewman, TowardsaReconsiderationofthe IsfahanSchoolofPhilosophy :ShaykhBaha$iandtheRoleoftheSafawid#Ulam%, Studia#Iranica15,no.2(1986):165"99;DevinJ.Stewart, TheLostBiographyofBaha$ al"dinal"#amiliandthereignofshahisma#iliiinsafavidhistoriography, Iranian# Studies#31(1998):1"29;Newman, FridayPrayerasPolitics ;Abisaab,Converting# Persia,53" Forexample,Baha$iwroteanimportanttreatiseinPersianonthis.Commissionedby ShahAbbas,thiswork madeaccessibletothecourttheprinciplesofimamifaith;as suchitcontributedsignificantlytothecourt"sponsoredprocessofthepersianizationof Shi#ism. Babaie,Isfahan#and#Its#Palaces,98" Furthermore,aninscriptiondated1012/1603"4emphasizesspecificallyShahAbbas s spiritualleadershipasthepropagatoroftwelvershi#ism: thegreatestandmost dignifiedsultan thereviverofthecustomsofhisforefathers,thepropagatorofthe InfallibleImams Abbas,theHusaynid,theMusavid. PartialtranslationisinNewman, 57.FullinscriptionisgiveninLutf"AllahHunarfar,Ganj$na%"i#&s'r"i#T'rikh$"yi#I(fah'n (Isfahan,1344/1965"6),402.FormoreontheLutf"AllahMosque,seeHunarfar, Ganj$na,401"15;RobertHillenbrand, SafavidArchitecture, inthe#cambridge#history# of#iran,#vol.#6:#timurid#and#safavid#periods,eds.peterjacksonandlaurencelockhart (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),784"6;Blake,Half#the#World,147"50; Babaie,Isfahan#and#Its#Palaces,85" FortheMasjid"iShah,seeHillenbrand, SafavidArchitecture, 786"9;Blake,Half#the# World,140"7ò;Babaie,Isfahan#and#Its#Palaces.TheMasjid"iShahhadtwomadrasas 230

247 royalpalacewasflankedoneitherendoftheroyalsquarebytwokeyinstitutionsof religionandcommerce,twokeysourcesoflegitimacyandpowerforshahabbas snew order. 105 ThecontemporarycourtchroniclerIskandarMunshi scommentsdisclosethe boldideasthatabbaswantedtocommunicatewithhisconstructionofthesetwo mosques,andothersocio"religiousinstitutionsinisfahan: theshahwanteditsmosques, seminaries,andpiousfoundationsalsotobethefinestoftheirkindiniran,andtorival thetempleatmeccaandthemosqueatjerusalem. 106 flankingitsgreatdomechamber.theattachmentofthesetheologicalseminariestothe mosqueisseenasyetanotherwayinwhichshahabbassoughttoasserthisspiritual authorityandtopromotetheeducationoforthodoxtwelvershi#ism.infact,theseand otherstate"sponsoredmadrasasbuiltinisfahanmadethenewsafavidcapital the principlecentreofshi#ischolarship. Momen,Shii"Islam,111.Momensuggeststhat eventhoughmadrasasexistedpriortoabbas sreigninsafavidiran,theprominent methodofreligioustrainingwaspreviouslymuchmoreinformal,takingplacemainlyin thehomesofprominentscholars. 105 Foraninterpretationofthesetwomosques,theirplaceintheMaydan,andthe establishmentofisfahanas thecapitalofshi#ism, seebabaie,isfahan"and"its"palaces, chapt.3,esp.85"7,90" Munshialsorecordsthatinfact,thechronogramforthelayingoftheMasjid"iShah declared: asecondkabahasbeenbuilt. EskandarBegMonshi,Shah"Abbas"the"Great, II:1038"9.SimilartothenearbyLutf"AllahMosque,Masjid"iShah sinscriptionspraised God,theProphetMuhammad,hisdaughterFatima,andhisson"in"lawImam#Ali,in additiontotheremainingshi#iimams,fromwhomshahabbasclaimeddescent.these inscriptionswerecarefullyselectedtopromotethetwelvershi#iorthodoxyinstigatedby ShahAbbas snewstate.infact,asgülrunecipo$luhasnoted,ratherthanquranic verses,theseinscriptionsfeaturedisproportionatelymoreprophetictraditions(hadith) suchasthefamous Iamthecityofknowledgeand#Aliisitsgate, whichisfrequently citedinshi#itraditionsasattestingtomuhammad sowndesignationof#aliashis successor.theweavingtogetherofthenamesofthefourteeninfallibleswithsuch sayingsoftheprophetis,then,aimedtowardsprovingthetruelineofsuccessiontothe Prophet,whichisthemainsourceofdisputebetweenSunnismandShi#ism.Assuch,the Masjid"iShahproudlydeclaresShahAbbas spositionastheprotectorandpropagatorof thetwelvershi#ifaith.theinscriptionshavebeeninterpretedasdiscussedhereingülru Necipo$lu, Qur%anicInscriptionsonSinan simperialmosques:acomparisonwith TheirSafavidandMughalCounterparts, inword"of"god,"art"of"man:"the"qur#an"and" Its"Creative"Expressions,ed.FahmidaSuleman(OxfordandNewYork:Oxford UniversityPress,2007),69"104.TheinscriptionsaregiveninHunarfar,Ganj$na,427"

248 ShahAbbas spromotionofthetwelvershi"ifaithbycommissioningreligious institutionsoflearninganddevotionwasnotlimitedtothemosquesandmadrasashe builtinthecapitalcity.infact,heinterlacedsimilarsocialprojectswithpersonalactsof devotionthatunderscoredhisownallegiancetothefaith.mostnoteworthyamongthese arehismultiplepilgrimagesonfoottotheshrineofimamrezaandhissignificant renovationstoitsbuildings(figure4.10). 107 HispilgrimagefromIsfahantothisshrineof theeighthshi"iimaminmashhadin1601wasparticularlypromulgated,makinghis devotiontothefaithpubliclyknown Fromatleastthe11 th centuryonwards,theshrinewasamajorsiteofpilgrimage, receivingroyalsupportandprotectionatvariouslevels,frombothsunniandshi"i patrons.duringthesafavidperiod,itkeptitsimportance,upheldbythedevotionaland financialsupportofmanymembersofthedynasty,whovisitedtheshrine,renovatedits buildingsandadorneditwithobjectsrangingfromjewelsandfineporcelainto candlesticksandbooks.see,forexample,abolalasoudavar, AChineseDishfromthe LostEndowmentofPrincessSultanum(925#69/1519#62), iniranandiranianstudies: EssaysinHonorofIrajAfshar,ed.KambizEslami(Princeton:ZagrosPress,1998),125# 36.BythetimeofShahAbbas,theshrinehadbecomealargecomplexwithamosque, madrasasandothertombs.duringthesixteenthcentury,itwasraidedbytheuzbeks whentheregionfellintotheirhands,includingthe1590s.fortheshrineofimamreza andshahabbas sinvestmentandpilgrimagethere,seerobertmcchesney, Waqfand PublicPolicy:TheWaqfsofSh$h"Abb$s,1011#1023/1602#1616, AsianandAfrican Studies15(1981):165#190;CharlesMelville Shah"AbbasandthePilgrimageto Mashhad, insafavidpersia:thehistoryandpoliticsofanislamicsociety,ed.charles Melville(London:I.B.Tauris,1996),191#229;MayFarhat,"IslamicPietyandDynastic Legitimacy:TheCaseoftheShrineof"Alib.M%s$al#R&d$inMashhad(10 th #17 th century) (Ph.D.dissertation,HarvardUniversity,2002),174#229;SheilaCanby,Shah "Abbas:TheRemakingofIran(London:TheBritishMuseumPress,2009),186#95; Rizvi,SafavidDynasticShrine,174# PilgrimagetotheshrinesofImams(ziyarat)hadbeenacommonandpopularpractice insafavidiran.butifshahabbasaimedtoencouragepeopleunderhisruletovisit importantshrinesiniran,themostimportantbeingtheoneinmashhad,itcouldby extensionmeanfewerpeoplewouldgoonthehajj,orthepilgrimagetomecca.this wouldhaveimportantideologicalandeconomicconsequencesforottoman#safavid relations.meccaandmedinahadcomeunderottomanruleearlyinthesixteenthcentury. ThemajorpilgrimagerouteswerealsocontrolledbytheOttomangovernment,andthe sultanclaimedtheprestigiousresponsibilityofprovidingsafetytopilgrimscomingfrom allovertheworldontheirwaytotheholylandsofislam.aswehaveseen,shah 232

