TRANSFORMATION IN ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DURING ERA OF SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT

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1 International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 9, Issue 13, December 2018, pp , Article ID: IJCIET_09_13_083 Available online at ISSN Print: and ISSN Online: IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed TRANSFORMATION IN ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DURING ERA OF SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT Roziah Mat Sidek Associate Professor, Centre for Middle East and Nusantara, Faculty of Islamic Studies, National University of Malaysia Senior Fellow, Institute Islam Hadhari, National University of Malaysia Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman Assistant Religious Officer, Religious Office of Dungun District, Terengganu ABSTRACT The development of Ottoman science and technology throughout six centuries since its founding had a very interesting journey. The reason is that the Ottoman state succeeded in adapting the element of science and technology of both the Islamic society and the non-muslim society whether within its dominion or otherwise. The dynamic Ottoman socio-political system was formed due to Ottoman patronage of the enemies of Islam and Christian society as well as Jewish refugees under Ottoman authority. The factor of common border between the Ottoman state and the West as well as their active relationship also contributed to the advancement of Ottoman science and technology. The Ottoman scientific tradition in the beginning was formed under the scientific influence of the past Islamic society and also the contribution of Western societies such as of Bosnia and Albania, which embraced Islam after their territories were opened. The contributions of the Christian society who lived in Anatolia and Balkan, as well as of the Jewish scientists of Andalus who sought refuge in the Ottoman state cannot be forgotten. In the 16 th Century CE, especially during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent, Ottoman scientific development, which was inspired by the Islamic scientific heritage, achieved exceptional success in developing Islamic science and proliferated works in various branches of science and technology, including mathematics, medicine, geography and engineering. Hence, this article elaborates on the transformations which occurred during the era of Suleyman the Magnificent by focusing on transformations in engineering and technology. The methodology adopted comprises of historical study and content analysis. This methodology was selected because historical study involves study of a past occurrence while content analysis study focuses on past studies for the purpose of explaining the planned objective. Results of analysis done finds that various transformations took place in the field of engineering, including construction of domes, illumination, acoustic technical system, complex construction and town planning (civil editor@iaeme.com

2 Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman engineering), discoveries, inventions and innovations in clock-making, water lifting devices or machine and steam turbine (mechanical engineering). Key words: Suleyman the magnificent; Engineering; Technology Cite this Article: Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman, Transformation in Engineering and Technology During Era of Suleyman the Magnificent, International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) 9(13), 2018, pp INTRODUCTION The concept of transformation was submitted by scholars to explain how change occurs in something. In order to elaborate on the meaning of transformation, we need to examine the root or basic words which form the term, transformation. The term transformation is constructed from two basic words, trans and form. Trans means to go across, from one side to the other, or go beyond, and the word form means shape (Onions & Little 1956: 2140). The verb form of transformation is to transform which means to change the appearance, shape or form, nature or function or to shift or transfer. According to Kamus Dewan (2007: 1712), transformation means change in form (nature, appearance or condition). In other words, it is a process of transition from one dimension to another, from an existing scenario that has hovered in a space of thought to another, better or more perfect space. Cambridge Advanced Learner s Dictionary & Thesaurus ( defines transformation as a complete change in the appearance or character of something or someone, especially so that, that thing or person is improved. While the English Oxford Living Dictionaries ( defines transformation as a marked change in form, nature, or appearance. In order to obtain a wider picture of transformation, we examine some scholars views. Daszko & Sheinberg (2005: 247) explained that transformation or change is a rule of life and is the most important component for achieving desired change. The meaning and significance of the words transformation, migration, transition or the like, is the same, which is, to make a change from a state or situation to a better one. Transformation has a very wide meaning. In the context of change in science and technology, it refers to change in science and technology development. This means it consists the meaning of change which usually causes a clear shift in form or pattern. It occurs in a manner that is directed and in stages, not radical but fixed according to plan, and within its own time-frame. In the context of this article, discussion on transformation is analysed and examined from the aspect of discoveries, inventions and innovations achieved by the Ottoman scholars in the era of Suleyman the Magnificent ( CE). In fact, transformations which occurred in his era involved various branches of science and technology, such as mathematics, medicine, geography and engineering. However, this article focuses only on transformation in engineering and technology. 