Our Catholic Legacy. Volume 2

Transcription

1 Our Catholic Legacy World History for Young Catholics Volume 2 Seton Press Front Royal, VA

2 2011 Seton Home Study School All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Seton Home Study School 1350 Progress Drive Front Royal, VA fax For more information, visit us on the Web at Contact us by at

3 Dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus

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5 Our Catholic Legacy INTRODUCTION... vii 1 Into Darkness, into Danger, into Glory: The Age of Discovery The Cleaving of Europe: The Beginnings of the Protestant Revolt The Wound Widens: The Protestant Revolt Spreads The Rise of Tudor England and the English Schism... 5 The Church Tries to Bind the Wound: The Catholic Reformation The Truest Daughter of the Church: The Rise of Spain Triumph and Tragedy: The Glory of Spain... 8 The Age of Evangelization and Colonization... 9 The Far East The Steps to the Gallows: The Days of the Catholic Martyrs in England and Ireland. 11 Bonjour World Power: The Thirty Years War and the Rise of France The Rise and Setting of the Sun King: The Age of Louis XIV Great but not Good: The Rise of Prussia and Russia By Dawn s Early Light: The American Colonies Become an Independent Nation The Darkness Called the Enlightenment A Season of Darkness and Despair: The French Revolution Endless Ambition: Napoleon Bonaparte War and Peace: The Restoration of Europe and the Revolutions of The Rise of the Machines: The Industrial Revolutions A New Friend and a Lost Daughter: England and France in the Second Half of the 19th Century. 21 Germany and Italy Become Unified Nations and Attack the Church The Decline of Three Empires: Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century. 23 The Empires Strike: Imperialism in the 19th Century The Dream and the Nightmare: Democracy and Socialism in the 19th Century India, China, and Japan: From Ancient Empires to Modern Nations The New World Grows Up: The Americas in the 19th Century The Fall of Giants: World War I A Shadow Rises in the East: the Soviet Union Darkness Covers the Land: The Years Between the Great Wars The Last Crusade: The Spanish Civil War You Can t Trust a Crocodile: World War II An Iron Curtain Falls Across Europe: The Cold War in Europe The Cold War Explodes into Flame: The Cold War in Asia and the Americas The Curtain Rises: The Fall of the Soviet Union and the End of the Cold War And Jesus Wept: The Middle East and the War on Terror... Glossary... Index... Answer Key v

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7 Chapter 1 Into Darkness, into Danger, into Glory The Age of Discovery Columbus Discovers the New World in Spain Contact with the Far East During the Middle Ages, a number of explorers and travelers ventured forth from the normal paths of trade. Since rulers did not send them out, their discoveries generally were not followed by conquest or colonization. In the eleventh century, Leif Ericson sailed from Iceland to Greenland. From there he sailed to a land he called Vinland. This was probably in Canada around what is today Nova Scotia. After 1245, the Pope sent missionaries to Asia to convert the people there. When they returned, they wrote about their travels. The most famous medieval adventurers were the Polo family of Venice. In 1255, two Polo brothers traveled overland to China. There they were welcomed at the court of Kublai Khan [koo-blah kahn]. About ten years later, they made a second trip to China. This time they took Marco, the son of one of the brothers, with them. On this trip, they stayed for twenty years. Marco became an important official in the Khan s government. When Marco returned to Venice, he wrote a glowing account of his travels in a book that was widely read. It created more interest in the East. People wanted to try to establish trade routes to the Far East and share in its riches. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Crusades had brought Western Europe into contact with other parts of the East. The crusading knights came back to Europe with a taste for such luxuries as sugar, spices, jewels, and silks, which they had seen in their travels. As this desire for new products spread in Western Europe, the trade to supply these needs also grew. The cost of these goods to European buyers was very high. Between the European buyer and the Far Eastern seller lay two middlemen: the Muslim [muhz-luhm] Turks and the Italian city-states. The Muslim Turks controlled the trade routes on the eastern end and charged very high prices for their services. Between the Muslims and Western Europe were the Italian city-states, especially Venice and Genoa. The tradesmen in these city-states made huge fortunes from their profits in the Far East trade. This wealth helped to make the Italian 1