249 Inmodernscholarship,inadditiontopersonaldevotion,ShahAbbas sideological andfinancialinvestmentsintheshrinehavebeencloselyassociatedwithhisrecent liberationoftheregionfromtheuzbeks,whohadraidedtheshrine,strippingitofits valuablesafavidadditions. 109 Tobesure,fortheSunniUzbeks,attackingsuchan importantspaceofshi"itepietywasanideologicallyloadedact,asitwasan economicallymotivatedone.itwasthereforeparticularlymeaningfulforshahabbasto bringtheshrinebacktolifeafterhisre#conquestofthisregion.furthermore,the successfulandoftenviolentcampaignofuzbekstospreadthesunnifaithinnortheastern Iraninthe1590swasmetwithAbbas sseverepersecutionofsunnisafterheregained thoseterritories,notjustinkhurasanbutelsewhereiniran.suchinstanceshavebeen TahmaspcontinuouslyappealedtoOttomansultansforpermissionandpromiseofsafe travelforsafavidpilgrimssincetherewereevidentlyhardshipstheyfacedontheirway tomeccaandmedina.accordingtoarjomand,oneimportantfeatureof thenewand violentanti#sunnismcharacteristicofsafavidshi"ism attheendofthesixteenthcentury istheemphasisplacedonziyarat.thescholarmirmakhdumwrote,forexample,that ziyaratdiminishedone sdesiretogoonthehajj.arjomand,shadowofgod,165.but beyondreligiouspolemicsandideologicalconsiderations,rudimattheehasarguedthat ShahAbbashadanimportanteconomicmotivationforencouragingthevisitationofthe tombofimamrizainmashhadoverthehajj:currencyflight.pilgrimshadtocarrygold ducatstopayforvariousexpenses,includingtolls,almsandpresentswhileperforming thehajj.divertingtheflowoflargeamountsofgoldoutofthesafavideconomyduring theyearlyhajj,then,wasanimportantconsiderationfortheshah.rudimatthee, BetweenVeniceandSurat:TheTradeinGoldinLateSafavidIran, ModernAsian Studies34,no.1(2000):223#255.Forthehajjduringtheearlymoderneraandthe Ottomanresponsibilityofprotectingpilgrims,seeFaroqhi,PilgrimsandSultans; MichaelN.Pearson,PilgrimagetoMecca:TheIndianExperience1500"1800(Princeton, NJ:MarkusWiener,1996);NaimR.Farooqi, Moguls,Ottomans,andPilgrims: ProtectingtheRoutestoMeccaintheSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies, The InternationalHistoryReview10,no.2(May1988):198# Farhat, IslamicPiety, 183#4. 233

250 recorded,forexample,in1599,thesameyearthatabbasdispatchedthekeystothe Ottomancourt. 110 Againstthisbackground,ShahAbbas spresentationofkeystofortressesand citiesheconqueredinkhurasanwassimilarlyasymbolicgesturethatassertedbothhis ownascendingmilitarypower,andhishaughtyclaimtotwelvershi"ileadership.what additionallyenhancedthispointwasthemannerinwhichthekeyswereconveyedtothe Ottomansultan.Hadthekeysbeenaccompaniedbyotherobjects,whichmadereference toprevioussafavidgiftstothesultan,altogethertheymighthavesignaledsincere submission.instead,itwasthiscompletebreakfromtradition,theabsenceofany traditionalgiftoffriendshipandsubserviencethatunderscoredtheunrulinessofthegifts, andtheoffensivenessofthewholegesture. TheironyinShahAbbas smessagetothesultanmusthavebeenrealizedatthe Ottomancourt,forthekeyswerereturnedtotheenvoythenextday.GirolamoCapello writesinareporttothevenetiansenate: [Theambassador]related,throughthe mediationofthedragoman,that[theottomans]acceptedthekeys;butthengave[them] back,tobereturnedto[shahabbas],thankinghimforthekindnesshehadshownwith them.theseweretoldtothedragomanbytheambassadorwithalaugh,tellinghimthat theydidnotquiteknowhowtointerpretthisgift. 111 Thepresentationofthesekeysnot 110 In1599,AbbasorderedthepersecutionofSunnisinSurkheh,orSimnan,in northwesterniran.thereisalsoarecordoftheexecutionofalocalleader(kadkhuda)in Hamadanin1608,onaccountofhismaltreatmentofShi"itesunderhisjurisdiction.Shah AbbaspunishedtheSunnisbyothermethodsaswell,forexamplebyexcludingthem fromoccasionaltaxexemptions.arjomand,shadowofgod,120# Dissemedesimam[en]tealDragomano,chehavevanoquestiaccettatelechiavi,mà restituitepoip[er]essereritornatealrèringratiandolodiquestasuacortese dimostratane,ilchefùdettodall Amb[asciato]realDragomanoconriso,dicendogli,che 234

251 onlyinstigatedadiplomaticcrisisbetweenottomanandsafavidcourts,butitalso intensifiedworriesattheottomancourtaboutthetroubledpoliticalstateofaffairswithin theempire.capello sreportstateshowmuch theturkswereindeepthought, forthey suspectedthattheongoinguprisingsalloveranatolia(commonlyknownasthecelali Rebellions),mightbebackedinfactbytheSafavids.Theshah sre"conquestofformer SafavidterritoriesthathadfallentotheUzbeksindicatedhisincreasingpower,andthe keyshesenttothesultaninhonorofthisvictorywasadaring,ifnotprovokinggesture thatsuggestedtotheottomansthathewaswillingtofightinmorefrontsthanone. AttheOttomancourt,theoverwhelminganxietyandapprehensionaboutthe futureofrelationswiththesafavidsiscorrelatedincapello sreportdirectlywithfavors giventothisambassador.anextraordinaryfeastwasservedtomuhammad"qulibegat thetopkapıpalacebeforehisaudiencewiththesultanandhewaspresentedwithmore robesofhonorthanwascustomary.thevenetianbailo spredictionthatallofthese favorspointtohow afraid theottomanswereofthesafavidkingwasconfirmedalso bythesafavidenvoyhimself,whosaid: thisshowofgiftsandhonorwillnotbe sufficienttowinoverhislord,becausehisdemandisthattabrizbereturnedtohim. Muhammad"quliBegfurtherexplainedthateventhoughhewassenttheretodiscussthis issue,theottomansdidnotaddressit,focusinginsteadonimpressinghimwithwords andfavors.intheend,hesaid,shahabbaswillhavetoclaimtabrizandnahavandby force. 112 nonhavevanobeneintesalainterpretationediquestopresente,nevolsepassarpiùoltre. ASVe,Senato,DispacciCostantinopolifilza49,396b"397a. 112 Thebailonotesthatherelatestheseremarksthroughthemediationofthe ambassador sdragoman.asve,senato,dispaccicostantinopolifilza49,396b. 235

252 JustasShahAbbas sdefiantkeyswereontheirwaytomehmediii scourt, ambassadorsfromthesultanwereheadedfortheshah scourt.thecarmelitefriar EmmanueldeSantosrelatedthearrivalofanOttomanembassyinIsfahaninJune1599 withtherequestthatshahabbasvowtorenewpeacebysendinghissonasahostageto theottomancourt: Therearrivedattwoorthreedays interval,oneafterthe other,threeambassadorssentbythesultantothepersian king:theyweredemandingthelatter seldestsonasa hostage,andguaranteesoffriendship.he(fr.emmanuel) saysthatthepersiankingreceivedwithmuchhonourand verygreatwelcomethoseambassadors,towhom,however hegavenoanswer,exceptononedaywhenheentertained thematagreatbanquet,atwhichwerepresentallthe noblesofpersia.thenhesaidattableinaloudvoicethese verywords: thegrandturk(i.e.sultanofturkey)by theseambassadorswhohavecomeheredemandsofmemy son,theprince,asahostage:andireplytoyou,the ambassadors,thatmyson,theprince,isandwillbeking tooofallipossess:andsinceihavenopowertosenda kingashostagetoaking,youwillmakeanswertothe TurkishSultanthatIamnotwillingtosendhimmyson, thepersiankingsayingthiswithgreathaughtiness.with thatthethreeambassadorsinquestionreceivedtheir dismissal. 113 IfsuchademandfromthesultanreflectedhiswantofAbbas scontinuing subserviencethroughthereplacementofhaydarmirzawithanewprince,shahabbas s terserefusaltothisrequestprovedhehadnointentiontodoso.whatismore,abbas s keystothesultanwereafarcryfromstandardgiftsoffriendship,letalonesubservience. Ontopofthishighlysymbolicgesture,ifnewsaboutShahAbbas sdeterminationto recovertabriz asrelatedbyhisambassador circulatedinconstantinople 113 Anonymous,AChronicleoftheCarmelitesinPersia,2vols.(London,1939),I:79"