2. RESEARCH ISSUES This article begins from the statement by Ihsanoglu (1992: 21) in Ottoman Science in the Classical Period and Early Contacts with European Science and Technology that: Mehmed the Conqueror s personal interest and the institutions he established were instrumental in the development of the Ottoman science which already had great legacy from editor@iaeme.com

3 Transformation in Engineering and Technology During Era of Suleyman the Magnificent the past. As a result, in the sixteenth century, a very active period in the history of Islamic science was realized by original contributions in specific areas. Ayduz (2006: 2) in The Role of Translation in the Eighteenth Century: Transfer of Science and Techology to the Ottoman State also recorded his statement which reinforces Ihsanoglu s view: Commentaries on and explanations of the earlier works have an important place during this period in the Ottoman world. However, after Mehmed II's (d. 1481) accession to the throne in 1451, scientific activities gained increasing vitality, reaching a zenith during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent ( ). An observatory was established in Istanbul and a number of important works were produced after almost ten years of research during this scientific vitality, which lasted until the mid-seventeenth century. Both statements show that the Ottoman State in the 16th Century CE achieved exceptional success in developing Islamic science and was able to produce numerous works in various branches of science. Bicer s statement (2012: 6) in Sciences and Change of Perception in the Late Ottoman Intellectuals that Scientific literature developed significantly in the period of Sultan Suleiman I, is also in line with the above two statements. Hence it may be summarized that there were significant changes in science during the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent. This article elaborates on the transformations which occurred in science with focus of discussion only on engineering and technology. 3. DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY BEFORE THE RULE OF SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT Ottoman development of science and technology still held onto the legacy of past Islamic states such as the Timurlane kingdom and developed it further with new strength and dynamics. It was developed along with socio-economic, cultural, political and military progress. The clearest example was the construction of the Ulug Beg Observatory in Samarkand in the year 1429CE which was improved during the rule of Murad III, leading to the establishment of a new one, namely, the Istanbul Observatory. Ottoman science and technology began to develop rapidly after the opening of Istanbul City by Mehmed II. He carried out much development and was concerned with education which became the pulse of Ottoman science and technology development. Ottoman science and technology achieved its glory or golden age under the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent, after the Ottoman State established her reputation for excellence in science and technology. Ottoman rulers, before Suleyman the Magnificent, had played an important role in successfully contributing to science and technology development by leaving a legacy of numerous writings, constructing many mosques and madrasah (schools) as well as establishing institutions directly involved in developing science and technology. The field of technology and engineering encompasses many other branches of science such as mathematics, chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology and all forms of engineering. Development in engineering, especially civil engineering, witnessed various constructions and modifications carried out in that era. For example, Ottoman building and modification of mosques was done on the basic principle of the past Islamic civilization, that is, a main structure in the form of a square. However, the Ottomans had modified this basis of building structure by covering the square with a big main dome. Then, smaller second and third domes were added to the main dome. Minarets were also constructed in the form of cylindrical, tall towers with angles or round and there was a balcony at the highest part of the minaret for the muezzin to call to prayer (Freely 2011: 32) editor@iaeme.com

