CHAPTER- V ARABIC LANGUAGE & LITERATURE DURING AL-MAMUN S PERIOD

Transcription

1 CHAPTER- V ARABIC LANGUAGE & LITERATURE DURING AL-MAMUN S PERIOD

2 State patronage under Caliph al-mamun: The reign of al-mamun sees a tremendous development in arts and science. He was a lover of literary genre; he always patronized its development. The scientific uprising in the Islamic world reached its zenith during his rule. One of the main factors that spurred this uprising was the patronage of science research that activity promoted by him. He ruled about twenty years from 813 to 833. His father Harun al-rasheed built a scientific school, which contained a library with huge collection of world manuscripts. Al-Mamun expanded this school and named as Baytul Hikma. This school turned as the major institution of scientific learning during golden age of Islam. The translators, scientists, scribes, authors, men of letters and other writers met every day for translation, reading, writing, scribing, dialogue and discussion. Many of the manuscripts and books in various subjects as well as philosophical output in different languages were translated into Arabic and stored at Baytul Hikma. Among the famous translators Yuhana bin al-batric al-tarjuman was prominent. He translated Kitab al Haywan of Aristotle into Arabic. Hussain bin Ishaq, another famous scholar of Abbasid caliphate translated Greek

3 physic works. Seeing the capability of Hussain bin Ishaq caliph al-mamun appointed him as the head of the department of translation in Baytul Hikma. The caliph awarded him the same weight in gold of the books he translated. In fact he would receive the same award for each book he translated. Al-Kindi, another renowned scholar of Abbasid period, was chosen to be charged with the translation of the works of Aristotle. The caliph believed it is better to send an emissary to each and every cities world to collect the manuscripts; so his court may translated them into Arabic. It is observed that the victory over the Byzantines by the Armenians made al-mamun s condition of peace to handover a copy of the Almagest. The caliph stated that one hundred camels were used to transport hand written books and manuscripts from Khurasan to Baghdad which he placed in his own library. It is true that the Baytul Hikma had laid the foundation of Islamic scientific development in the Western dark ages through the translation movement. With the state sponsorship and patronage, the Arabic translators, writers and scientists had explored in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and other scientific fields which produced a huge collection of books and vanished the western influence of ancient civilizations especially the Greek. The result of golden age of Islam two

4 principal centers i.e. Baghdad and Cordova flourished, and eventually led to the rise of European civilizations that still with us as a sign of cultural development. 7 Some of the western scholars remark that the translation of Baghdad frequently produced a huge development to the world of literary greatness. Al-Mamun s patronage included the government officials and civil servants as well as scientists and physicians often engaged by the leaders of the political arena. Some of the officials of al-mamun were involved in the development schemes undertaken in the rapidity of urban growing. Musa brothers i.e. Muhammad Hasan and Ahmed were engaged in these activities. In addition to their participation in government office they were among the leading practicing scientists during the reign of al-mamun. 8 Gustav, writer Greek Thought and Arabic Culture opined that the Abbasid translation movement represents an astounding achievement which independently of its significance for Greek and Arabic philology and the history of philosophy and science, can hardly be grasped and accounted for otherwise than as a social phenomenon. To elaborate: The Graeco- Arabic translation movement lasted, first of all, well over two centuries; it 7. D. Gustav, Greek Thought Arabic, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (New York Routledge, 1999). 8. Dallal, op cit, pp

5 was no ephemeral phenomenon. Second, it was supported by the entire elite of Abbasid society: caliphs and princes, civil servants and military leaders, merchants and bankers, and scholars and scientists; it was not the pet project of any particular group in the furtherance of their restricted agenda. Third, it was subsidized by an enormous outlay of funds, both public and private; it was no eccentric whim of a Maecenas or the fashionable affection of a wealthy patron seeking to invest in a philanthropic or self-aggrandizing cause. Finally, it was eventually conducted with rigorous scholarly methodology and strict philological exactitude by Hunayn and his associates on the basis of a sustain program that spanned generations and which reflects, in the final analysis, a social attitude and the public culture of early Abbasid society; it was not the result of the haphazard and random research interests of a few eccentric individuals who, in any age or time, might indulge in arcane philological and textual pursuit that in historical terms are proven irrelevant. Gustav further writes that it was preciously in the second Abbasid country that the translation movement reached its apogee with the work of Hunayn and his associates, and generated, because of its great success, two very significant developments: first, scholarship in all fields covered by the translation literature became so widespread and so profound in Baghdad s

6 society that commissions for original works on scientific and philosophical subjects composed in Arabic became as current as commissions for translations works from the Greek; and second because of the spirit of research and analysis it inculcated, different fields of scholarly endeavor unrelated to the translations gained in sophistication, a plethora of ideas was available for ready consumption, and the areas covered by the translation literature were no longer the only ones to impress powerful minds. Intellectual debates of all sorts became the order of the day and patrons became interested not only in the transmitted knowledge from the Greek but the main problems posed by this knowledge and in the various ideological challenges to it. 9 As for the variety of patrons, in addition to the Caliph, Gustav mentioned that al-kindi commissioned translations of scientific subjects about which he also wrote independent essays. Tahir, the general of al- Mamun, was a significant patron of translation movement and commissioned numerous translations. Musa brothers spent a significant portion of their wealth on the sponsorship of translations and scientific activities. They used to pay monthly 500 dinars to Hunayn, Hubays, and Tabit ibn-qurra for full-time translation. Gustav concludes that the 9. Ibid, pp 1, 122.