8 Renaissance [ren-uh-sahns] possible because it was used to support struggling artists. As Western Europe grew wealthier and national governments grew stronger, the people of Europe wanted to share in the profitable trade that the Italians and the Muslims had. This desire for profit, along with a love of adventure, led to the explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. However, before sailors could venture far from the safety of the peaceful Mediterranean, equipment and ships had to be improved. Improved Equipment Starting around 1300, Western Europe began to improve its naval technology. The compass was perfected about this time. It showed more accurately the direction in which a ship was sailing. The compass was the most important instrument in navigation for a long time. In the fifteenth century, important advances in shipbuilding occurred. New ships were developed about Narrower than the earlier ones, they were one-third or one-fourth as wide as they were long. They were easier to handle in rough seas. They also had three masts instead of one, and their sails were often triangular, although they might be square. These vessels were called caravels [kar-uh-vels]. The shipbuilders working for a prince of Portugal invented the caravel. The caravel was built to be large and strong enough to go beyond the coastal waters and battle the storms of the oceans. By this time, too, a well-attached rudder made steering easier. Portugal Leads the Way The Portuguese were the first to succeed in the search for a new sea route to the Far East. Confined to the southwest corner of Europe, Portugal turned to the open seas. In a short time she went from a weak farming nation to a great business and naval power. The prince of Portugal whose shipbuilders invented the caravel was more responsible than any other man in his time for progress in exploration. He was Henry the Navigator ( ), fourth son of the king of Portugal. About 1415, Henry became interested in exploring the western coast of Africa. His exploration had three goals. First, he hoped to obtain wealth for his country. Second, he wanted to convert the natives. Third, he hoped to defeat the Muslims by going southward and around them. Henry hoped to reach Asia by finding a water route around Africa. He built a school for sea captains at Sagres [sa-grish] in southwestern Portugal. There he gathered mapmakers, shipbuilders, and navigators. Directed by Prince Henry, the Portuguese boldly sailed southward along the west coast of Africa. Each of Henry s captains went farther south than the one before. Finally, Bartolomew Diaz [deeahs] reached the southern tip of Africa in He named it the Cape of Good Hope. Nine years later, Vasco da Gama, with a fleet of four ships, rounded the Cape. He sailed northeastward until in 1498, he reached the western coast of India. When he returned to Lisbon he sold his cargo of spices and precious gems for sixty times the cost of the expedition. The voyage of Vasco da Gama proved that Europeans could by-pass the Muslim Turks and trade directly with the Far East at huge profits. It was the beginning of world commerce. It fired the imaginations and ambitions of every major European nation. Two years later the Portuguese opened up another trade route. In 1500, Pedro Cabral [peydroh kuh-brawl] left Portugal for India. In the south Atlantic, a storm blew his ships westward until they landed on the coast of what is now Brazil. Cabral claimed the land for Portugal and then continued on to India. Portugal followed up on Cabral s discovery by colonizing Brazil. Christopher Columbus Discovers a New World Vasco da Gama had proven that it was possible to reach India by sailing east. It remained for a brave, deeply religious Genoese [jen-oh-eez] named Christopher Columbus to lead a successful expedition across the Atlantic. Born in the great seaport city of Genoa about 1451, Columbus became a seaman early in life. He lived in Portugal for a time. From there, he sailed to Iceland and also to the coast of Africa, learning the skills of navigation. During all this time, Columbus was forming his great idea: that Asia could be reached by sailing west. Columbus was convinced that if he sailed west from the Canary Islands, he would reach Japan, after traveling 2,400 miles. (The actual distance is 10,600 miles.) Columbus greatly miscalculated the eastward extent of Asia. Finding a Patron Columbus first sought help for his voyage from the king of Portugal about However, the 2

9 Portuguese had a good understanding of the size of the earth and turned him down. He next sought the help of Queen Isabella of Castile [kahs-tee-yah] as well as the French and English kings. Isabella personally liked Columbus very much, but she was in the middle of a war to free Spain from the Muslims. She felt she could not give him the support he needed. However, at the beginning of 1492, Granada [griney-duh], the last Muslim foothold in Spain, fell. The way was clear to aid Columbus. On August 3, 1492, Columbus left the Spanish port of Palos with three small ships, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria, and a crew of about ninety officers and men. They stopped at the Canary Islands for water and food, then they headed out into the unknown. In October they sighted land. Columbus landed on one of the Bahamas Islands, now known as Watlings Island, and claimed it, in the name of Our Lord Jesus Christ, for Spain. Columbus named the island San Salvador, meaning Holy Savior. The great discoverer returned to Spain with ten Indians, some gold ornaments, and a great story. Money and supplies were quickly provided for a second voyage in Other Caribbean islands were discovered. The city of Santo Domingo was founded on Hispaniola [his-puhn-yoh-luh] in On his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus reached the shore of South America. There he became convinced that he had reached a new continent, though he still believed that it was in the East Indies. Columbus, who had been governor of the new Spanish possessions, was replaced because of complaints. He was sent back in 1500 to Spain in chains, where he was quickly released. He was not, however, restored as governor. After a fourth voyage in 1502, he returned to Spain in Sadly, he died a disappointed man two years later. He had made the greatest discovery in history, but he never knew it. Columbus was convinced that he had arrived at islands off the shores of India. The name West Indies for these islands is still used as a result of his error. The natives of these new lands were therefore called Indians. Before long, Spain and Portugal came into conflict over their discoveries. Spain asked the Pope to recognize its ownership of the lands discovered by Columbus. In 1493, the Pope drew an imaginary line on the map and determined that Spain was the ruler of all non-christian lands discovered more than 100 leagues, or 366 miles, west of the Azores, an island chain located in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. The Pope decided that Portugal was the ruler of the lands east of the imaginary line. However, in 1494, Spain and Portugal signed a treaty fixing the imaginary dividing line 370 leagues (about 1,207 miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands, which are off the western coast of Africa. Fortunately for Portugal, the new imagi- Map of the Voyages of Christopher Columbus to the New World 3