4 Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman An example of building structure is the Fatih Complex which was the first complex established in Istanbul by Mehmed II in the year 1463CE. Atil (2001: 614) stated that this Complex encompassed various other buildings related to religious affairs. The main centre of activity there was the Fatih Mosque. The royal cemetery was also located in the Fatih Complex, a characteristic practice which was followed by later rulers after Mehmed II. The architecture of the Complex also symbolized efforts to create a distinctive Ottoman architectural design. The complex was molded on the design of the Hagia Sophia, that is, a structure consisting of a main dome surrounded by some semi-domes. Among the famous architects who designed it were Maḥmūd Aga, Dāwud Aga, Aḥmad Pāshā, Ibrāhīm Pāshā and, the most prominent among them, Sīnan. 4. TRANSFORMATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING THE ERA OF SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT Transformations in science and technoloy of the Islamic civilization identified in various fields especially astronomy, medicine, mathematics, geography, chemistry and engineering. Various sophisticated discoveries were made by scholars of that time. Each prominent figure such as al-khwārizmī, al-būzjānī, al-karajī, c Umar al-khayyām and Naṣīr al-dīn al-tūsī played his respective role in producing something new in the Islamic world. As a result, Ottoman science and technology developed greatly, especially after the opening of Constantinople city. The 16th Century CE witnessed the zenith of great development in science and technology in the era of Suleyman the Magnificent. Prominent figures such as Nasūh al-matrākī, Eliya Mizraḥi, al-anṭākī, Mūsā Hāmūn, Pīrī Reis, Sinān and Taqī al-dīn had made a transformataion in the form of theories, formulae and written works as well as invented new devices or machines, especially in the fields of mathematics, medicine, geography and engineering. Ben-Zaken (2002: 781) in Political Economy and Scientific Activity in the Ottoman Empire stated that centralization of power in the Ottoman empire in the 16th Century CE caused rapid development in scientific activities. The era of centralized power in the 16th Century CE was especially attributed to Suleyman the Magnificent because according to Agoston & Masters (2009: xxx): Traditional historiography maintains that after the conquest of Konstantinopel in 1453, the Ottoman sultans embarked upon a centralizing project, which resulted in the establishment of the classical absolutist Ottoman state, a patrimonial world empire, with its peculiar pre-bendal land tenure system and centralized administration. Under Süleyman I the Ottoman central administration in Istanbul is said to have reached its perfection, increasing its control over the provinces and frontiers. Consequently frontier societies and institutions became similar to those in the core territories of the empire. Almost everything that one may read in general historical works on the empire s central and provincial administration, and on its army, economy, society, and culture, is limited to this one-hundredyear period. 5. TRANSFORMATION OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY There were eight transformations in the field of engineering and technology during the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent. First, transformation relating to construction of domes; Second, transformation relating to illumination in the mosque; Third, transformation in terms of acoustic system; Fouth, transformation regarding soot control; Fifth, transformation concerning use of ostrich eggs and feathers to repel insects; Sixth, transformation in terms of building Suleymāniye Complex; Seventh, modifications of water lifting machinery; And editor@iaeme.com

5 Transformation in Engineering and Technology During Era of Suleyman the Magnificent eighth, transformation relating to mechanical astronomical clock. Further discussion will focus on each transformation in this field Transformation relating to Construction of Domes A dome is not a foreign structure for a mosque, not only in the Ottoman Empire, but also in the Islamic provinces before the Ottoman era. However, in the Ottoman Empire, especially during the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent, the construction of the dome went through a transformation. The individual responsible for this transformation was Sinān. Even though the dome structure was not the first constructed after the Hagia Sophia, nevertheless according to Saoud (2007: 8); Sinān carried the dome into new dimension in terms of size, height and perfection, although Turkey experienced domed architecture long time before Sinān, dating back to the 5th century CE when Hagia Sofia was built. Sinān actualized this transformation in constructing the dome of Suleymāniye Mosque. He built the main dome supported by four pillars so as not to interfere with the inner area of the mosque. The inner area is 61 metres long and 70 metres wide, while its middle part is roofed by a big dome measuring 26.2 meters in diameter. Its height/vertex is 49.5 meters from the floor level. The middle section was built along the main axis to the east and west, and each part has five small domes placed above the galleries. The use of a very big dome as a roof, according to Nangkula Utaberta & Mohamad Tajuddin Mohamad Rasdi (2013: 68), renders the prayer hall to be rather spacious. This indirectly enabled Sinān to provide special corners for visitors to do prayer retreat (iktikaf), read and learn al-quran. In mosque typology, the main prayer hall is covered by a semicircular big dome surrounded by half domes which function to strengthen the structure system from its wide span. This type of typology has a sahn or surrounding porch or roofed space surrounded by an open