7 sponsors came from all ethnic and religious groups: Arabic, Syriac, and Persian speakers, and Muslims, Christians of all sorts, Zoroastrians, and pagans. Certainly the ruling Abbasid family and its most intimate advisors appear to have supplied the initial impetus and a significant amount of the subsequent support, but had it not been for the active involvement of the other groups, it is certain that the translation movement would not have lasted as long as it did, or had the same impact. 10 Partially Gustav is right as because without Abbasid caliphate state sponsorship and patronage of its rulers, especially al-mamun, neither the translation movement nor the subsequent production of original works of Muslim scientific scholarship could have been received the widespread social backing. To argue that Muslim rulers did not play the principal role in patronizing scientific scholarship is to ignore the historical Muslim culture, where rulers are expected to set an example for the society to emulate. Were it not the deep personal interest that al-mamun showed in the growth of Muslim scientific scholarship, we might not have heard about al-kindi, the first and perhaps the greatest Arab Neo-Platonist philosopher, who served as a tutor to al-mu tasim, the son of al-mamun and heir of Abbasid Dynasty. Al-Kindi was a mathematician and a physician, a 10. Ibid, pp

8 musician and an astrologer, who wrote dozens of books on subjects as varied as optics and health and once music to cure a neighbour s paralysis. Al-Khwarizmi, another notable scholar of al-mamun s court, did his best for the patronage of arts and science. He also discovered al-mamun s personal identity. The Caliph appointed him as his official astronomer. Al- Khawarizmi s Kitab al-jabr wal-muqabala (The Book of Algebra) is considered as an outstanding achievement in the history of mathematics by the Arab mathematicians and by early and late historians. 11 Al-Mamun took the initiative of sitting up astronomical observatories in which Muslim astronomers could build on the knowledge acquired by previous astronomers. The professed purpose of al-mamun s program of astronomical observations was to verify Ptolemaic observations by comparing the results derived by calculation, based on Ptolemaic models, with actual observations conducted in Baghdad and Damascus some seven hundred years after Ptolemy. The results were compiled in al- Zij al-mumtiihan (The Verified Tables) Dallal, op cit, p Ibid, p 164

9 Al-Mamun also built hospitals, which were crowded with their physicians, surgeons and dentists. Like other Abbasid rulers, the Caliph employed Nestortian physicians from the city of Gundisha. Yaqub bin Ishaq al-kindi ( ): Yaqub bin Ishaq is popularly known as al-kindi. He is considered as one of the greatest Arab philosophers, mathematicians, physicians, and musicians. Moreover, he is considered as the first Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the Father of Arabic Philosophy for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion of Greek and Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim world. Al-Kindi was born at Kufa, a Muslim Arab polymath. He was the first prominent philosopher of the Islamic world and was a member of the former Christian Arab tribe of Al-Kinda and was the only pure blooded Arab philosopher. The Italian Renaissance scholar Geralomo Cardano ( ) considered him one of the twelve greatest minds of the middle ages. 13 Al-Kindi became a prominent figure in the Baytul Hikma and a number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of 13. Hussain, Dewan Md. Alom, Arabi Sahityar Samu Buranji (2 nd Part) Pp. 177

10 Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. The contact with the Greek philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars, had a profound effect on his intellectual development and lead him to write a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics and ethics to mathematics and philosophy and pharmacology. In the field of mathematics, al-kindi played an important role in introducing Indian numerals to the Islamic and Christian world. His own thought was largely influenced by the Neo- Platonic philosophy of Proclus, Plotinus and John Philoponus, amongst others, although he does appear to have borrowed ideas from other Hellenistic schools as well. Earlier experts had suggested that he was influenced by the Mutazilite School of theology, because of the mutual concern both he and they demonstrated for maintaining the pure unity of God. However, such agreements are now considered incidental, as further study has shown that they disagreed on a number of equally important topics During his life, al-kindi was fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of the pro-mutazilite Caliphs al-mamun and al-mu tasim, which meant he could carry out his philosophical speculations with relative ease. This

11 would change significantly towards the end of his life when al-mutawakkil supported the more orthodox Asharite School, and initiated persecution of various unorthodox schools of thought, including the philosophers. He also engaged in disputations with the Mutazilites, whom he attacked for their belief in atoms. But the real role of al-kindi in the conflict between philosophers and theologians would be to prepare the ground for debate. His works, says Deborah Black, contained all the seeds of future controversy that would be fully realized in al-ghazali s Incoherence of the Philosophers. Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khwarizmi ( ): Muhammad bin Musa is popularly known as Al-Khwarizmi. He was a Persian mathematician, astronomer and geographer, a scholar in Baytul Hikma of Baghdad. He is considered as the original inventor of algebra. Al- Khwarizmi was born in Khwarizm, Uzbekistan. He worked most of his life as a scholar in Baytul Hikma. Some of his contributions were based on