10 nary line, or meridian, which went north to south, extended all the way to the yet undiscovered land of Brazil on the Portuguese side. It would be six years after the signing of the treaty that Pedro Cabral would discover Brazil and claim it for Portugal. As a result of the treaty, all lands west of the meridian would belong to Spain. With the exception of Brazil belonging to Portugal, all land west of the meridian, including North and South America, would belong to Spain. Of course, this left little for other nations to explore. The English, French, and Dutch ignored the treaty and sent out explorers anyway. America After Columbus first three voyages, a number of captains made explorations of their own. One of these was Amerigo Vespucci. In 1499, he visited the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil. Two years later, in the service of Portugal, he was sent to explore the Brazilian coast. Vespucci was convinced that he was in a new world. He also wrote about his voyages. As a result, a German mapmaker named the new land America, the Latin form of Amerigo, after Amerigo Vespucci [ves-poo-chee]. A German map-maker named the land America. Spain Builds an Empire and Spreads the Faith Not long after Columbus made his discovery, Spain began to make settlements on the islands of the Caribbean. These were developed extensively. Santo Domingo in Hispaniola became the capital of Spanish America. However, Spain was not content with these islands alone. The more adventurous Spanish soldiers, or conquistadors [kon-kee-stahdorz], sought new fields to conquer. Their names form a roll call of brave explorers and conquerors of the New World: Balboa, Ponce de Leon, Cortez, and Pizarro. Balboa Among the Spaniards living in the West Indies in 1510 was a daring young nobleman named Vasco de Balboa. He lived lavishly and as a result found himself heavily in debt. To escape his debts, he snuck aboard a ship bound for Panama. When he arrived there, he heard the natives tell of a great body of water south of the mountains. They also described a country so rich that its people ate and drank from golden cups and plates. These stories aroused Balboa s curiosity. In 1513 with a group of friends, he set out to find the great body of water beyond the mountains. For twenty days they tramped and cut their way through the jungles of Panama. At last, from the top of a mountain Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean. He called it the South Sea because it lay to his south. He set up a cross on the shore and took possession of the sea in the name of Spain. Balboa did not find the gold of which the natives had spoken. However, he proved that the new land was a separate continent. The extent of the Pacific was not known, however, until Ferdinand Magellan s expedition. Magellan Sails around the World In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan [muh-jeluhn] began what has been described as the greatest single human achievement on the sea. On September 20, he left Spain with a fleet of five ships in search of a new route to the East. He sailed across the Atlantic to South America. By early December, they arrived in South America. The ships began to sail down the eastern coast of South America entering each river that they found. Finally, the little fleet passed through the narrow, stormy strait at the southern tip of the continent, now called the Strait of Magellan. When Magellan entered the ocean to the west of South America, the sea was so calm and peaceful that he named it the Pacific. Sailing westward, he crossed the waters discovered by Balboa. Finally, on March 16, 1521, he reached the Philippine Islands. By the time Magellan reached these islands, one ship had deserted and one had been wrecked. While in the Philippines, Magellan was killed in battle by some natives. 4

11 Despite the death of its leader, the expedition continued. Of the three ships left to the Spanish, one had to be burned before leaving the Philippines. Another ship was lost in a storm at sea. So it was that on September 6, 1522, only one ship returned to Spain. Its journey around the world had lasted three years. The dream of Columbus had been realized. The voyage proved that the world was round and men could actually sail around it. However, it also showed that the Pacific Ocean was too large to cross for commercial travel to the Indies. Vasco da Gama s old route around the Cape of Good Hope remained the regular one to the Far East. However, Spain gained and colonized the Philippines. Ponce de Leon In 1513, Ponce de Leon [pons duh leeuhn], the governor of Puerto Rico, discovered Florida. He had heard the Indians tell of a fountain in a land north of Cuba that would restore youth to even the oldest person. With high hopes, he set out in search of this magic fountain. He also desired to explore the new land and claim it for Spain. On Easter Sunday, 1513, he reached land. He called the land Florida, in honor of the Spanish name for Easter, Pascua Florida, the Feast of Flowers. Of course, Ponce de Leon s search for the fountain was in vain. Instead of the fountain of youth, he found savage and unfriendly natives. They prevented him from establishing a settlement. However, he was able to explore much of the area around Florida. His voyage gave Spain a foothold in North America. In 1565, this claim to territory in Florida was strengthened when the Spanish explorer Menendez founded St. Augustine [aw-guh-steen] in Florida. It is the oldest town in the United States. Hernan Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico In 1519, a fight was taking place for the hearts and souls of the people of Europe. In Mexico, another battle was being waged for the hearts and souls of the people of Mexico. This fight was between a man of light and life, and the darkest heart of evil. One of the peoples of Mexico was the Aztecs. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice on a scale never seen in human history. Every year, tens of thousands of men and women were offered to the Aztec gods. On Good Friday, April 22, 1519, about five hundred Spanish soldiers landed in Mexico. They named their beach Veracruz [ver-uh-krooz], the True Cross. They were led by a man named Hernan Cortes. Like his king, Charles V, the blood of centuries of Spanish warriors flowed in his veins. He was a man of incredible courage. He would need that courage, because he was about to march his men into the mouth of Hell and stare the devil in the face. This man of life was about to confront a monstrous evil. Upon landing, Cortes and his men were met by emissaries from the Aztec ruler, Montezuma II [mon-tuh-zoo-muh]. Cortes explained to them 5