internal courtyard usually located at the back of the mosque building or surrounding it. A sahn in this type of mosque typology is usually covered by half domes. Farid Mat Zain & Ezad Azraai Jamsari (2000: 42-43) summarized that Sinān s expertise in doing the transformation to widen the space of mosques he created was proven by techniques such as exploiting the size and height of the domes used to achieve the objective mentioned Transformation related to Illumination in a Mosque A spacious prayer place needs daylight illumination to light up the space as well as good ventilation for comfort. Proper illumination and ventilation are considered as requirements for a building or space used by the public. In this matter, Sinān manipulated mosque interior design to produce better illumination. Round arches built to support the dome are reinforced with corbel (a side structure to hold the wieght of a heavy structure above it). According to Saoud (2004: 9) the use of a corbel by Sinān in the Suleymāniye Mosque was one of the transformations done to avoid a dark inner space, as has happened to Hagia Sophia. Yahya (2014: 8) in analyzing the degree of illumination in mosques designed by Sinān, stated that each mosque building created by him has a different degree of illumination. The reason is that Sinān managed to exploit the mosque building structures to get different degrees of illuminations. The interesting thing about the illumination by Sinān is that the degree of illumination in the mosque is evenly spread out except in the direction of qiblah. Sinān intentionally lighted up the part of the mosque which showed the direction of qiblah because, according to Nash (1998: 140), the silence and illumination felt while in the spacious main prayer hall of Suleymāniye Mosque arouse a feeling of khusuk (wholeheartedness) and tawadhu (humility) while worshipping Allah SWT editor@iaeme.com

6 Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman Sinān also transfered the burden of the main dome s weight from the building wall, as the Hagia Sophia was designed, to half dome-shaped arches and columns in the Suleymāniye Mosque (Necipoglu 1985: 100). Therefore, Sinān was able to make small windows around the dome to enable light to enter the mosque. He also added more windows in the walls of the Suleymāniye Mosque to allow more light to illuminate the inner space. The stained glass windows were intentionally used to become one of the sources of light which illuminated the inner part of the mosque building. Sinan s natural light system of the mosque dome gives a comfortable ambience to the congregation through the multi-coloured glass windows Transformation of Acoustic System Usually, the mosque s functions and activities involve use of the human voice such as chanting the adhan (call to prayer), leading the solah (prayer) and giving khutbah (sermon) or lectures. Therefore, a good acoustic system becomes a necessity for each activity in order to avoid the congregation from losing focus on the imam during prayer and to increase their concentration while worshipping. The transformation done to the acoustic system may be seen in that developed by Sinān in the building of Suleymāniye Mosque. He made use of the dome as an loudspeaker. The big dome of Suleymāniye Mosque at a height of 48 meter, and more than 46 meter at its vertex with a circumference of 26 meter, according to Topaktas (2003: 144), functions as a sound resonator. While the 27 small domes function to absorb the high sound reflections, bouncing back the sounds into the mosque space, the reflections occur simultaneously in a balanced manner and with no reverberation. In order to improve the sound reflections, Sinān placed the mahfīl (place where the bilal chants the adhan) near to the mihrab. In this way, the congregation can hear what the imam delivers without a loudspeaker. According to Kayili (2005: 13), construction of this system was completed more than 300 years before the loudspeaker was invented. The technique of this mosque acoustic system developed by Sinān was later known as Helmholtz resonance technology. Al-Hassani (2009: 3) summarized that the acoustic system and reverberation found in mosques created by Sinan proved that its planning was done prior to construction of the mosque itself. It seems that Sinan managed to actualize the acoustic system as a result of his detailed estimation of his construction design. The acoustic system used by Sinān at the time was very advanced and required extensive knowledge and technology Transformation related to Soot Control In the 16th Century CE, oil lamps and candles were the main sources of light because electrical power had not been discovered yet. There were usually more than two mosque lamps in the main prayer hall. The many circle lamps in this area indirectly caused the area to be brighter than other parts of the mosque. However, all the lighted lamps naturally formed soot from the burning of air and oil mixture and the smoke would cause black stains on the walls or roof and eventually would form crust. Sinān made a transformation to control soot formation by building a room above the door entrance which contained a channel/funnel to filter and collect soot in Suleymāniye Mosque (Braganca 2007: 1114). This collected soot would then be recycled as raw material to make ink for calligraphy. According to al-hassani (2009: 3), the advantage of this ink is that it repelled insect attacks from damaging books Transformation relating to use of Ostrich Eggs to Repel Insects Another transformation in architecture in Suleyman the Magnificent s era relates to the use of ostrich eggs to repel insects. Sinān placed ostrich eggs in the middle of the lamps which illuminated the dome, such as done in Suleymāniye Mosque and Blue Mosque. According to Saoud (2007: 5) and al-hassani (2009: 3), ostrich eggs may be used to repel insects from editor@iaeme.com