12 earlier Persian and Babylonian Astronomy, Indian numerals, and the Greek sources. 14 His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing is the first book on the systematic solution of Linear and Quadratic Equations. Consequently he is considered as Father of Algebra, a title he shares with Diophantus. Latin translations of his Arithmetic, on the Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world in the 12 th century. He revised and updated Ptolemy s Geography as well as writing several works on astronomy and astrology. His contributions not only made a great impact on mathematics, but on language as well. Most of the positional base 10 numeral systems in the world have originated from India which first developed the concept of positional numerology. The Indian numeral system is commonly referred to the West as Hindu-Arabic numeral system, since it reached Europe through the Arabs. The Chinese, the Persians, and the people of India used algebra thousands of years ago. The Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks contributed to the early development of algebra. Al-Khwarizmi a teacher in the mathematical school in Baghdad collected and improved the advances 14. Ibid, p- 176

13 in algebra of previous Hindu and Arab scholars. His works included the translation of Greek and Sanskrit scientific manuscript. Some words reflect the importance of al-khwarizmi s contributions to mathematics. 15 According to the historian al-tabari, al-khwarizmi was an adherent of the old Zoroastrian religion. Others considered him as orthodox Muslim. Nevertheless, al-khwarizmi never indicated that he was influenced by religiosity or he received any scientific theory out of Quran or Hadith. Jabir ( ): Gabir was a prominent polymath, a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. He has been referred to as the Father of Arab Chemistry by Europeans. His full name is Abu Mūsā Jābir bin Hayyān. The historian of chemistry Erick John Holmyard gives credit to Jabir for developing alchemy into an experimental science and he writes that Jabir s importance to the history of chemistry is equal to that of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier. His ethnic background is not clear; although most sources state he was an Arab, some describe him as Persian. 15. Zayyat. Ahmad Hasan, P

14 Jabir was born in Khorasan, in Iran, which was at the time ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate. He was the son of Hayyan al-azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa during the Umayyad Caliphate. Jabir is mostly known for his contributions to chemistry. He emphasized systematic experimentation, and did much free alchemy from superstition and turns it into a science. He is credited with the invention of many types of now basic chemical laboratory equipment and with the discovery and description of many now-commonplace chemical substances and processes - such as the hydrochloric and nitric acids, distillation, and crystallization that have become the foundation of today s chemistry and chemical engineering. The alchemical investigations of Jabir were theoretically grounded in an elaborate numerology related to Pythagorean and Neoplatonic systems. In his writings, Jabir pays tribute to Egyptian and Greek alchemists Hermes Trismegistus, Agathodaimon, Pythagoras, and Socrates. His books strongly influenced the medieval European alchemists and justified their search for the stone of philosopher. In spite of his leanings toward mysticism (he was considered a Sufi) and superstition, he more

15 clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation. Jabir became an alchemist at the court of Caliph Harun al-rashid, for whom he wrote the Kitab al-zuhra (The Book of Venus) on the noble art of alchemy. In the middle Ages, Jabir s treatises on chemistry were translated into Latin and became standard texts for European alchemists. Abu Zayd Hunayn bin Ishaq al-ibadi ( ): Hunayn bin Ishaq is the most famous translator of Abbasid period. He was not a mathematician but trained in medicine and made his original contributions to the subject. However, as the leading translator in Baytul Hikma at one of the most remarkable periods of mathematical revival, his influence on the mathematicians of the time is of sufficient importance to merit his inclusion in this archive. His son Ishaq ibn Hunayn, strongly influenced by his father, is famed for his Arabic translation of Euclid s Elements.

16 Hunayn s father was Ishaq, a pharmacist from Hira. The family was belonged to the Syrian Nestorian Christian Church before the advent of Islam. He was brought up as a Christian. Hunayn became skilled in languages as a young man, in particular learning Arabic at Basra and also learning Syriac. 16 For higher studies Hunayn went to Baghdad and studied medicine under the leading teacher of the time. After falling out with this teacher, Hunayn left Baghdad and moved to Alexandria and spent there some years which made him to become an expert in the Greek language. Then Hunayn returned to Baghdad and established contact with the teacher with whom he had fallen out. Then he soon became famous and participated in the scholarly meetings at which physicians and philosophers discussed difficult problems in the presence of Caliph al-wathiq. Caliph al-wathiq was succeeded by al-mutawakkil in 847 who appointed Hunayn to the post of chief physician at his court, a position he held for the rest of his life. Under both these Caliphs internal arguments and rivalry arose between the scholars in the Baytul Hikma and Hunayn was most certainly involved in this rivalry. The rivalry could certainly 16. Hasan. Dr. Syed Mahmudul Hussain, Islamer Itihas, p- 338