12 Cortes attacks into the heart of darkness. that he had come across the sea to explore and trade. For several months, Cortes and his men remained in Vera Cruz learning all they could about the Aztec empire. In August, Cortes did something remarkably bold. Thousands of miles from help, he destroyed all but one of his ships. He told his men that they must conquer or die. The only help they could rely upon was that from Our Lord. If anyone wanted to leave they could take the one remaining ship and depart. No one left. Cortes destroyed his last ship. The size of the Aztec empire was about fifteen million people. Secular historians point out that the Spanish had superiority in weaponry because they had a few crude guns. They also had thirteen horses, and the Aztecs had never seen horses. Nevertheless, the Spanish were outnumbered about ten thousand to one! Cortes and his men began their march from the sea to the interior of Mexico. At the first town they came to, there was a temple where they saw the first signs of human sacrifice. Over the next few months, Cortes and his men made their way to the Aztec capital, which was located in the middle of a lake (present day Mexico City). In early November they arrived at the capital. Montezuma came out to greet Cortes. The Spaniards were housed in a building across the street from the great pyramid where thousands of people were sacrificed. For six days, the Spaniards heard the terrible sounds of the sacrifices. On November 13, after attending Mass, Cortes climbed to the top of the pyramid with Montezuma. He saw the terrible place and told the Aztec ruler that he was not worshiping gods, but devils. He asked the Aztec ruler if he could put a cross and a picture of Our Lady on the pyramid. Two days later, Cortes took Montezuma hostage. The situation had become so bad that Cortes was certain that without the hostage, he and his men would be killed. He hoped that with the emperor as his prisoner an attack was less likely. Sadly, this was not the case. In June 1520, a mob of Aztecs attacked. Cortes brought out Montezuma to try and quiet the mob. However, someone in the mob threw a stone and killed the emperor. Cortes and his men had to flee the city. As Cortes fought his way out of the city on June 30, he lost half of his men. Any Spaniard captured alive was sacrificed to the Aztec gods. Cortes plan was to retreat to the land of the Tlaxcala [tlahs-kah-lah] Indians, an enemy of the Aztecs. The Tlaxcala had given Cortes support before. He felt that with their help, he could return and attack the Aztec capital. In February 1521, he marched on the Aztec capital with about one thousand Spanish soldiers and twenty thousand Tlaxcalas. 6

13 From May to August, the fighting was terrible since the Aztecs refused to surrender or to negotiate. Finally, on August 13, the Spanish captured Montezuma s successor. They destroyed the temple on the pyramid. The hellish empire of the Aztecs was destroyed. There was now a chance for Catholicism to come to Mexico. Catholicism would come to Mexico like it has come to no other country. In December 1531, Our Blessed Lady appeared to Juan Diego at Tepeyac hill near Mexico City. Less than a decade after her apparition, virtually all of Mexico had become Catholic. Pizarro in Peru Some historians have painted the Spanish conquistadors as ruthless plunderers and killers. Hernan Cortes was not this kind of person. Sadly, other Spaniards did not live up to his noble ideals. One such man was Francisco Pizarro [pi-zahr-oh]. Pizarro was a bad man who was only interested in becoming wealthy. Prompted by the stories of a vast and wealthy kingdom to the south of Mexico, Francisco Pizarro, with about two hundred followers, decided to look for wealth there. In January 1531, Pizarro and his men landed in Ecuador. For the next year and a half, they tramped through the jungles of South America. Finally, in May 1532, he learned the location of the fabulous empire he sought. He headed to Peru. The natives of Peru were a tribe known as Incas. Compared to the other natives of the Americas, the Incas were a very civilized tribe. Unlike the Aztecs, the Inca Empire was a peaceful empire with little or no human sacrifices. Pizarro s plan of conquest was simple and brutal. Just one day after his arrival he asked to meet with the Inca emperor, Atahualpa [at-ahwahl-puh]. Pizarro promised him that no harm would come to him. In the midst of the welcoming ceremonies, he abruptly seized the Inca leader in the middle of the town square. In the panic that followed, the Spanish soldiers attacked the mostly unarmed crowd. Thousands were killed. The emperor was taken as a hostage. Seeing a chance to obtain a great deal of gold and silver, Pizarro encouraged the emperor to pay a huge ransom. He asked that a room be filled with gold. However, after the Incas had filled the room with gold, the treacherous Pizarro killed the emperor. The Spaniards soon captured the capital city, Cuzco [koos-koh]. By 1535, Spanish rule, with little Catholic charity in it, extended over all Peru. This gave to Spain her richest possession in the New World. The arrival of all the gold and silver in Spain encouraged many Spaniards to come and settle in South America. Pizarro finally finds the fabulous empire he sought. 7