7 Transformation in Engineering and Technology During Era of Suleyman the Magnificent swarming the candles and oil lamps. They may also be used to repel spiders from the mosque (Green 2006: 48). With that, the interior of the mosque looked tidy and clean from spiderwebs which would have spoilt the view Transformasi relating to Construction of Suleymāniye Complex The Suleymāniye Complex was inspired by Suleyman the Magnificent and built in Istanbul by architect Sinān in the year 1550CE. It was a medical treatment centre which had sophisticated equipment for that era, a pharmaceutical factory, special ward for mental patients, a spacious ward and comfortable ventilation system. In the eastern part of the Complex, there were shops which contributed their profits to Suleymāniye Complex, such as bakery and restaurants. In addition, the Complex also had a madrasah tahfiz, royal cemetery, source of water channels, a resthouse and public bath. According to Ayduz (2010: 31), transformation was created by Sinān by constructing the first Ottoman state medical school as a component of the Suleymāniye Complex. It was a pioneer school which specialised in teaching medical science and training doctors. Suleymāniye Medical Madrasah was opened in Istanbul during the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent Transformation relating to Water Lifting Devices or Machines Water is a precious resource for life to all communities or societies. Due to this, the level of water provision may determine the prosperity of a community or society. Many mechanical devices and machines were invented by Muslim scholars to meet this purpose. This reflected the excellence of the past Muslim societies in mechanical engineering and technology. Al- Hassan & Hill (1986: 37-42) in Islamic Technology: An illustrated History reported that one of the devices was shādūf which had two main cores made from wood, stone or other material. Shādūf was much used by farmers in Egypt and Syria. This machine used with a water channel/aqueduct, replacing the original Shādūf that used a pole. It functioned using semi-embedded wheels in the river rotating to the flowing river. It was used in an open area directly connected to the water scoop because the inlet or mouth was extended toward the channel/aqueduct in order to provide water on a prolonged basis. According to Kamaruzaman et al. (2010: 63), the water lifting machine functioned when the scoop entered the water and lifted it pouring it into the channel/aqueduct which released it into the irrigation system. Another device for carrying water was Sāqiyah. Generally, it consisted of two wheels with teeth, as a gear, which were connected vertically and upright or perpendicularly. One wheel moved vertically while the other horizontally and was usually moved by animal power. But however, al-jazarī transformed the Sāqiyah by adding a gear system which connected vertically by placing a chain to spin the gear. When the gear reacted, the chain of barrels or pots, usually made of clay, would touch the water surface and scoop the water continuously pouring it into a container or irrigation system (al-jazarī 1979: ). Sāqiyah were mainly found in Egypt, Syria and a major part of the countries in coastal North Africa. Another device, Nā ūrah was much used in areas which had strong currents of water flow. Generally, Nā ūrah had a big wooden or metal wheel. Around it was a round wooden frame placed upright using a axle This wheel was moved by the energy of the water flow. The pots or containers placed around the wheel dipped into the water, were lifted up and the water was poured into a big tank that was connected with a water channel or irrigation system (Hill 1993: 96-97). The water lifting machines were transformed by al-jazarī when he illustrated five machines in the 13th Century CE. According to al-hassani & al-lawati (2014: 1-3), two of which were the result of modification on the Shadūf in his work, Kitāb al-jāmi baina al- c Ilm wa al- c Amal al-nāfi fī Sinā c at al-ḥiyal. Taqī al-dīn later made modifications to al-jazarī s editor@iaeme.com

8 Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman invention by making a much better water lifting machine than the existing one then and explained the method of its use in his work al-ṭuruq al-sanīya fī al- c Ālāt al-rūhāniya about the year 1550CE. Taqī al-dīn invented a water pump by using a wheel drive. An amazing thing about this machine was the capability of the engineer to create a piston cylinder which could pump water upwards. It was used by Taqī al-dīn in his machine to produce a push force to pump water upwards. Taqī al-dīn detailed the function of his water pump in his work entitled al-ṭuruq al- Sanīya fī al- c Ālāt al-rūhāniya. The main mechanism of this machine was a wheel dipper which was fitted above the river flow at the end of a horizontal channel restrained by a held by a crutch to a buffer pole. Its channel had six ridges