17 become serious and at one point Hunayn had his library confiscated and he was imprisoned. 17 Hunayn is important for the many excellent translations of Greek texts which he made into Arabic. In particular he translated Plato and Aristotle. These translations were spread widely through Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt. Hajjaj bin Yusuf: Hajjaj bin Yusuf is one of the greatest personalities the Arab countries have ever produced. He was a controversial Arab administrator, politician and minister of defense of the Umayyad Caliphate. 18 He has also been described as draconian, although modern apologists and revisionists have sought to suggest that he has been negatively under the influence of later Abbasid historians and biographers who were opposed to the fiercely pro-umayyad al-hajjaj. Hajjaj bin Yusuf played a central role in the assortment of military commanders. He instilled fear in the mercenary soldiers under his 17. Mahmudunnasir Syed, Islam: Its Concept & History, Pp Hasan. Dr. Syed Mahmudul Hussain, Islamer Itihas, p

18 command and led to the successful expansion of the Islamic empire gaining much bounty and loot from the conquered lands. He ensured all important records were translated into Arabic, and for the first time he convinced caliph Abdul-Malik to adopt a special currency for the Muslim world. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 and were decisively defeated. His Early life: Al-Hajjaj first came to notice in the early years of the reign of Abdul Malik when he set out to Damascus to serve in the police force under Rawh ibn Zinba al-judhami, vizier of the Caliph. He attracted the attention of Abdul Malik because he rapidly restored discipline among the mutinous troops with whom the Caliph was about to set out for Iraq against Mus ab bin Zubayr. 19 During the campaign against Mus ab, al-hajjaj led the rearguard and to have distinguished himself by some feats of valour. After the victory over Mus ab at Maskin on the Tigris River in 691, he set out for Kufa at the head of about 2000 Syrians against Abdullah bin Zubayr. He advanced 19. Hasan. Dr. Syed Mahmudul Hussain, Islamer Itihas, p- 233

19 unopposed as far as his native al-ha if, which he took without any fighting and used as a base. The Caliph had charged al-hajjaj first to negotiate with Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from punishment if he capitulated but, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to let the affair result in bloodshed in Mecca. Since the negotiations failed and al- Hajjaj lost patience, he sent a courier to ask Abdul Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take the city by force. 20 Al-Hajjaj received both and angered at being prevented by Zubayr from performing Hajj, al-hajjaj bombarded Mecca, going so far as to target the Ka bah and its pilgrims during the Hajj. After the siege had lasted seven months and 10,000 men had gone over to al-hajjaj, Zubayr and loyal followers, including his youngest son, were killed in the fighting around the Ka bah on October 692 AD. Al- Hajjaj s siege of Hijaz resulted in the deaths of thousands of innocent inhabitants. While subsequently governing the Hijaz, al-hajjaj was known for his severe rule. 20. Mahmudunnasir Syed, Islam: Its Concept & History, P- 161

20 In 694, Caliph Abdul Malik appointed Hajjaj as the governor of Iraq. He continued to be viewed as cruel and his reputation was not helped when he fought and crushed a Kharijite rebellion under Abdur Rahman bin Muhammad. For his considerable successes, Hajjaj made governor of some provinces in Persia, where he was again tasked with putting down rebellions. However, his severe tactics led him to make many enemies, who would come to power after his death. With the ascent of Walid bin Abdul Malik, Hajjaj s reputation grew due to the selection and deployment of numerous successful generals who expanded the empire. He was given these powers due to his high status in the Umayyad government and he exhibited a lot of control over the provinces that he governed. Among these generals was the teenaged Muhammad ibn-qasim, who was sent to Sindh in 712 and Qutayba was sent to conquer Turkestan. Musa bin Nusayr consolidated control over North Africa and sent Tariq ibn Ziyad to conquer Spain. The relationship between Hajjaj bin Yusuf and Muhammad bin Qasim has always been one of great debate. Many accounts list al-hajjaj as being his uncle or father-in-law. The Chach Nama is the oldest chronicle of the Arab conquest of Sindh. The primary reason noted in the Chach Nama

21 for the expedition by Hajjaj against king Dahir, was the raid by pirates off the coast of Debal, resulting in the capturing both gifts to the caliph from the King of Serendib as well as the female pilgrims on board who were captured. The Chach Nama reports that upon hearing of the matter, al-hajjaj wrote a letter to the Dahir and upon unsuccessful resolution being reached launched a military attack. The two sons of al-muhallab, an Azdi former governor of Khorasan and a military commander under Hajjaj, took refuge in Palestine with two Azdi retainers of the governor there, finding themselves now hounded angrily by Hajjaj against a background of intertribal rivalry and accused by him of embezzlement. The caliph Walid issued an order to his brother, Sulayman, the pro-azdi governor of Palestine, to send the sons of al-muhallab to Damascus. Sulayman sent his elder brother, Yazid and his own son in chains to the caliph, who, however, showed them mercy. Linguistic reform by Hajjaj bin Yusuf: Hajjaj bin Yusuf s period saw the Arabs on their zenith as he played an essential part in it. He is also credited for introducing the diacritic points to the Arabic script and for the first time Hajjaj convinced the caliph to

22 adopt a special currency for the Muslim world. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II. The Byzantines were led by Leontios at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 in Asia Minor and were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the only currency exchange in the Muslim world. The administrative language of Iraq officially changed from Pahlavi to Arabic during his governorship. The records of administrative diwans of Iraq transferred from Pahlavi to Arabic.