14 The Spanish Brought European Civilization to the New World At the end of the sixteenth century, Spain had an empire many times larger than Spain itself. This empire had been won through great hardship and courageous fighting. Some of the Spanish were motivated by gold and glory. However, the Spanish were deeply religious and the salvation of souls was also a strong motive in coming to the New World. Missionaries were always important in the Spanish colonies. They strongly opposed any cruelty or slavery inflicted on the natives. They worked to stop the abuse of the native people and to convert them to the Faith. The Spanish brought European civilization to the New World. They built cities, established schools and universities, and printing presses. They taught the natives to farm and raise cattle. Most importantly, they brought the Faith to the natives. Chapter Review Fill in the blanks to complete the sentences below. 1. In the eleventh century, discovered a land he called Vinland. 2. In the fifteenth century, new ships called were developed that were easier to handle in rough seas. 3. The prince of Portugal more responsible than any other man in his time for progress in exploration was. 4. was the first to reach the southern tip of Africa in sailed around Africa, and in 1498, reached the western coast of India. 6. Altogether Columbus made voyages to the New World. 7. America was named after. 8. was the first one to sail around the world. 9. conquered Mexico. 10. conquered Peru. 8

15 Chapter 2 The Cleaving of Europe The Beginnings of the Protestant Revolt John Eck debates Martin Luther. Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries The Catholic Faith in Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was strong. Many new religious societies were formed. The people tried to live holy lives. They donated to charity and fasted and prayed. One of the chief forms of entertainment as well as teaching was the mystery play, in which episodes from the Bible, especially the life of Christ, were enacted. The preaching of the Dominicans and the Franciscans also edified the people. Much of the time the preaching took place in the public marketplace. As is the case today, the quality of the preachers and the sermons varied from place to place. One of the finer preachers of the time was St. Bernadine of Siena. Nevertheless, the Church, although founded by Christ, has humans for its members, and humans are not perfect. During the Renaissance, some men in the Papacy and the higher clergy had become worldly. Some of the Popes had lost sight of their mission as priests and instead focused on the arts and Italian politics. By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the need for reform was clear. At various times in her history, the Church has needed to be reformed. Heresies have plagued the Church from her beginning. Clergy and laity alike have found it difficult to remain united in belief and to lead holy lives. At certain times, as in the tenth and eleventh centuries, reform movements corrected and improved conditions without harming the unity of the Church. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, new heresies also arose. Two heretics had an especially strong influence. One in the fourteenth century was named John Wycliffe ( ). He was an English priest teaching at Oxford. He denied that the Pope was the Vicar of Christ on earth and claimed that the Church should be subordinate to the state. Wycliffe said Christians should be guided 9

16 only by the Bible. Although the Pope condemned him, he had a large number of followers in England called Lollards [lol-erds]. One of Wycliffe s foreign admirers was John Hus. Hus was the leader of a heretical movement in Bohemia. In 1415, he was called to the Council of Constance to justify his teachings. There he was condemned for heresy and, on the emperor s orders, burned at the stake. The civil and religious wars that followed in Bohemia aroused bitter religious hatred that lasted for centuries. Thus, by the beginning of the sixteenth century, most good Catholics realized that the Church needed some reforms. However, during the Western Schism when so many were confused as to who the true Pope was, and during the Hundred Years War, reform was impossible to organize. During the second half of the fifteenth century, papal conflicts with the Italian nobility also hampered true reform. Causes of the Protestant Revolt The movement that began early in the sixteenth century, and is wrongly called the Reformation, should be called the Protestant Revolt. It was a revolt against the Catholic Church and against Catholic society. It had many causes. Some of the rulers of Europe had bad feelings for the Pope. The scandals of the bishops, cardinals, and nobility angered the common people. Renaissance paganism in art and literature had corrupted public morals. Finally, there was a growing spirit of disobedience against all authority. Causes of the Protestant Revolt: Greed During the Middle Ages, the Church was the great force of charity. She paid for institutions for the care of the poor, the sick, and orphans. She also paid for education. She paid for the upkeep of all the churches throughout Europe. Over the centuries she became the owner of large amounts of property. This aroused the greed of princes, who coveted the estates of religious orders, bishops, and especially the Pope. We can understand how they welcomed a new religion that declared they had a right to seize all this property for themselves. Causes of the Protestant Revolt: Renaissance Paganism During the Renaissance, scholars turned to the ancient classics for inspiration. They eagerly set about to revive the art and literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In their love of the classics, they searched through monastic and cathedral libraries for old manuscripts of classical writers. These manuscripts had been studied and copied by monks in the Middle Ages. Collecting and editing Hus at the Council of Constance 10