253 ,itwoulddisclosetheshah sdeterminationtore"openthewesternfront.indeed, aswewillsee,in1603hedidexactlythat,andsubsequentlytookbackalmostallofthe territorylosttotheottomanswiththeistanbulpeacetreatyof1590. Thestruggleovercontrolofthesilktrade By1599,whenthekeyswerepresentedtothesultanandrefusedbyhim subsequently,shahabbashaddefeatedtheuzbeks,suppressedinternalrevolts,subdued oppositions,andestablishedapermanentstandingarmy.healsohadnewlymovedhis capitalfromqazvintoisfahan,whoseurbanfabricwasbeingshapedaccordingto Abbas svisionofhisnewcentralizedstateinlinewithtwelvershi#iprinciples. 114 As discussedabove,theorganizationoftheroyalquadrangleatthenewcapitalmirrored the integrationofcommercialandpoliticalspaceinisfahan scenter. 115 Beyondthedisplay oftheshah spoliticalandreligiousambitions,theroyalquadrangle sprinciplepurpose hasbeenidentifiedascommerce. 116 Indeed,establishingastatemonopolyonforeign 114 Inadditiontothereligiousinstitutionsheestablished,suchasthetwomosquesandthe madrasasintheroyalsquareinisfahan,shahabbasendowedpiousinstitutionsinhonor ofthefourteeninfallibles,whichweresupportedbyhisentirewealthandincome.these includedincomefromtheimperialbazaarcomplex(qaysariyya),khansandbathsin Isfahan,andvaluableobjectssuchasraremanuscriptsinArabicwithreligiouscontent, otherliteraryandhistoricalbooksinpersian,porcelain,jewels,goldwareandsilverware. Forthesepiousendowmentsandtheirideologicalunderpinnings,seeMcChesney, Waqf andpublicpolicy. AmongotherarchitecturalexpressionsofthestrongtiebetweenShah Abbas snewstateandhisdevotionwereashrineattachedtotheroyalpalaceinisfahan andastoneassociatedwiththefirstshi#iimam#ali,whichwasplacedinfrontofthe palace sgateoverlookingtheimperialsquare(#aliqapu).fortheshrine,thestone,and theritualsassociatedwithit,seegülrunecipo$lu, FramingtheGazeinOttoman, Safavid,andMughalPalaces, ArsOrientalis23(1993): RudiMattheealsohighlightsthehistoryofthestrongtiesbetweenstateand commerceinsafavidiran,arguingthatabbas eitherrevivedtraditionsorenhancedthe scopeandscaleofexistingarrangements. Matthee,PoliticsofTrade, Necipo$lu, FramingtheGaze,

254 tradewasoneofthebackbonesofshahabbas scentralizedstate.whiletheshahtook underhiscontrolthetradeofcountlesscommodities,silktookprideofplaceamong these.aswewillseeinfurtherdetailbelow,competitionoverthecontrolofcentersof silkproductionhadfrequentlybeenanimportantinstigatorofottoman"safavidrivalry duringthesixteenthcentury.fittingly,themeasuresshahabbastookinorderto monopolizesilkproductionandtoestablishdirecttradingrelationswitheuropean powersweremeanttoeliminatethemediationofottomanmerchantsandexportcenters withintheflowofsilkfromhiscountryintoeurope.inthisattempt,shahabbassent loadsofhigh"qualitypersiansilkasdiplomaticgiftstovariouseuropeanrulers,asking forpoliticalandmilitaryallianceagainsttheottomansultan,andanticipatingdirect purchasesofsilk.inthefirstdecadesoftheseventeenthcentury,astheottoman"safavid warfrontre"opened,embassiesbetweeniranandeuropecontinuedtobeexchanged. Duringthistime,silkprovedtobeakeyitemwithinOttoman"Safavidrivalrythat involvedmorecontendersthanthesetwocourts,andrepresentedsomethinginwhichthe categoriesofgiftandcommoditycameextremelyclose. Inpopularhistoricalimagination,theinternationaltradeofsilkisreadily associatedwithchinaandthesilkroad.iranlaysonthefamedsilkroad,andhasbeen animportantpointofsilktransferfromchinatothelevant.atthesametime,through themedievalandearlymodernperiods,iranitselfhasbeenasignificantsourceofsaw silkandsilkproducts FollowingtheMongolinvasions,Tabriz,theIlkhanidcapital,forexample,emergedas amajorcenterinworldtrade.iraniansilkoriginatingingilan,mazandaranand Astarabad aswellasothergoods passedthroughtabrizandanatoliaintoeurope. ItalianmerchantsfrequentedthecitytobuysilkinreturnforEuropeancloth.Afterthe Ilkhanidsfellinthemid"14 th century,theroleoftabrizasahuboftradebetweenasia 238

255 Thecommercialinfrastructurebasedonsilkproductionanddistributionduring thetimeofshahabbas,however,wasunprecedented. 118 Atthebeginningofthe seventeenthcentury,shahabbas sneweconomicpolicymadesilkiran smostimportant exportcommodity.tobesure,themotivationbehindtheshah ssystematiceffortto promoteiraniansilkininternationaltradewasdirectlytiedwithanexpectationofhigh monetarygaininhistransactions.butshahabbas seconomicagendawasalso correlatedwith,infactmotivatedby,hiscompetitionwiththeneighboringottomans. Throughoutthesixteenthcentury,Ottoman"Safavidrivalrywasprimarily governedbypoliticalandreligiousdisputes,whichresultedinalongseriesofmilitary confrontations.meanwhile,economichostilitiesalsosurfaced,whichobstructedsilk tradealongtheterritoriesofbothstatesandbeyond.priortoandafterthebattleof Chaldiranin1514 thefirstmajorottoman"safavidwar theottomansultanselimi soughttoweakenhisrival,shahismail,byimposing anembargoonallsilkimports andeuropewentthroughmajorchanges,andasignificantportionoftheeconomic activityshiftedtowardsanatolia,makingbursaamajoroutletofiraniansilkfor Europeanmerchants.AfterBursabecametheOttomancapital,thatcityalsobecamea majorcenterofsilkproduction,forwhichmostoftherawsilkcamefromiran.thisis nottosaythattabrizlostitscommercialimportancealtogether.tothecontrary,sources continuetonotehowmerchantsconvenedthere.nevertheless,itdefinitelysufferedfrom alackofcontinuouspoliticalstability,forthecitychangedhandsnumeroustimes,for example,throughoutthesixteenthcentury.onlatemedievaltabrizandbursa,seehalil InalcıkandDonaldQuataert,eds.,AnEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOttoman Empire,1300"1914(CambridgeUniversityPress,1994);HalilInalcık, #ar$r,ii.the OttomanEmpire EncyclopediaofIslam,SecondEdition,eds.P.Bearmanetal.,(Brill, 2011).BrillOnline;FahriDalsar,TürkSanayiveTicaretTarihindeBursa daipekçilik (SermatMatbaası:Istanbul,1960).SultaniyawasanothercommercialcenterinIran, whichattractedmerchantsfromboththeeastandwestofiranlookingtobuypersiansilk. SeeMatthee,PoliticsofTrade, MinorskyconceivedofShahAbbas scontrolofsilktradeasamilestonemarkingthe leapfromfeudalismtocapitalisminiran.minorsky,tadhkiratal"muluk,14 239