23 Baytul Hikma: the Significant Credit of Caliph Mamun: Baytul Hikma (The House of Wisdom) was the greatest repository of books in the world and had become one of the greatest hubs of intellectual activity in the middle Ages, attracting the most brilliant Arab and Persian minds. It acquired a reputation as a centre of learning and knowledge was transmitted directly from teacher to student, without any institutional surrounding. One of the important events in the history of great Islamic civilization is the scientific movement which happened during the second, third and fourth centuries, comprising the extensive translations of the scientific and scholarly works of contemporary civilizations. Through this vast movement i.e. the Translation Movement, the findings of sciences which were the results of the researches and studies of the scientists, scholars, philosophers and literati of the ancient world civilized countries over centuries like Assyrians, Chaldeans, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Indians, Iranians and Greeks were transferred to the Muslim world. The sciences were circulated among the scientific centers of Greece, Egypt and Iran and each centre played a crucial role in enriching the

24 sciences. It is worthwhile to note that Greece and Iran s contribution was more than the others. After the advent of Islam and capturing the neighbourhood countries, Muslims got access to their scientific resources. During the first century, Muslims paid more attention to spreading the lifesaving teachings of Islam, consolidating and preserving the newly established social system, expanding liberations and expulsing enemies. From the scientific aspect, they were more engaged in discussing and investigating about the Quran and Islamic laws. Among Islamic sciences, they only paid attention to jurisprudence, syntax, theology, tradition, philology and the history of liberations. At the beginning of the second century, the situation changed. The external dangers reached its minimum and Muslims social system was consolidated. Muslims inclined to sciences and crafts which were mostly at the hand of non-muslim civilizations. The study of the development of the Translation Movement which happened at House of wisdom, within Islam comprises many components, each of which must be investigated individually so as to realize the development of the translation movement and the role of house of wisdom as a whole. In the following study, the researchers attempt to investigate the significant of house of wisdom from different aspects and have proposed to outline some of these components and investigate them meticulously to achieve a

25 thorough understanding of the progress of the translation movement at this unique scientific institute. It is worth mentioning that ignorance of the importance of this institute by some western scholars is not acceptable for the researchers and have tried to provide some reasons for their wrong claim. The ideology of divinity which was based on the belief in unity of God and Resurrection Day led the human beings to a world beyond the world of nature and material. Although this ideology opened people s eye in to the world of nature and material, it taught them how to conceive the essence of the objects, creatures and the wonders of nature. It invited mankind to speculate and take the advantage of observation, sense and experience. Undoubtedly the shadow of this ideology, Muslims knowledge and insight became deeper and they become more motivated to acquire knowledge and wisdom. Moreover, Prophet Muhammad s eloquent statements and the remarks of his famous followers regarding the high position of knowledge, made the people more eager to acquire knowledge and wisdom. Prophet Muhammad himself highly encouraged Muslims to learn. Even after the battle of Badr, those captives who were not able to pay ransom, but had the ability to teach reading and writing to ten children

26 from Medina could be freed. 21 The necessity of reading and reciting the Quran and tradition, interpreting religious texts and deducing religious codes led to the appearance of some sciences which had no prior background. This new phenomenon accompanied with Muslims sensitivity regarding the preservation of the Quran and tradition made the recording of the mentioned texts inevitable. A group of people called revelation writers of the Quran and tradition appeared in the Islamic society and they protected the Holy Prophet s legacy from distortion and alteration. In this way, writing and compiling books got an elevated position in Islam s territory and the number of literate people increased day by day. 22 In the first century, the religious and spiritual energy of the newly established society was spent on establishing and developing Islam s territory. In this era more attention was paid to religious sciences, grammar, syntax and history and only a few people such as Khalid ibn Yazid were interested in the alien sciences called Ulum al-awail. 23 Muslims paid attention to the intellectual sciences, which were highly emphasized in the Quran, only after the establishment and consolidation of Islamic society and the termination of civil and outer wars. Over the two centuries most of 21. Al-Mubarrad, M.Y., 1958, al-kamil. Cairo: Dar al-fikr al- Arabi 22. Zarrin, A.H., Karnam-e-Islam. Tehran: Amir Kabir Press. 23. Ibn Abd Rabbih, A.M., Iqd al-farid. Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-ilmiyah

27 the ancient sciences were transferred to Islamic world and implemented. In this historical period, most of the scientific works of the ancient world were transferred to Baghdad from different countries and translated from Greek, Syriac, Indian and Persian languages into Arabic by the help of the professional translators. It was a crucial step towards the human advancement which was heading decline at that time. At the end of the first century, Islamic translators initiated the translation activities; however, the True Translation movement started from the middle of second century; this movement reached its heyday in the second and third centuries, referred to as the Golden Age of Islam and continued until the end of the fifth century. Muslims were engaged in translating scientific, philosophical, literary and religious works of the ancient civilizations for more than three centuries. They took the advantage of the great human legacy which its sources were in the six known languages of that time, namely Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, Indian, Latin and the most important of all, Greek. A scientific center called Baytul Hikma was established for sheltering the translators and preserving their works. Some people got mission to travel Iran, India and Constantinople to find precious and invaluable books.