installed at equal distance along the channel. At the front part was a hand-lever with point of fulcrum in the middle and the other end was fixed to a vertical piston. Above the end part was a weight, while under the end was a piston which entered one of the six cylinders inside a big block of wood. The block was placed in the water and at the bottom of each cylinder was a valve. Filler pipes were directed to go out of the cylinder base and then combined on top of the machine to form a single system. When the wheels rotated, the ridges will move downward by the movement of the hand-lever. And when the lever was lifted, the water will enter the cylinders through the oneway valve. When the lever was released, the piston is led downwards by the weight and water will come out through the pipe. Sezgin (2006: 102) stated that water power generated by Taqī al-dīn s automatic pump had the capacity to bring up about 11m of water. According to Hassaan (2014: 80) in Innovation of Mechanical Machinery in Medieval Centuries Part IV: Mechanisms, Gear Trains and Cranes, Taqī al-dīn s water pump invention had a significant history mainly because it contained some characteristics and new ideas. Among them was that it was the first water pump using six cylinder blocks. The sixsided shaft with six teeth is the basis of the camshaft much in use now and it was a new idea then. The use of a heavy weight to drive the piston downwards and pump water was a new idea. Western engineer, Moreland used this same principle only one hundred years later, in about the year 1675CE. Taqī al-dīn also proved that one cylinder was sufficient to carry water, but to produce water flow continuously from a pump requires not less than three cylinders. Hill (1996: 779) stated that Taqī al-dīn s work, al-ṭuruq al-sanīya fī al- c Ālāt al-rūhāniya preceded the famous work on mechanics written by Agostino Ramellia in the year 1588CE. Further, according to Hill, technology development in the West, especially in mechanics, at the end of the 16th CenturyCE, was heavily influenced by Muslim scholars such al-jazarī and Taqī al- Dīn. Remarkably, this machine was invented two centuries before the Industrial Revolution in Europe Transformation related to Mechanical Astronomical Clock Time measurement is essential to the Muslim community, particularly to tell the time of the five daily obligatory prayers. Thus, Muslim scholars invented various tools to measure time such as the sundial and water clock. The water clock or better known as the elephant clock invented by al-jazarī proved the seriousness of Muslim scholars to develop the field of mechanics. According to Lewis (2002: 117), the water clock was still in use in the Ottoman Empire in the 16th Century CE, based on letters sent by Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, ambassador of Habsburg kingdom to his king, Charles V. Ihsanoglu (1992: 30) stated that the mechanical clock created in early 14th CenturyCE in Europe did not get the appropriate attention in the Ottoman Empire because the time measurement in Europe did not tally with the Ottoman measurement system. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire was more comfortable using classical clocks such as the hourglass, water editor@iaeme.com

9 Transformation in Engineering and Technology During Era of Suleyman the Magnificent clock and sundial which were more accurate in determining the daily solah (prayer) times for the Muslim community. The water clock was invented by the famous Muslim scholar, Fakhr al-dīn Riḍwān ibn Muḥammad al-sa c ātī dan Abū al- c Izz Ismā c īl ibn al-razzāz al-jazarī (Hikmat 1977: 288).The water clock invented by al-sa c ātī was very simple. It used water and sun power to operate. Its shortcoming was its lack of accuracy in time measurement and frequent damage. It differed from the water clock invented by al-jazarī. According to Hill (1993: 126), al-jazari s water clock was very good because it could be modified to be more accurate and systematic and could be added an additional tool such as a flow regulator which functioned automatically to determine time intervals. In the Ottoman context, Suleyman the Magnificent was very interested in mechanics, particularly mechanical clocks (Johnson 2011: 233). This was proven when the emissary of the Habsburg kingdom, the foremost enemy of the Ottoman State at that time, attempted to persuade the Sultan to enter into a peace treaty, with the gift of a silver mechanical clock. Moreover, the Ottoman elite then regarded the clock as a symbol of greatness and pride. Ottoman s main ally in Europe, namely France, also presented a mechanical clock as a gift to Suleyman the Magnificent and his noblemen to ensure the continuation of the treaty between them. Suleyman the Magnificent loved to collect timepieces and mechanical tools. This was proven when he appointed Gabriel Defrens, a famous diplomat-cum-spy to buy timepieces and other mechanical tools for his personal collection. Ottoman scholars also contributed their works in the field of mechanics relating to clocks.. Taqī al-dīn for example, wrote his work entitled al-kawākib al-durrīya fī Bengamāt al- Dawrīya in the year 1599CE. In his work, Taqī al-dīn discussed five types of clock including the pocket watch, locally made clock, tower clock and two others relating to astronomy. Blake (2013: 68) reported that Taqī al-dīn in his writing of al-kawākib al-durrīya fī Bengamāt