256 fromiranandprohibitedtradeinrawsilkintheottomanterritories. 119 Furthermore, SelimannouncedthatthepossessionsofanymerchantcaughtwithIranianrawsilkon Ottomanterritorywouldbeconfiscated.ThesemeasureswouldnotonlyblockEuropean accesstoiraniansilktoalargeextent,butwouldalsopreventmerchantslivingunder OttomanorSafavidruletosufferlosses.HalilInalcıkexplainsthatSelim sembargo couldhardlybemaintainedonlegalground.moreover,inthelongrun,ithaddire consequencesnotonlyforthesafavideconomy,butalsofortheottomaneconomyitself. DuringSelim sembargobetween1514and1518,andagainduringtheottoman"safavid warsbetween1578and1590,thesetbackintradecausedrawsilkpricesinbursato skyrocket. 120 Selim sson,sultansüleyman,whowasknownforhisjustice(hencehis epithet thelawgiver ),liftedtheembargoin1520,andcontinuedattackonthesafavids throughpoliticalandmilitarymeans. 121 ThroughoutSüleyman sreignandbeyond, thoughintermittentperiodsofconflictsurelyimpactedsilktrade,economicactivitynever brokecompletelyasduringthereignofselimiforextendedperiodsoftime.meanwhile, gainingcontrolovertraderoutesandhubs,suchasazarbaijan,andcentersofproduction forkeyproducts,suchassilk,provedtobesignificantmotivationsforottoman"safavid militaryclashes. 119 Inalcık,EconomicandSocialHistory, SilkproductioninBursadependedonacontinuousflowofcheaprawsilkfromIran. Inalcık,EconomicandSocialHistory,228" Jean"LouisBacqué"GrammonthascomparedthereignsofSelimandSüleymanin termsofthetwoconsecutiverulers policiestowardsthesafavids,showingthatsultan Süleymanadoptedarelativelylessaggressivestance.Jean"LouisBacqué"Grammont, "TheEasternPolicyofSüleymantheMagnificent1520"1533,"inSüleymântheSecond [i.e.thefirst]andhistime,eds.halilinalcıkandcemalkafadar(istanbul:isispress, 1993),219"

257 OntheirwaytoEurope,spicesandothergoodscomingfromIndiapassedthrough theareafallingbetweenthepersiangulfandthelevant.theselands,includingbaghdad andaleppo,cameunderottomancontrolinthe1530s.theareaaroundtheottoman" Safavidborder,however,remainedmostlyunderSafavidcontroluntilthe1580s.The treatyof1590signedbetweenshahabbasandmuradiiigavetheottomansdefinitive territorialauthorityoverazarbaijan,georgiaandshirvan,whereinweremajorcentersof silkproduction.gilanandmazandaran,whichwereequallysignificantcentersofsilk cultivation,wereconqueredbyabbasattheendofthesixteenthcentury.then, AzarbaijanandShirvanwerereclaimedbytheSafavidsduringthefirstdecadeofthe seventeenthcentury,asthewarfrontwiththeottomansre"opened.concurrently,the shah sintentiontoweaveaninternationalnetworkofsilktradebypassingtheottomans showedthatpowerresidedasmuchincontroloverterritoriesatthistimeasitwasin controlovertraderoutes. ThecentralizationofeconomicactivityundertheruleofShahAbbasandhisre" orientationofsilktradedependedonseveralmeasuresheactivelyfacilitated. 122 These rangedfromtechnicalandlogisticalmeasuressuchasestablishinghisownlocal administrationfortheharvesting,collectingandthestoringofsilktomarketingand sellingitininternationalmarkets. 123 Moreover,theshahoversawtheexpansionofthe 122 ThesemeasuresaredetailedinLindaK.Steinmann, Shah#AbbasandtheRoyalSilk Trade1599"1629, Bulletin(BritishSocietyformiddleEasternStudies)14,no.1(1987): 68"74;seealsoNielsSteensgaard,TheAsianTradeRevolutionoftheSeventeenth Century:TheEastIndiaCompaniesandtheDeclineoftheCaravanTrade(Chicago: UniversityofChicagoPress,1974). 123 Steinmann, RoyalSilkTrade, 70;RudiMattheeshowsthatAbbastook prohibitionistmeasuresinadditiontostimulatingones.forexample,heencouragedthe consumptionofcottonclothinthedomesticmarket toreducetheimportationofindian clothandtoincreasedomesticsilkexports. Matthee,PoliticsofTrade,67"8. 241

258 caravannetworkiniran,bybuildingmanycaravanseraisandguaranteedsafetyfor travelersandmerchants. 124 Intheinterestofaccumulatingwealth,theshahtookmeasures todiscouragecurrencyflight,andeventuallyissuedabanontheexportofgoldand silver. 125 Inadditiontobuildinganinfrastructurefortheproductionanddistributionofsilk, AbbasalsoarrangedtheforcedmigrationoftheprimaryexportersofIran sinternational silktrade,armenianmerchants,wholivedinjulfainazarbaijan,andsettledthemin NewJulfaintheoutskirtsofhisnewcapitalofIsfahan. 126 Integratedfullyintothe Safavidroyalsystemasmerchantsanddiplomats,thewealthyArmeniancommunity facilitatedtheexchangeofpersiansilkforeuropeansilver.theroyalmonopolyonsilk productionanddistributionwasalsocrucialforshahabbas soverallcentralizing policies,sincethesilverthatarmeniansbroughtintoiranpaidthesalariesoftheshah s neweliteclassofslaves(sing.ghulam),andhisstandingarmy. 127 Withoutdoubt,ShahAbbastookallofthesemeasurestofacilitatetheexpansion ofcommerce.asrudimattheehasnoted,atthistime,theconvergenceofcommerceand 124 Matthee,PoliticsofTrade, Theshah sactiveencouragementofhispeopletogoonpilgrimagetoshi"iteshrines iniranratherthanthehajjisonesuchmeasure.thebanwasissuedin1618.matthee, PoliticsofTrade,67# ForJulfanArmenianmerchantsandtheirrecruitmentbyShahAbbasatthebeginning oftheseventeenthcentury,seevartangregorian, MinoritiesofIsphahan:TheArmenian CommunityofIsphahan,1587#1722, IranianStudies7,no.2(1974):652#81;Edmund Herzig, TheRiseoftheJulfaMerchantsintheLateSixteenthCentury, insafavid Persia:TheHistoryandPoliticsofanIslamicSociety,ed.CharlesMelville(London:I.B. Tauris,1996),305#322;InaBaghdiantz#McCabe,TheShah'sSilkforEurope'sSilver:The EurasianSilkTradeoftheJulfanArmeniansinSafavidIranandIndia(1590"1750) (Atlanta,Ga.:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1999);Matthee,PoliticsofTrade,84#90; Babaieetal.,SlavesoftheShah. 127 ForadiscussionofArmenianmerchants financingofthesafavidtreasury,seebabaie etal.,slavesoftheshah,49#

259 politicswashardlyanewphenomenoniniranorelsewhereintheearlymodernworld. However,itisimportanttonotethatthelevelofShahAbbas sactiveengagementwith commercethroughhissystematicandmultifacetedefforttostimulateexportswas unprecedented.accordingly,theshahmaybeviewedasatruemercantilist, 128 even thoughhismainobjectiveremainedmaximizingroyalrevenueinordertoprotecthis realmagainstoutsidethreatsandinternalrebellion,ratherthanfacilitatingtheformation ofa nationaleconomy "theorderlyprocedureandexpansionofagricultureand commerce. 129 Moreover,inlinewithIranianpoliticaltheoryandpractice,theking srole asadistributorratherthanaccumulatorofwealthprevailedduringthereignofabbas. Personalandintimatemethodsofcirculatingwealth,intheformsoftributeandgifts, continuedtobecomeanintegralpartofthesafavidfiscalsystem. SilkandtheShah squestforalliancesineurope Theforegoingdiscussionaboutsilktradeissignificantherebecausesilkwas quitecreativelyusedbyshahabbastoprovokeandevenattacktheottomansina mannerandscaleunmatchedbyanysafavidrulerbeforehim.whilethestrongmilitary andadministrativeinstitutionsheestablishedsucceededinconqueringaconsideable portionoftheterritoriesthathadbeenlosttotheottomansintheprecedingdecades, Abbasconcurrentlyaimedtohindertheenemy seconomy,bysearchingforalliancesin EuropeagainsttheOttomans.NumerousembassiesthathesenttoEuropecarriedlarge 128 MinorskyhasconceivedofAbbasagreatcapitalist,Minorsky,TadhkiratAl"Muluk, 14.Athought"provokingdiscussionofShahAbbas sapproachtocommercewithrespect tomercantilismcanbefoundinmatthee,politicsoftrade,69"74.mattheegoesinto currentdebatesaboutthedefinitionofthetermmercantilismitselfandhowshahabbas s versiondivergesfromsomeoftheeuropeanexamples. 129 Matthee,PoliticsofTrade,