28 In order to be faithful to the elevated thoughts of the other languages, while translating them into Arabic, the translators both translated and revised the previous translations or translated them once more. These various translations were the starting points for initiating scientific activities and research. The very first translations dealt with sciences related to people s daily life. Khalid ibn Yazid, the ruler of Egypt at the time of the Umayyad dynasty, was very interested in alchemy and natural sciences. 24 He wrote some valuable books in Alchemy as well. This alchemy-loving ruler asked Alexandrian scholars to translate the books related to alchemy and medicine from Greek or Coptic into Arabic. According to al-nadim, these books were the first works of translation in Islam world. 25 By the command of Umar ibn Abd al- Aziz, the Umayyad Caliph who was more interested in science in comparison with other caliphs, a dissertation in medicine was translated into Arabic. However, all these translations were incomplete and the Abbasid dynasty continued Islamic translations seriously. Caliph al-mansur, who was very interested in science, initiated a great change in the scientific history of Arabs. He established Baghdad in 24. Al-Nadim, M.I.,1997. Al-Fihrist. Beirut: Dar al-ma rifah. 25. Ibid, pp-

29 145 and turned it to an heir of Athena and Alexandria. While establishing this Abbasid institution, he sought for physicians and translators who were efficient in elevating and promoting the position of Islamic culture. His successors followed his path as well. For instance, al-mamun accomplished the innovation movement and encouraged the translation and study of classical works. After a short while, Arab Muslims became familiar with the sciences of the various nations such as Greeks, Syriacs and Iranians. They learned different science from various nations and made some changes on them. They adjusted the sciences based on their own beliefs and turned them into tools for developing Islamic thoughts. Those sciences which were heading decline regained their positions and in an Islamic framework became the centre of attention of European researchers in the sixteenth and seventh centuries (A.D.). Most of the texts written by Muslim scientists such as Avicenna, al-farabi, al-biruni, ibn Rushd and many other scholars were taught at the scientific and educational centers of Europe after the middle Ages. 26 The initiating point for the scientific development of Islamic civilization was the translation of scientific texts by Muslims, Christian, 26. Bayt al- Hikmah in The Encyclopedia of Islam by E. J. Brill, Leiden, New Edition, vol-1, London, Euzar &co, 1960, p-1141.

30 Jewish, Sabian, Arab and non-arab translators and interpreters under the shadow of Islam. The scientific centers had a special position in the Islamic civilization. The great cultural heritage over the centuries disclosed that these scientific centers achieved much superiority at the heyday of the Islamic civilization and were considered as pivotal pillars to the Islamic society. In fact, libraries and the other educational institutions namely, school, universities, learning circle, Baytul Hikma and others were founded and flourished at times of peace during Muslim rule. Such places assisted the growth and the flourishing of great schools and libraries in the Islamic civilization and became well-known centers of culture during their era. After the migration of the Prophet, he established a mosque during his first days in Madina. This mosque which was the first one in the Islamic epoch turned to the center for education, advocacy, judiciary, political and military affairs as well as cultural practices. The mosques were the first center for religious gatherings in the Islamic world. If one were to discuss the ancient school of thought and scientific centers within the Islamic states attention must be paid to the mosques. The buildings of these scientific centers and school which subsequently became centers of education were very similar to the buildings of the mosques. The mosques kept their

31 educational resources even after the invention and establishment of school. 27 As people became interested in participating in mosques classes and learning circles, libraries appeared next to the mosques to respond the desire and aspiration of knowledge seekers. These libraries which were independently established were known as Dar al-ilm, Dar al-kutub, Dar al- Hadith, Bayt al-kutub and Khizanah al-hikma. These libraries were directed as public or semi-public institutions. In fact, these libraries were regarded as centers of knowledge and culture that offered courses in teaching, research, writing and translation works. 28 The growth of the translation Movement, the work of writing and the transfer of a large number of works from those places which had been liberated by the Islamic world led to the increase in the number of books in different Muslim cities and gave rise to libraries, both large and small, in the Islamic world. According to Nasr following the establishment of a new Islamic system of government and the maturity of identity with Islamic society, educational institutions emerged which played a pivotal role in the promotion of the arts and science. The first important centre especially 27. Naseem, Hamid, Muslim philosophy and Science, New Delhi, Sarup & Sons, 2001, p Ahmad, Naseem, Science in Islam, New Delhi, Reference press, 2003, p-26.