17 The Solution: The Catholic Church Greed among princes, discontent among the common people, and paganism among the Renaissance scholars were the real causes of the Protestant Revolt. Scandals, abuses, and laxity among the clergy were not the main cause. They were the excuse to condemn the Catholic Church. The Church was the one power that could curb the tyranny of the mighty and protect the poor. The Church was the one power that could Christianize the paganism of the scholars. Only the Church could cure the abuses that had crept into the ranks of the clergy. It was in this environment, so ready to welcome his message of revolt, that Martin Luther appeared. Monk copying the Scriptures manuscripts became a passion of scholars. Popes, nobles, and merchants encouraged and gave money to those who pursued this new learning. There was one difference between these scholars and the monks and learned men who had studied and copied the classics in the Middle Ages. These medieval scholars were guided by the ideal that man was made for God, so their interest was centered on living according to His laws. They took from the Greeks and Romans only what was good for this ideal. However, the scholars of the new learning admired the classic writings for their own sake. Their interest was centered on man and the human needs of this world. In its most pagan form, the new learning had no interest in the hereafter. This world became not only more interesting but more important than the next. For many, the pagan spirit of the ancients became the spirit of the Renaissance. The scholars questioned the value of the Christian virtues of self-denial and self-sacrifice. Instead, they adopted pagan morals and vices. Martin Luther Martin Luther was born in Germany on November 10, He was a good student, so after completing his early education, he entered the University of Erfurt [er-foort] in Four years later he received his degree. At this point there is nothing to show that he had any sort of religious vocation. In July 1505, he was caught in a violent storm. Lightning struck immediately in front of him. Under the influence of fear and terror, he vowed that if he lived, he would become a monk. Luther carried out his vow against the advice of his friends and father, who knew his character well. Luther felt no joy in his vow and later would write of it with deep sadness and regret. Nevertheless, he had made up his mind and could not be moved. Two weeks after the storm, Luther joined the Augustinian Order and became a monk. This step proved to be a fatal mistake, both for Luther and for Catholic Europe. A smart and determined man, Luther advanced rapidly in the order. In 1508, he was sent to teach at the University of Wittenburg. Four years later, he became a doctor of theology. However, he was constantly unhappy with his life. Although he was a priest, he hated to hear confession and never liked to say the Mass. Over the next years, his personal difficulties and unhappiness increased. At last, he sought peace of mind and assurance of salvation in a new religion. Luther reached his turning point in It was then that he wrote his Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. In it he wrote that man could not do anything good and is saved solely 11

18 by faith. God gives faith to the sinful soul, which acknowledges itself to be bad. The soul then puts its trust in God, and receives salvation as its reward. Luther had two basic teachings. First, he said that people are saved by faith alone. The good works they do are of no value. Second, he taught that human nature is totally corrupt as the result of original sin. These two doctrines created a spiritual refuge for Luther. He no longer needed to struggle with his own personal unworthiness. The Excuse for the Revolt: Indulgences A few years before Luther wrote his Commentary, the Archbishop of Mainz [mahynts] had established an indulgence. (An indulgence is a reduction of the time of punishment that a person has to spend in Purgatory.) To receive the indulgence, a person had to be in the state of grace and donate money to help rebuild St. Peter s Basilica. This was the excuse that Luther was looking for. He wrote out ninety-five statements attacking the doctrine and practice of indulgences. He declared that God did not recognize indulgences. He also said that the Church did not have a treasury of grace from which to give them. On October 31, 1517, he nailed these ideas to the door of the Wittenberg palace church. The issue of indulgences was merely an excuse for his break with the Church. The Pope Intervenes At first, Luther publicly acted like an obedient son of the Church. However, as early as May 9, 1518, Luther wrote to a former teacher that he felt that reform of the Church was impossible. He also wrote that the Church had to be thoroughly uprooted. This is not the letter of someone who wants to reform the Church, but rather the letter of someone who wants to destroy it. On May 30, 1518, Luther sent Pope Leo X ( ) a humble letter explaining his ideas on indulgences. Pope Leo summoned Luther to Rome. He refused to go but offered to justify his position. Leo X allowed Luther to appear at Augsburg [ouksboork] before a papal court headed by Cardinal Cajetan [Ca- je-tan]. Cajetan received Luther with great kindness. However, he saw the harmful nature of Luther s teaching. He asked Luther to take back his statement that salvation is through faith alone and that a person s good works have no merit. Luther refused to take back his errors. Soon Luther publicly declared his errors. In June 1519, Catholic theologian John Eck drew Luther into a public debate. During the debate with Eck, Luther rejected all authority, including the pope and the Church councils. He said the Bible was the only authority. He also said that each person could interpret the Bible for himself. This principle of private judgment doomed Protestantism to doctrinal chaos. To understand what Luther was teaching, let us take the example of a law. In every state, there is a supreme court to decide what the law means when there is a question as to its meaning. The court decides what the law intends and everyone has to abide by the decision of the court. Imagine what would happen if everyone could decide for himself what laws meant. Some people might Pope Leo X 12