260 amountsofhigh"qualitysilktobepresentedasdiplomaticgifts.thesegiftsdidnotjust representtheshah ssincerityinhisrequestsandhispromiseoffriendship,buttheywere alsomeanttofacilitatefutureordersofsilktobepurchaseddirectlyfromabbashimself. Frequently,ShahAbbasalsoopenlypointedouttheeffectivenessofmovingsilkto EuropethroughHormuzinthePersianGulfandevenaroundtheCapeofGoodHope, ratherthanthetraditionalrouteswhichpassedthroughaleppo,bursaandizmir,which wereunderottomanruleatthattime.obviously,abbasaspiredtostriptheottoman economyofallthetaxesandotherprofitsresultingfromthepassageoflargeamountsof Persiansilkthroughtheirterritory. ShahAbbas splantoestablishcontactswiththeoutsideworldtopromoteiran s rawsilkandtoseeksupportforhisstrugglewiththeottomanswasalreadysetinmotion whenhisoffensivegiftsofkeysarrivedattheottomancourtinthesummerof1599. Duringthe1590s,embassiesthatcarriedlargeamountsofsilkweresenttoRussia,a countrythatopenlysharedabbas santi"ottomansentiments.whilethere,these embassiesalsotradediran sluxurioustextilesforrussia ssablefurandweapons. 130 Amorefocuseddiplomaticoffensivebeganafterthearrival,inlate1598,ofthe EnglishgentlemanAnthonySherleyinPersia(Figure4.11),whopursuadedShahAbbas tosendhimtoeuropetospecificallygathersupportforanallianceagainsttheottomans. TheshahdispatchedSherleyasanambassador,togetherwithHusainAliBeg,toa numberofeuropeancourts. 131 MakingtheirfirststopinMoscow,theywentfromthereto PragueandwerereceivedfavorablybyEmperorRudolfII,whowasatwarwiththe 130 Matthee,PoliticsofTrade,77" R.W.Ferrier, TheEuropeanDiplomacyofShah#AbbasIandtheFirstPersian EmbassytoEngland, Iran11(1973):75"

261 Ottomansatthattime.Movingsouth,inRometheembassywasreceivedbythepope withcomparableenthusiasm.disagreementsbetweensherleyandhusainbegcausedthe missiontoalmostfallapart,forsherleylefttheembassy.husainbegcontinuedonto Spainonhisown,butlostthreemoremembersoftheembassythere,whoconvertedto Christianity. Theunfortunatestoryofthisembassyhasbeeninterpretedinmodernliteratureas oneoffailure,asweretheonesdispatchedtoeuropefromiranduringthefirsttwo decadesoftheseventeenthcentury.butatthetimeabbaswasnotdiscouragedatall,for concurrentwithhisdeclarationofwarontheottomansin1603,heinitiatedamuchmore organizeddiplomaticcampaigntoseekalliesineuropeinhisstrugglewiththeottomans. Theshah sbargainingpowerlayinthehigh"qualitysilkhecouldsupplyeuropeandhis methodsincommunicatingthisvariedwidely.here,iwouldliketotakeonecasein pointthatdemonstrateshowshahabbasusedgiftscreatively,tailoringthemtohis audiencemeanwhile,toincitecuriosityandunderscoreeachgift spotentialtobecomea commodity. MonthsbeforetheoutbreakoftheOttoman"Safavidwarin1603,anembassy arrivedinvenicefromiranbearingvaluablegifts. 132 ThereceptionoftheenvoyFathi 132 TheearliestembassyfromIrantoVenicewassentin1600.TheambassadorEfetBeg relatedtothedogetheshah swishforreciprocalcommercebetweenthetwostates,and expressedhow therepublicisnotonlylovedbutalsorespectedgreatlyinpersia. On thisoccasion,shahabbashadsentasagift,apreciousgold"wovensilkvelvetfabric depictingthesceneoftheannunciationofvirginmary,custom"madetobepresentedto thedoge.theshahwasalsoofferingtosupplywhateverthedogewouldlikeinthe future,asatestamenttotheirfriendship.forthisembassyandacopyoftheshah sletter initaliantranslation,seeguglielmoberchet,veneziaelapersia,43,192"3.thistextile withthesceneoftheannunciationwasquitelarge,measuringapproximately5meterson eachside,andwaslaterstoredinthesaladelmaggiorconsigliodeidieciatthepalazzo 245

262 BeghasbeendepictedbyGabrieleCaliariinapaintingthatdecoratestheSaledelle quattroporteatthepalazzoducaleinvenice(figure4.12). 133 AccordingtoVenetian archivalrecords,thegiftsfromshahabbasincludedasilkgold"embroideredmantle (manto),asilkvelvetcarpetwovenwithgoldandsilverthreads(figure4.13), 134 agold" embroideredvelvetfabricwiththefiguresofjesusandhismothermary(figure4.14), 135 andsixothergarments,threeofwhichweregold"embroideredsilk,andtherestwerealso silkinvariouscolors. 136 Theambassador saccountaboutthesegiftsduringhis ceremonialreceptionrevealshowcarefullyshahabbashadpreparedthemandhowhe hadeventendedtotheirpresentation.fathibegexplainedtothedogethatthemantlewas speciallyproducedforhim,anditwasmadeinonesinglepiece,withoutanystitching. Theshahhadwishedthedogetotakeitasasignofhisfriendshipandhopedthathe wouldwearitthinkingofhim.forthesilkcarpet(figure4.15),fathibegsaidthat the shah,havingunderstoodthateveryyearthetreasuryofsanmarcoisputondisplay,sent thiscarpet,whichisofthehighestqualityproducedinpersia,sothateverytimethe treasuryisdisplayed,thisbeautifulcarpetwillalsobeputonview. Thedogethanked Ducale.RodolfoGallo,IlTesorodiS.MarcoelaSuaStoria(VeniceandRome:Istituto perlacollaborazioneculturale,1967),260" Berchet,VeneziaelaPersia,44" ThiscarpetisatthetreasuryofSanMarcoinVenice(BasilicadiSanMarco,inv. n.26).seeereditàdell Islam:ArteislamicainItalia,ed.GiovanniCuratola(Milan: SilvanaEditoriale,1993),cat.277,431"2;VeneziaeL Islam,828"1797,ed.Stefano Carboni(Venice:Marsilio,2007),cat.66,188, ThistextileistodayinthecollectionoftheMuseoCorrerinVenice(MuseoCivico Correr,inv.no.Cl.XXII,n.37),seeCuratola,Ereditàdell Islam,cat.275,429"30.See alsocarboni,veneziael Islam,cat.58,71,338.AsimilarSafavidtextilefragmentwith apairofdiagonallyrenderedmotherandchildfiguresisinthedavidcollectionin Copenhagen.KjeldvonFolsachandAnne"MarieKeblowBernsted,WovenTreasures" TextilesfromtheWordofIslam(Copenhagen:TheDavidCollection,1993),cat.34,112" 3;KjeldvonFolsach,ArtfromtheWorldofIslamintheDavidCollection(Copenhagen, 2001),cat.665, ThefulllistofgiftsisgiveninBerchet,VeneziaelaPersia,

263 theshahforhiskindnessandsentbackforhimsuchreturn"giftsasagold"platedbowl engravedwithfigures,twosilverflasksstuddedwithglass,afullbodymail,andfour archebuses,whichwerehandguns,decoratedononeendwithgoldandstuddedwith pearls. Inadditiontosuchexchangesofgiftsandlettersexpressingfriendship,an importantaspectofpersianembassiestoeuropeweretheamountofdirectcommercial transactions.accordingly,beforehisdeparture,fathibeghadpurchasedtensofbody mailandweaponsamongotherthings,whichwereallconfiscatedbytheottomansin Aleppo,forbythentheywereatwarwiththeSafavids. DuringtheOttoman"Safavidwar,ShahAbbasprovedextremelysuccessful, recoveringalmostalltheterritorieshehadlostin1590,includingthemajorcentersof silkproductioninthatarea.butthelackofaconcretepromisefromeuropeforcollective politicalsupport,combinedwiththesigningoftheottoman"habsburgpeacetreatyin 1606ledhimtobemoreaggressiveinhisquestfordivertingthesilkroutefromAnatolia. AmissionsenttoSpainin1608,forexample,directlyexpressedthisideatotheking. TheenvoysexplainedtothekingthatifhesentshipstoGoaonthewesterncoastofIndia andhormuzinthepersiangulftwiceayear,bothsideswouldbenefitimmensely,which wouldalsoinflictaheavyblowontheottomaneconomy.theembassyhadalsobrought averylargeamountofsilk.eventhoughtheshahexpectedhisenvoystosellitinspain, toseehowmuchprofititwouldyield,itwaspresentedasagifttophillipiii.infuriated, theshahexecutedtheresponsibleenvoyuponhisreturntoiran.anotherembassyto PortugaltravelledaroundtheCapeofGoodHopetoreachthere,inordertodemonstrate thefeasibilityofalternativeroutesincarryingsilk. 247