32 concerned with philosophy and the natural and mathematical sciences was the House of Wisdom, established in Baghdad by the Caliph al-mamun around 815 A.D., to which a library and an observatory were attached. Available documents do not prove whether Baytul Hikma was a separated to build and it was attached to the court. As part of Baytul Hikma, al- Mamun built an astronomical observation of celestial movements. 29 This well-known centre was supported by the state treasury became the gathering place for many scientists and scholars and specially for qualified translators, who translated nearly the whole of Greek scientific and philosophical literature into Arabic, thus preparing the condition for the absorption of that literature by Islam. Serious and consistent efforts were made to translate the material which were necessary for the Arabic speaking students to carry out philosophical and scientific researches. The amount of translation from Greek and Syriac and also from Pahlavi and Sanskrit, during the third/nithand fourth/tenth centuries, by some figures such as Hunayan ibn Ishaq, Thabit in Qurrah and Ibn Muqaffa, all of them skill scholars and scientists, was in fact so great that even today more of the writings of the Greek Aristotelians of Aristotle and his commentators exist 29. Bayt al- Hikmah in The Encyclopedia of Islam by E. J. Brill, Leiden, New Edition, vol-1, London, Euzar &co, 1960, p-1141.

33 in Arabic than in any of the modern European Languages. In addition, there are many segments of the works of Aristotle of the Alexandrian philosopher, the Neo Pythagoreans and Neo Platonists, the Hermetic Corpus and the works of some scientists such as Galen, which exist today only in Arabic translation done at Al-Mamun academy or by translators who were aroused by the activities of Baytul Hikma. 30 Baytul Hikma became the focus of research activities in medicine as well as in astronomy and physical sciences. It was placed under the guidance Yuhanna ibn Masawayh who was a scholar in both Syriac and Arabic languages and also knew Greek. The most importamt work of the academy was performed by his pupil amd successors especially Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-ibadi. The Abbasids had both the aspiration and the resources to advance knowledge and were able to find men with necessary linguistic abilities for translation among the minorities of the Isalmic Empire. Baytul Hikma was more than a translation office. It was like the museum of Ptolemy in Alexandria than a modern university. It had an astronomical observatory, a translation office and a great library, serving research scholars and their pupils rather than large numbers of immature 30. Holt, P. M., Ann k. S. Lambton, Lernard Lewis, The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol-2B., New York, 1970, p-124.

34 students. Baytul Hikma was a huge building with many halls and rooms which included a collection of scientific works shelved under the names of the donors such as the collection of Harun al-rashid and the collection of al-mamun. Its staffs were scientists, librarians and other employees. The work was carried out by the competent translators who were assisted by excellent scribes, copyists and bookbinders. The staff came from different religious and cultural backgrounds. 31 Gustav believes that Baytul Hikma is the translation of Sasanian name for a library, it is understood from the statement of Hamzah al- Isfahani, one of the most sophisticated writes on pre-islamic Iran. Al- Isfahanai in the introduction of the collection of poetic proverbs notes that in pre-islamic Sasanian Iran, books which comprised Persian historical love, reports about wars and different pieces of information about well known pair of lovers and which were originally written in prose were changed into poetry for Sasanian Kings. These poems were written down in books and preserved in storehouses which were the houses of wisdom. The report clearly implies that these were royal libraries. In the Islamic time and at the time of the Abbasids, Harun al-rasheed was the first one 31. Naseem, Hamid Muslim philosophy and Science, New Delhi Sarup & Sons, 200, p

35 who established a library in Baghdad for Muslims. Al-Mansur during whose reign the Translation Movement initiated ordered the translation of several books into Arabic. These books were the building blocks for the libraries mentioned above. It seems there is a misunderstanding of Persian word by Gustav analysis here. He considers Khazane as a store in ancient time in Iran and applies the same word for House of Wisdom and says it is a place for keeping the valuable things. It is true that books were valuable for Iranians in ancient time, but does not mean Baytul Hikma in Arabic is equivalent for this scientific place not a barn or reservoir for goods. Ahya bin Khalid al-barmaki, grand vizir to Harun al-rashid, encouraged translators and supervised the translation process during his premiership. He also made a particular place to accommodate those translated books. During the rule of Al-Mamun, contribution to the learning began to flourish. He brought a large number of books carried by hundreds of camels. The books were given to Muslims in the wake of peace treaty between Al-Mamun and the Roman Emperor, Michael II. Furthermore, he spent about three hundred thousand dinars for those books to be translated. It is clear these entire activities sere base on a scientific place which had a capacity of hosting scholars and scientific activities Dr. Ali, Abdul, Indian Origin of Arab Islamic Scientific and Literary Heritage, New Delhi,

36 Baytul Hikma was the focus of research activities in different fields of sciences namely medicine as well as astronomy and physical sciences. It was supervised under the guidance of Yuhanna ibn Masawayh who was good at both Syriac and Arabic languages and also knew Greek. The most important work of the academy was performed by his pupils and successors, especially Hunayn ibn Ishaq al- Ibadi. The Abbasids had both the aspiration and the resources to advance knowledge and were able to find men with necessary linguistic abilities for translation among the minorities of the Islamic Empire. Baytul Hikma was more than a translation office. It had an astronomical observatory, a translation office and a great library, serving research scholars and their pupils. According to Marouf, Baytul Hikma was a large building with many halls and rooms which included a collection of scientific Works shelved under the names of the donors such as the collection of al-rashid and the collection of al-mamun. Baytul Hikma staff was scientists, librarians and other employees. The work was carried out by competent translators who were assisted by MD publication PVT LTD, 2010, see also Rafiabadi, Hamid Naseem, World, Religion and Islam: a Critical Study, New Delhi, part-1, Sarup & Sons, 2003, p-154.