19 decide that it was all right to steal, because the law against stealing was unclear to them. Just as the courts decide what laws mean, so the Pope tells Catholics what the Faith means. When the Pope teaches on matters of the Faith, he is infallible. This is better than any court because courts can make mistakes. The Holy Spirit guides the Pope so that he cannot make mistakes. Luther was teaching that everyone could be his or her own pope. Anyone could decide what the Bible meant. After Luther publicly declared his errors, the Church condemned his teachings. Out of Christian charity, the Pope gave Luther sixty days to take back his teachings. However, Luther refused. Instead, he wrote a pamphlet in which he called the Pope the Antichrist. On January 3, 1521, Pope Leo X finally excommunicated Martin Luther. The Emperor Intervenes: The Edict of Worms The Church had tried to bring Luther back into the fold. It was now time for the State to intervene. Emperor Charles V called Luther to appear before him at the Diet, which was meeting in the city of Worms [Vhorms]. The German Diet, which was the assembly of the princes, nobles, and bishops of Germany, helped the Emperor to rule and was somewhat like our Congress. When asked to take back his errors, Luther refused. He had the support of several German nobles, so he told Emperor Charles that he did not believe in the pope or in the Church councils. Charles then issued the Edict of Worms that declared Luther to be an outlaw. Luther was hidden away for ten months by the ruler of the region in which Wittenberg was located. To understand the reasons for the rapid spread of Luther s ideas, we must realize what an opportunity the revolt gave to those who desired more wealth and power. Luther taught that his supporters should take over the property of the Catholic Church and set up their own Lutheran churches. Also, Luther kept writing against the Church and the Popes. Many nobles liked it when Luther condemned the monastic life. It gave them an excuse to seize the lands and the treasures of the monasteries and convents. In 1523, another Diet met, this time at Nuremberg [nyoo r-uh m-burg]. It decreed that the Edict of Worms should not be carried out. It also said that the examination of the Lutheran issue should be left to a general council. This gave Luther s revolt ample time to develop and spread. Luther at Worms 13

20 Anabaptism and the Peasants War One of the most disastrous of all Luther s teachings was the doctrine of private judgment. It would cause the continual division of Protestant churches. Luther no sooner created this teaching, than people within the Revolt itself began to desert his camp. Thomas Munzer and Nicholas Storch organized the sect known as Anabaptism. Their name meant re-baptizers. They did not believe in infant baptism. Instead, they insisted that adults be baptized after converting to Anabaptism. They also wanted to completely remove all Catholic practices. Munzer and Storch first went to Wittenberg to conquer that Lutheran stronghold. They won over to their cause Professor Carlstadt. He soon became the leading spirit of the new movement. The Anabaptists at Wittenberg prohibited the Mass, abolished the Sacraments, and destroyed statues and paintings in the churches. Luther saw that such excesses would endanger his whole reform movement, so he decided to interfere. Under armed escort, he went to Wittenberg. He spoke against the Anabaptists so eloquently that they had to flee the city. Munzer and Carlstadt, driven from Wittenberg, preached their anti-catholic doctrines all over Germany. They stirred up the people against the clergy and the nobles. The Anabaptists were among the leaders who started the terrible uprising known as the Peasants War. Very soon, the mobs of furious peasants grew to an alarming number. All over Germany these mobs plundered monasteries, convents, churches, and castles. Finally, the armies of the princes crushed them. Munzer was caught and imprisoned. He died soon after. Thankfully, he reconciled with the Church before his death. The Peasants War caused terrible destruction. Thousands of men fell in battle. More than a thousand convents and castles were burned to the ground. Several hundred Anabaptists were executed in the next few years. The Start of State Religions After the Peasants War, Luther began to call for a religion run by the state. Two important nobles quickly agreed with this idea. They were the Elector, John of Saxony, and the Landgrave, The Cathedral of Worms 14

21 Philip of Hesse [hes-uh]. These two took control of churches previously held by bishops. Before long, the supreme control over religious matters fell into the hands of civil rulers in almost every area in central and northern Germany. In 1529, a Diet was held in the town of Speyer. This Diet banned the future establishment of non-catholic state religions where there were none. It recognized Catholicism as the official religion in those areas where it was still established. Immediately the civil rulers who were the heads of new state religions protested the actions of the Diet. It is from their objection, or protest, which the name Protestant comes. From now on all reformers would be called Protestants. Meanwhile, Charles V still believed that there could be a settlement between the two sides. Therefore, he called another Diet. This time it met at Augsburg. Luther could not appear before that assembly, because he had been banished from the country. Instead, a friend presented a summary of the doctrinal views of the Protestants. This summary has since been termed the Augsburg Confession. After six weeks of talking and reflection, the Catholic theologians, among whom was John Eck, refused to accept it. In November 1530, Charles V issued an imperial edict requiring the strict enforcement of the Edict of Worms. The authority of the Church and the Bishops was to be restored in all places. Church property that had been seized was to be returned to its rightful owners. A month later, in response, the Protestant princes formed the Schmalkaldic League. Then Charles V, threatened by the Muslims, was forced to come to terms with the Protestants. In 1532, at Nuremberg, Charles and the Protestants made a peace treaty. The treaty declared that until the next Church council, or at least until the next Diet, the Protestants would not be bothered. Forced to fight wars in France and Italy for ten years, Charles V was unable to fight the Protestants in Germany. This delay furnished Protestantism with another opportunity to expand Emperor Charles V and Protestantism During this time, the Holy Roman Emperor was Charles V. He was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. In his veins flowed the blood of the men and women who had fought 770 years to reconquer Spain from the Muslims. In 1516, at the age of sixteen, he became King of Spain. Three years later he became Emperor. Charles V realized that it was the job of the Emperor to defend the Church from the Muslim threat outside of Europe and the threat of the heretic within Europe. For almost his entire adult life, he fought the Protestants in Germany and the Muslims in the East. Almost single-handedly he would try to hold Catholic Europe together. Emperor Charles V In April 1521, Luther appeared before Charles at the Diet of Worms and explained his teachings. Charles understood the danger that Luther posed and the next day he gave his response to his German subjects. No Pope or learned theologian could have better expressed the position of the Catholic Church than did the twentyone-year-old Emperor. Charles said that it was certain that a single monk must err if he stands against the opinion of all Christendom. Otherwise Christendom itself would have erred for more than a thousand years. Charles went on to say that he was ready to give his life, his soul, and his kingdoms in defense of the Catholic Faith. 15