al- Dawrīya focused more on the astronomical clocks even though he also discussed the other three types abovementioned. According to al-hassani (2014: 1), this was a pioneer work which discussed mechanical astronomical clock in the Muslim world. Mechanical clocks by the West were considered as inaccurate by Taqī al-dīn because of the difference in time measurement which was later by more than 20 minutes a day (Tekeli 2008: 2080; Blake 2013: 67-68). Ensuring that time moved at a uniform rate was the main factor which influenced clock accuracy. Thus, Taqī al- Dīn invented a mechanical clock, the details of which were contained in al-kawākib al- Durrīya fī Bengamāt al-dawrīya. According to Unat (2012: 10), Taqī al-dīn illustrated a clock mechanism which moved by a weight and some series of ticking gears. Complete and detailed description and illustration showed his skill in making c;locks. The mechanical astronomical clock invented by Taqī al-dīn had a face board to show astronomical information such as the relative positions of the sun, moon, circulation/revolving of zodiac stars and main planets, position of the first day of the Gregorian calendar and also solah (prayer) times.this was a new innovation by Taqī al-dīn because the astronomical clock invented by Western scholars such as Eberhard Baldewin in the year 1561CE only showed the positions of the sun, planets and moon. Al-Hassani (2014: 3) held the opinion that Taqī al-dīn s clock invention was one of the first spring-powered mechanical astronomical clock which generally was developed at almost the same time as Peter Henlein s clock in the year 1556CE. It was considered as a transformation in clock invention as before it, clocks were less accurate. With the invention of Taqī al-dīn s clock, Muslims need not depend solely on the Muwaqqithana (a small station next to the mosque to observe prayer time) and Muwaqqit (official in charge at the Muwaqqithana) in order to determine solah (prayer) times, which was sometimes disturbed editor@iaeme.com

10 Roziah Mat Sidek and Ahmad Sobrie Haji Ab Rahman by bad weather (Horton 1977: 3). Moreover, the said clock was very simple to use by the public. Besides the spring-powered mechanical astronomical clock, Taqī al-dīn in his al-kawākib al-durrīya fī Bengamāt al-dawrīya also invented a mechanical astronomical clock with an alarm bell which could be determined by the user by placing a peg to the wheel which shows unit of time. It was created with three face boards that showed hour, minute and second. This was the transformation to the European clock which, according to Unat (2012: 9), only divided time into minutes and seconds. Each minute was said to be equivalent to five seconds (Tekeli 2008: 2080). One of the special characteristic of Taqī al-dīn s mechanical astronomical clock was its capacity and accuracy to count minutes and seconds. Calculation of minutes and seconds used the hamal distance (astronomical term for one of two coordinates toward a point in the celestial sphere.) measured by calculating the angular distance between the sun and stars and calculating the time taken to circle the two coordinates. Unat (2012: 9) stated that by Taqi al- Din s invention of the mechanical astronomical clock, he fulfilled Ptolemy s ambitions, who previously could not measure minutes in time. 6. CONCLUSIONS Development which occurred in engineering and technology during the era of Suleyman the Magnificent clearly showed that transformations occured in this field. Transformation relates to a change from one condition to a better condition and from an existing scenario hovering in the space of thought to another better or more perfect space. It is not easy to bring about a transformation. Various aspects played a role such as the ruler, adaptiveness of system and intellectual absorption from legacies of past kingdoms, establishment of scientific institutions, translation, interaction between civilizations and cultural unity, as well as educational institutions, were among matters which contributed to transformation taking place. The emergence of great scholars also helped in driving transformation in the field of engineering and technology in the era of Suleyman the Magnificent. REFERENCES [1] Agoston, G. & Masters, B Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. [2] Atıl, E Art and architecture. Dlm. Ihsanoglu, E (pnyt.). History of the Ottoman state, society & civilisation, hlm Jil. 1. Istanbul: IRCICA. [3] Ayduz, S The role of translations in the eighteenth century: Transfer of modern science and technology to the Ottoman state. Manchester: FSTC Limited. [4] Ayduz, S Süleymaniye Medical Madrasa (Dār al-tib) and its importance in the history of Ottoman Medicine. Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 8(9): [5] Ben-Zaken, Avner Political economy and scientific activity in the Ottoman Empire. Dlm. Guzel, Celal, Hasan., Oguz, Cem. & C. Karatay, Osman. (pnyt.) The Turks, hlm Ankara: Yeni Turkiye Publication. [6] Bicer, R Sciences and Change of Perception in the Late Ottoman Intellectuals. 13th ISSEI International Conference, University of Cypru, hlm Nicosia: University of Cyprus. [7] Blake, S. P Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [8] Braganca, L Portugal SB07: Sustainable Construction, Materials and Practices: Challenge of the Industry for the New Millenium. Amsterdam: IOS Press editor@iaeme.com

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