264 These,andotherembassiesfromShahAbbasneitherresultedinlong"term contactsofcommerce,norhisanticipatedpoliticalallianceagainstthecommonenemy. However,anextraordinaryamountofwrittenandvisualrecordsdocumentingthese contacts,primarilyconsistingofportraits,haveremained.ratherthanmerelyvisual recordsofthesemissions,ormementosfortheposersoftheforeignlandtheyhadvisited orhadcomefrom,iwouldliketosuggestthattheyrepresentedtheuniquenatureofshah Abbas sembassies.forexample,inalife"sizeoilpaintingofrobertsherley(figure 4.16),heisdressedassomeoneofthehighestrankattheSafavidcourt.Hewearsagold wovenpatternedsilkvelvetcloakontop.hisunderrobeisofblacksilkwitharepeated patternofamaleyouthraisingalargepieceofrockwithtwoarmsabovehishead,to throwitatthedragonfacinghimbehindbushesandflowers. 137 Asarthistorianshave shown,thesceneprobablyoriginatesfromastoryintheshahnama, 138 orbookofkings, thepersiannationalepicaboutpre"islamickingsofiran.likethesetwogarments, Sherley ssashsignalsthesafavidhautecoutureduringthereignofshahabbas.atthe Safavidcourt,thesash squalityaccordedwiththewearer srank.thevarietyincolors andtheuseofgoldthatweseeherewerereservedforhighestrankingmembersofthe court.furthermore,theuseofpalecolorsinthecloakandlargelotuseswere unmistakablenoveltiesofthetimeofabbas,repeatedfrequentlyinavarietyofluxury objectsofthetime. 137 Foradiscussionofthisrobe,seePatriciaBaker, WroughtofGoldandSilver: HonorificGarmentsinSeventeenthCenturyIran, incarpetsandtextilesintheiranian World,1400"1700,eds.Thompsonetal.(LondonandGenoa:AshmoleanMuseum, 2010),161" BakerarguesthatwhilePhyllisAckermanhadpreviouslyidentifiedthesceneasthe fightbetweeniskandarandadragon,itmorelikelydepictsabattlebetweenaheroanda dragoninthestoryabouthushangintheshahnama.baker, WroughtofGoldand Silver,

265 ButwhatdidsuchanexpressionofthehighestSafavidqualityandtastemean withinthecontextofsherley smission?aswehaveseen,earlierembassiescarriedgifts thatwouldspecificallyappealtothereceiver stasteandreligiousorientation,suchasthe textileswithimagesofjesusandmaryabbassentthedoge.here,weseeacomplete reversal,infavorofthegiver sownpreferencesandtaste,whichreflectatthesametime thetechnicalcapabilitiesofartistsandartisansunderhisprotection.ifthesegarments reflectthekindsofsilksthatshahabbassentorpromisedtosendeuropeancourtsafter 1603,thentheyrequireaspecificreadingwithinthecontextofthemoreaggressiveand assertivepoliticalnatureoftheseembassieswithregardtotheirproposaltodirectlytrade silkwithoutottomanmediation.likethedoge smantle,thequalityofthetextilereflects herethehighestqualityofproductionunderabbas srule.butunlikethedoge smantle, thesegarmentshaveanunmistakablypersianandsafavidcharacter,peppered distinctivelywithstylisticnoveltiesofhisreign.abbaswasofferingtoattackthe OttomaneconomywithhisproposalsoftradepartnershipwithEuropeanpowers,justas hewasenteringintomilitaryconflictwiththeottomanshimself.tradinggarmentssuch astheseanddevelopingatasteforthemwouldassaulttheottomansonasymboliclevel aswell,fortheottomanelitewouldneverweargarmentswithsuchfiguralimagery.a goodexampletodemonstratethispointisanalbumpaintingdepictingthesafavidenvoy totheottomancourtin1590(figure4.17and4.18). 139 Oneofthemostdiscernable differencesbetweentheottomanandsafavidcourtiersisthelatter srobe,decorated boldywithhumanfigures ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,125b. 140 GülruNecipo"ludatesthecreationofadistinctiveOttomanartisticcanonthatfavored theuseoflargenaturalisticfloralmotifsinstrikingcolorstothemiddleofthesixteenth 249

266 From heart"cheeringgifts to strangepresents DuringthefirstyearsoftheOttoman"Safavidwar,theOttomanswerealso fightingontheirwesternfrontwiththehabsburgs,andtryingtodealwithwidespread rebellionsalloveranatolia. 141 SoonafterapeacewasconcludedwiththeHabsburgsin 1606,theymanagedtosubduetherebellionsaswellandwerereadytoconfrontthe Safavidshahfullon.After1610,whentheOttomanarmyreachedTabriz,bothsides founditdifficulttoproceedfurther.theoffertomakepeacecamefirstfromabbas, whichwasreceivedfavorably.shahabbas sambassadorreachedconstaninoplein1612, bearingmanyunusualgiftsamongwhichwere200balesofsilk, 142 and400animals includingcamelsandhorses.accordingtothepeacetreaty,bothsidesagreedto recognizethebordersdeterminedbythefirstottoman"safavidpeace,signedbetween SultanSüleymanandShahTahmaspin Havingfeltthebitterconsequencesof thesilkembargoshahabbashadlaunchedagainsttheottomans,thesultanhad century.oneofthemaincharacteristicsofthisnewaestheticwasitsstricteliminationof figuralimagery.necipo#luexplainsthedevelopmentforsuchatastewithinthecontext oftheempire srenewedself"definitionatthistime.thisnewidentityemphasizedthe rulingelite sgrowingreligiousorthodoxy,andwasacutelyconsciousoftheempire s differencesfromitswesternandeasternneighbors.necipo#lu, KanunfortheState. For adiscussionofsafavidtextileswithfiguralimagery,seejenniferscarce, TheCourt DressofSafavidIranintheSixteenthCentury:AnInterpretationofSomeTextiles RepresentedinContemporaryIllustration, incarpetsandtextilesintheiranianworld, 1400"1700,eds.Thompsonetal.(LondonandGenoa:AshmoleanMuseum,2010),143" TheOttomanchroniclerHasanBeyzade saccountnotesthatshahabbasattackedthe OttomanstakingadvantageoftherebellionsinAnatoliawiththeintentionofrecovering thecityoftabriz.hasanbeyzade,hasanbey"z#det#r$hi,ed.nezihiaykut,3vols. (Ankara:TürkTarihKurumu,2004),III: TheOttomancourtchroniclerMustafaSafigivestheamountofthesilkas 200ass" loads (dü"vist%ır"v#r"ıharir.)mustafasafi,mustafas#f$ ninzübdetü t"tev#r$h i,ed. $brahimhakkıçuhadar,2vols.(ankara:türktarihkurumu,2003),ii: Yazdi,Tarikh"iAbbasi,427;MustafaSafi,Zübdetü t"tev#rih,ii:

267 additionallyaskedtoreceiveayearlytributeof200balesofsilk, 144 ascompensationfor alltheterritoriesfromwhichtheottomanshadwithdrawn.eventhoughthisconditionis repeatedbyarangeofsources,itislackingfromtheoriginaltextofthetreaty.clearly, ShahAbbasrefusedtosendsuchatribute,andthatwasonereasonwhythefront reopenedafterthreeyears. 145 Meanwhile,AbbaswasincommunicationwiththeBritish discussingaplanthatwouldinfacthurttheottomanmarket,inwhichcasepersiansilk wouldbecarriedbytheeastindiacompany.thespanishking,whoneitherwantedthe shahtoconcludeatradedealwiththebritish,norapeacetreatywiththeottomans, dispatchedanembassytoisfahan. 146 ButinthemeantimetheOttomanarmyhadcome dangerouslyclosetoardabil,andabbashadtogiveintothedemandsoftheottomans andagreedtopaythereducedamountof100balesofsilkplusgiftsanequalamountof 144 OttomanchroniclersconcurthatAbbasagreedtosending200balesofsilkeveryyear withthistreaty.mustafasafi,zübdetü ttev"rih,ii:144;peçev",t"rihi#peçev$,ii:340; TopçularKatibiAbdülkadirEfendi,Topçular#K"tibi#%Abdülk"dir#(Kadr$)#Efendi#Tarihi# (Metin#ve#Tahlil),ed.ZiyaYılmazer,2vols.(Ankara:TürkTarihKurumu,2003),II:602. Inhisreportof1612,SimonContarinimentionedthatShahAbbasagreedtosendsilk thereafterastributeinreturnforkeepingtabriz.relazioni#di#ambasciatori#veneti#al# senato,vol.14:#costantinopoli,#relazioni#inedite#( ),ed.mariapiapedani# Fabris#(Padua:Bottegad Erasmo,1996), PietrodellaValle,Viaggi#di#Pietro#della#Valle,#il#pellegrino:#con#minuto#ragguaglio# di#tutte#le#cose#notabili#osseruate#in#essi#discritti#da#lui#medesimo#in#54#lettere#familiari# mandate#in#napoli#all'erudito#mario#schipano#divisi#in#tre#parti,#cioè#la#turchia,#la# Persia,#e#l'India,3vols.(Rome,1650#63).TheOttomancourtchroniclerNaimawrote: [Eventhough]ShahAbbashadpreviouslyagreedtosendonehundredloadsofsilkand onehundredloadsofunequalledgoods,hedidnotsendanyofthesewithinthecourseof thenexttwoyears,saying WillIbesubjectedtoextortion? (ah#abbas#her#sene#yüz# yük#har$r#ve#yüz#yük#emti%ai#b$naz$r#gönderme&e#müte%addid#iken#iki#sene#mür'r#edip# göndermemekle#ve# Ben#har"ca#mı#kesilsem#gerek #demekle...)naima,t"rihi#na%im", ed.mehmetipirli,4vols.,(ankara:türktarihkurumu,2007),ii:421;peçeviwrote thataccordingtothetreatyof1612,shahabbaswassupposedtosendtheottoman sultaneveryyear200loadsofsilk,plus100loadsofothergoods.peçev",t"rihi#peçev$, II: Matthee,Politics#of#Trade,

268 unspecifiedgiftsyearlytothesultan. 147 Theembassybringingthesegifts/tributesis picturedinn"dir# s ehname,anottomanillustratedmanuscriptabouttheshortreignof thecurrentsultan,osmanii(figure4.19). 148 Inthepainting,weseetheSafavidenvoy TohtaBegonhorseback,ledbyOttomanofficialsastheyallapproachtheTopkapı Palace.Behind,weseecamelswiththepromisedsilkontheirbacks,twoelephants,a rhinocerosandacagedtiger. 149 Thetextemphasizesthewonderthatthesegiftsincitedin Istanbul,andcollectivelydescribesthemas strangepresents. 150 Suchaqualificationin1618oftheSafavidgifts/tributesconsistingofrare animalsandthepredeterminedamountofsilksignalsanothersea$changeinrelations betweenthetwoempires.whilethegiftspresentedtoottomansultansbyshahtahmasp inthesixteenthcenturywerefrequentlyadmiredas heart$cheering, beautiful, or 147 muayyen"o"mik#d$r"ipek"her"yıle"/"yanınca"heday$%yı"b&'ad"ilen"dir#,ehn$me, SüleymaniyeManuscriptLibrary,AhmedPaa280,28a;NumanKülekçi, Gan#$z"de N"dir#:Hayatı,EdebiKiili%i,Eserleri,D#v"nıve"eh$n"mesi nintenkidlimetni (PhD dissertation,atatürküniversitesi,1985), TSMK,H.1124,24b$25a.Foradiscussionofthismanuscriptanditsplacewithinthe Ottomantraditionofroyalhistorywriting,seeTülünDe%irmenci, ResmedilenSiyaset: II.OsmanDevri(1618$1622)ResimliElyazmalarındaDe%ienIktidarSembolleri (PhD dissertation,hacettepeüniversitesi,2007),esp.167$172.theentiretextofthe manuscripthasbeeneditedandtransliteratedinkülekçi, Gan#$z"deN"dir#. Giventhat IdidnothaveaccesstotheillustratedcopyofN"dir# sehnameatthetopkapıpalace Library,IconsultedoneofthecopiesofthemanuscriptattheSüleymaniyeManuscript Library:AhmedPaa KatipÇelebi schroniclerecordedtheseas: onehundredbalesofsilkandfour elephantsandonerhinocerosandsomeothergifts (yüz"yük"ipek"ve"dört"fil"ve"bir" gergedan"ve"bazı"hed$y$)zeynepaycibin, KatipÇelebi,Fezleke,TahlilveMetin, (Ph.D.dissertation,MimarSinanÜniversitesi,2007), Gar$yib"hed$yası"var"cümleden"/"Getürdi"nice"pil"ile"gergedanKülekçi, Gan#$z"de N"dir#, 352.Itisnoteworthythatinthetext,N"dir#usesthewordshed$y$andtu'af (gifts),ratherthanpi"ke"(tribute)heretorefertoshahabbas sgifts/tributestothe sultan.thewayinwhichtheauthordescribestheenvoy sreception,thatis,howhewas hosted,feasted,andgivenpreciousrobesofhonorisverysimilartopreviousexamples discussedabove.accordingly,n"dir#bringstotheforetheenvoy samazementwithall theseottomanfavorsandhisgartitudefortheminreturn." 252

269 pleasant, ShahAbbas sgiftseliciteddifferentreactions.aswehaveseen,abbas s growingmilitarypowerandhispompouspronouncementofhistwelvershi"iidentity broughtaboutare#negotiationofottoman#safaviddisagreementsandhostilitiesat military,politicalandreligiouslevels.asthenewcenturyopened,thetwoempire s powersalsocametobetestedagainsteachotherwithinagloballylinkedeconomy.asa result,theobjectsthattravelledbetweentheottomanandsafavidcourtscametobe definedasmuchbyinternationalcommerceasthepersonalambitionsoftheirgivers. Theturnoftheseventeenthcenturywitnessedadramaticchangeinthenatureand agencyofobjectsexchangedbetweentheottomansandsafavidcourts.abbas sgiftsof keysin1599brokecompletelyfromtheestablishedtraditionintheirnatureandeven offendedthesultanonsomanylevelsthatthesultangavethemback,refusingto recognizethemasobjectsofgenerosity.pierrebourdieuhasunderscoredthedynamics ofcalculationinvolvedingift#giving:thatthetimepassinginbetweengivingandtaking iswhatallowsbothsidestodisregardanycalculationinvolvedintheexchange,associate thegesturewithgenerosityanddefinetheobjectasagift. 151 FollowingBourdieu s conceptionthateconomiccalculationgovernsinrealitybothgiftandcommodity exchange,anthropologistshavestressedtheproblemsinvolvedinmakingsharp distinctionsbetweengiftsandcommodities. 152 Whileourcasestudyspeaksalsotothe fluiditybetweengiftsandcommodities,italsopointsouttheimportanceofthespecific contextinwhichobjectsmayquicklymovefrombeinggiftstocommoditiesandback.in thecaseofsafavidsilk,thismovementdependedasmuchonthepersonalaspirationsof 151 PierreBourdieu, SelectionsfromTheLogicofPractice, inthelogicofthegift: TowardanEthicofGenerosity,ed.AlanD.Schrift(NewYorkandLondon:Routledge, 1997),204# Appadurai,"PoliticsofValue;"IgorKopytoff, TheCulturalBiographyofThings. 253

270 ShahAbbasinhisstruggleswiththeOttomansasitdidonhisquestandabilityto participateinaninternationallyconnectedtradenetwork.by1618,themannerinwhich theottomanstookpartinthisnetworkwasexpressedintheirpowertoreceivesilkas gifts. 254