22 Charles was a man of his word. For the rest of his life he worked to halt the spread of the Revolt. However, other Catholic countries that should have aided him attacked him. Much of Charles reign was spent fighting King Francis I of France. The first war with France began in 1521, and lasted five years. The fourth war with Francis began in 1542, after Francis had allied himself with the Muslims against Charles! Additionally, Charles fought almost continuously with the Muslim Turks. The Muslims threatened Europe and the Mediterranean trade. The war against the Muslims was doubly hard to fight, since often the Protestants in the German Diet refused to vote Charles the funds he needed to wage the war. While they did not want to see the Muslims conquer Europe, they wanted to see Charles weakened. Finally, in 1544, Charles made peace with the Muslims and King Francis of France. He was free to focus all his attention on the Protestants of Germany. In 1545, the Council of Trent, which Charles had been asking the Pope to call, convened its first session. The Catholic Reformation had begun. (We will study more about this in the next chapter.) In 1546, the year Luther died, the Emperor declared war on the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. His troops defeated the Protestants and drove their troops from southern and western Germany. A second victory, at Mühlberg in 1547, gave Charles control of the cities of northern Germany. At this point Germany was divided into two camps: Catholic and Lutheran. Talks between the parties resulted in a decision to convoke a Diet that would settle the religious question. This Diet finally met at Augsburg in February However, by this time Charles was physically exhausted and in poor health. He had begun to give up the various crowns that he had worn for the past forty years. Thus, it fell to his brother Ferdinand to try to obtain a religious peace at Augsburg. The Religious Peace of Augsburg allowed the ruler of each German state to determine whether Catholicism or Lutheranism would be the religion of his territory. No other religion was to be tolerated. The Lutherans were allowed to keep all Church property taken before The Peace also said that no more Church property be seized. Although the Pope never accepted these decrees, the Peace of Augsburg became Abdication of Charles V 16

23 the law of the land in Germany. For a while there was peace in Germany. In 1556, Charles V was only fifty-six years old. However, he had the body of a very old man. He also suffered from painful illnesses. He turned over Spain and the Low Countries (Netherlands) to his son Philip II. His brother Ferdinand succeeded him on the imperial throne. For almost his entire life he had stood virtually alone and defended Europe from the heretic within and the infidel without. Though he was not a saint, he was a good man. Charles V withdrew to the monastery at Yuste in Spain where he spent the last two years of his life in prayer. He died a holy death in Luther s Last Years Unlike Charles V, Luther s last years were most unhappy. He began to drink and overeat. The effects of his teaching upon his followers were equally ruinous. He was very much aware that his followers justified their evil manner of living by his own teachings. They believed that if men are not saved by their good works, there is no point in doing good works at all. When Luther saw the immoral lives that his followers were leading, he became more and more unhappy. To the end, Luther raged against the pope. He constantly referred to the pope as the Antichrist and a scoundrel. Martin Luther died of a stroke at the age of sixty-three. Chapter Review Fill in the blanks to complete the sentences below. 1. John Wycliffe s English followers were called. 2. among princes, discontent among the, and among the Renaissance scholars were the real causes of the Protestant Revolt. 3. Luther s two basic teachings are that people are saved by alone. Second, he taught that human nature is totally corrupt as the result of. 4. The idea that each person can interpret the Bible for himself is called the. 5. During the time of Luther s revolt, the Holy Roman Emperor was. 6. The duty of the Holy Roman Emperor was to defend Europe from the without and the within. 7. The allowed the ruler of each German state to determine whether Catholicism or Lutheranism would be the religion of his territory. 8. Charles V turned over his kingdoms of Spain and the Netherlands to his son. 9. Charles died at the monastery of in Spain. 17

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25 Answer Key Our Catholic Legacy: Volume II Chapter 1 1. Leif Erikson 2. Caravels 3. Henry 4. Bartholomew Diaz 5. Vasco de Gama 6. Four 7. Amerigo Vespucci 8. Ferdinand Magellan 9. Hernan Cortes 10. Francisco Pizarro Chapter 2 1. Lollards 2. Greed, common people, paganism 3. Faith, original sin 4. principle of private judgment 5. Charles V 6. Infidel/heretic 7. Peace of Augsburg 8. Philip II 9. Yuste 19