37 excellent scribes, copyists and bookbinders. The staff came from different religious and cultural backgrounds. 33 Early Abbasids caliph was most rationalistic in which Mamun and his successor tried hard to promote the rationalist views. Because of this reason the house of wisdom flourished under al Mamun s successor al Mutasim and Wasiq (842) but decline under the of al Mutawakkil ( ). He wanted to stop spread to Greek philosophy which was of the main tools in Mutazila. Actual real downfall of scientific learning was started. In the starting the determination of spreading Islamic teaching and idealism was the guiding force to the progress of science and achievement and this was at its peak when the Muslim states were stable and, their economic conditions were sound. Muslims were slowly deviating themselves from the teachings of the Holy Quran and their political power was declining one after another. The Christians at this time started to realize their religious superstition and there was renaissance in Europe. During this period Sufism, a new practice introduced. Their thought of not being much involved in the materialistic world became widespread in Common people. In Muslim dominated countries also the conditions of science education 33. Said, Hakim Mohd Medieval Muslim Thinker and Scientist, Delhi,Renaissance Publishing House, 1991, p-9-10.

38 were frustrating at this time of rising of European dominance: There were number of reasons for this frustration: no encouragement or incentives were there for new scientific ideas or discoveries, instructions in the Holy Quran on science education were wrongly interpreted by some ignorant or vested interests to keep people away from science studies, influence of Sufism was increasing at this time and many responsible Muslims and Ulemas started to give more attention to Sufism rather than science education, an apprehension was growing at this time that as reasoning, rationalism, deduction, experiments, proof, etc, are the basis of science, there is a chance of science students of becoming unbelievers of Allah or religious deserters. But this propaganda had no basis; rather it was contradictory to the instructions laid down in the Holy Quran. Muslim became politically week and Halaqu Khan. Grandson of Mongol Chengis Khan in the middle of the 13th century the Mongol army destroyed many cities such as Samargand and Bukhara, killing all their inhabitants, particularly the intellectuals, and burning libraries. In 1258, Halaqu Khan, burned and destroyed Baghdad, killed the Khalifa al-mutasim (by tearing him alive, tried to two horse, or by beating in seek to avoid spilling the

39 royal blood in another versions), massacred most of the in habitants and destroyed books and libraries, many by burning. 34 Bait al-hikmah became a biggest scientific centre in the medieval world because Abbasids understand that Islam always encouraged human being towards knowledge. In Quran Allah calls human Ashraf-ul- Makhluqat because He gives them mind (intellect). In Quran, many ayat emphasized on investigation, observation, use of intellect and encouraged them to study the sky and the earth to find proofs to their faith. The prophet Mohammed (pbuh) himself had besought his disciple to seek knowledge and talk us how knowledge is important. 35 So Abbasid were the economically and politically sound and strongly believe in oneness of God. That period many scholars contributed remarkable works on science. These works were translated into Latin and various other European languages. No doubt we can say that these books played an important role in European renaissance before that Europeans were very superstitions and there were conflict between their religion and science. No doubt in Abbasids period Muslim was in flourishing position in the world because of science. They were respected all over the world. But downfall of Bait al-hikmah was not 34. Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientist, edited by Syed, M.M., and M.H. khan Vol V, New Delhi, Anmol Publication PVT.LTD.2009, p Ahmad, Naseem, Science in Islam, New Delhi, Reference Press, p-70.

40 a downfall of an institution its downfall of science in Muslim community. They lost their power, their identity, their confident, and their respect. After demolishing of Baghdad most of the science work transferred in Europe and European takes a help to the development of science. These works had the greatest impact scholar of the West. We are well acquitted with the fact that if any community has scientific knowledge they acquire higher position in the world. I think we should strong believe in one God and intellectually understand Quran and also the purpose of Quran.

41 The Emergence of Theological Schools and Leaders: As the pervasive propagation of the religious schools of kalam manifested a more prevalent and ubiquitous nature, the phenomena endorsed an affinity of depending on these schools of kalam more substantially than the caliphate; the result being an affluence of several different schools of kalam, along with several differentiations in religious dogma. These fundamental differentiations in religious dogma, which derived from the same sources, introduced many different interpretations for the umma to follow, thus each individual within the umma chose to prescribe to a particular or specific group of Islamic kalam and fiqh. Hence with the establishment of different schools of kalam, kalam introduced the novel institution of ulama or local religious leaders, which were able to create and gain a sense of local autonomy regarding religious interpretation. Islamic historian Muhammad Qasim Zaman (1997) has written concerning the ulama: The early Abbasid period saw the emergence of the religious scholars, the ulama, as a visible and increasingly influential religious elite, the beginnings of schools of law, major developments in the study of