271 APPENDIX ListofgiftspresentedtotheOttomansultanMehmedIIIfromShahAbbasinJanuary 1597byhisambassadorZulfaqarKhanfromtheArchiviodiStatodiVenezia,Senato, Copieottocenteschideidispacci,RegistroXI,257"9.ThisisareportfromtheVenetian ambassadorsvenierandcapellotothesenate,andsigned 14Genaro1596[1597] (m.v.),marcovenier&girolamocapello,baili. Itisfromaregisterthatwascopied fromthedamagedoriginalcollectionofdispatchestothesenate(dispacci).itseems verylikelythattherearetyposhereandtheillegiblepartsintheoriginalaremarkedhere withellipses. p.257 NotadelpresentefattoalGran Signordall AmbasciatordelRe dipersia Unlibrod Alcoranscrittescittodima" nodiartimondibrun. UnaltroscrittodimandiIsnat. UnlibrochesichiamaMurechagi p.258 UnlibrochesichiamaNusetusafàche vuoldireparadisodiallegrezza Unaltrosimile. UnlibronominatoGralistan[Gulistan],chevuoldire Rosario.L autorediquestolibroèstatosesade[sadi] predicatore. UnaltrolibrochesichiamaDivanafis[Divan"iHafiz] chevuoldirelibrodirime. UnlibrochesichiamaSeilvemegranon chevuoldireinamoramento. UnaltrolibrochesichiamaDevanesai chevuoldirecronichedeimperatori. VelutitessutiaoroconoperavestiN9 BrocaditessuticonoperaorovesteN18 Rizzosoprarizzod oro(..)vesten9goldbrocade Bezuarpietrecontravenenilegatein oroetmuschion5(veleno"poison,legare"chain,tie,musk) Mumiamiticali27chevuoldireun pesoveludididiversicolorischiettivesten18 Damasco( )VesteN18 Damascoaopera(... )Veste9 mezzorasovesten27}fattenellacittà 255

272 tabinovesten18}digrè. Unpadiglionedacampodivellutorica" matod oro,etrasoconlecordedisetaetconle vered orocongioie. Unbaldacchindivelutoricamatod oro aoperaconcordedisetaetmazzed argento TappedigrandifattiinChiermaniN2 dibrazza14dilunghezza p.259 TapedifattiinCorassan[Khurasan]N2dibrazza10 l uno TapedifattiinNesahetitessuticonoro grandin2 TapedidivellutitessuticonoroN2 TapedotessutoconoroN1 ChiezzefattiaoperainChiermanN3 PelizzedelcolordelcieloN9 ArchifattiinCoressonN27 Frezze[freccie]mazzi9a30permazzo Cavallicorsiericonlestoffeetcoperte didamasco(.)n9 Ahacchi?inGen( )N9 Carcassidafrezze( )N9 256

273 Figures Figure0.1 Jadecup,TopkapıPalaceMuseum,Hazine,no

274 Figure0.2 Beltandarmband,TopkapıPalaceMuseum,H.1842&H

275 Figure1.1 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,374a 259

276 Figure1.2 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,550a. 260

277 Figure1.3 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,600a 261

278 Figure1.4 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,603a 262

279 Figure1.5 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1339,244b 263

280 Figure1.6 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a 264

281 Figure1.7 Ottomanceremonialrobeofaprince,late16 th c TopkapıPalaceMuseum 265

282 Figure1.8 Velvetrobe,SafavidPersia,1620"30 ClevelandMuseumofArt 266

283 Figure1.9 Qur anfragment,9 th "10 th century Privatecollection 267

284 Figure1.10 PagefromtheTahmaspShahnama Rustam sbattlewiththegreatwhitediv(demon) ClevelandMuseumofArt 268

285 Figure1.11 PagefromtheTahmaspShahnama ZalSightedbyaCaravan SacklerGallery,Washington,D.C. 269

286 Figure1.12 TahmaspShahnama Dedicatoryrossette 270

287 Figure1.13 PagefromtheTahmaspShahnama ShipofFaith MetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork 271

288 Figure1.14 ProphetMuhammadandtheShipofFaith FromaShahnamamanuscript,BritishLibrary,Add

289 Figure1.15 TheMartyrdomofHusain FromanOttomanbookofMaqtali"Ali"Rasul,late16 th century,baghdad" MetropolitanMuseumofArt 273

290 Figure1.16 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1344,276b"277a 274

291 Figure1.17 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,A.3595,68a 275

292 Figure2.1 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,189b 276

293 Figure2.2 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,260a 277

294 Figure2.3 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H1517,332a 278

295 Figure2.4 ViewoftheentrancetotheChamberofPetitions,TopkapıPalaceMuseum 279

296 Figure2.5 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,346a 280

297 Figure2.6 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,503a. 281

298 Figure2.7 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,519a 282

299 Figure2.8 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,498b. 283

300 Figure2.9 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,600a 284

301 Figure2.10 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1517,603a. 285

302 Figure2.11 ChesterBeattyLibrary,T.413,14b 286

303 Figure2.12 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a 287

304 Figure2.13 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1339,244b 288

305 Figure2.14 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,25a 289

306 Figure2.15 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,38b"39a 290

307 Figure2.16 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,41b"42a. 291

308 Figure2.17 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,43b 292

309 Figure2.18 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,54a 293

310 Figure2.19 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,122a 294

311 Figure2.20 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,141b 295

312 Figure2.21 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,A.3595,68a 296

313 Figure2.22 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,61b"62a 297

314 Figure2.23 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,24b"25a 298

315 Figure2.24 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,33b"34a 299

316 Figure2.25 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1609,68b"69a 300

317 Figure2.26 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,28b"29a 301

318 Figure2.27 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,36b"37a 302

319 Figure2.28 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,75b"76a 303

320 Figure3.1 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,108b"109a 304

321 Figure3.2 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,R.1296,46a 305

322 Figure3.3 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,R.1296,48b 306

323 Figure3.4 ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,128a 307

324 Figure3.5 MetropolitanMuseumofArt,

325 Figure3.6 SeyyidLokman,BookofKingsoftheHouseofOsman(ehnme"i#$l"i#%Osman) BritishLibrary,Add7931,130b"131a 309

326 Figure3.7 GateofFelicity,TopkapıPalaceMuseum,Istanbul 310

327 Figure3.8 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,R.1296,52b"53a. 311

328 Figure3.9 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,A.3595,53b"54a 312

329 Figure3.10 IstanbulUniversityLibrary,F.1404,41b"42a 313

330 Figure3.11 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,36b"37a 314

331 Figure3.12 ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,125a 315

332 Figure4.1 MapShowingtheBordersoftheOttomanandSafavidEmpires,16 th Century 316

333 Figure4.2 Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld) Isfahan,1598" 317

334 Figure4.3 Masjidi"Shah(CongregationalMosque), Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld) Isfahan,1598" 318

335 Figure4.4 AliQapu, Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld) Isfahan,1598" 319

336 Figure4.5 Privatemosqueforroyaluse(Masjidi"Shaykh"LutfAllah), Maydani"Naqshi"Jahan(TheSquareoftheImageoftheWorld) Isfahan,1598" 320

337 Figure4.6 SüleymaniyeMosqueComplex,Istanbul,

338 Figure4.7 Double"spreadfromacopyoftheTarihi"Fethi"E#ri"(HistoryoftheConquestofE#ri) Arts"of"the"Islamic"World"Including"Fine"Carpets"and"Textiles"London"7"October"2009" Sotheby s,lot58,fols.30"31 322

339 Figure4.8 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,B.200,142b"143a 323

340 Figure4.9 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1609,68b"69a 324

341 Figure4.10 ImamRizaComplex,Mashhad 325

342 Figure4.11 PortraitofAnthonyShirley E.DenisonRoss,SirAnthonySherleyandHisPersianAdventure,IncludingSome ContemporaryNarrativesRelatingThereto,

343 Figure4.12 DogeMarinoGrimaniReceivingtheAmbassadorsofShahAbbas,GabrieleCaliari,1603 SaladelleQuattroPorte,PalazzoDucale,Venice 327

344 Figure4.13 SafavidCarpet ProcuratoriadiSanMarco,Venice 328

345 Figure4.14 Motherandchild Safavidcutvoidedsilkvelvetfragmentonasatinground,firstquarter17 th century MuseoCorrerinVenice(MuseoCivicoCorrer,inv.no.Cl.XXII,n

346 Figure4.15 SirRobertSherley, PortraitbyanUnknownArtist,Before1628 BerkeleyCastle,Gloucestershire 330

347 Figure4.16 ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,125a 331

348 Figure4.17 Detail,ViennaÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,CodexVindobonensis8626,125a 332

349 Figure4.18 TopkapıPalaceMuseumLibrary,H.1124,24b"25a 333