Let s look at the following examples of teachers using metaphors to talk. - Metaphors in ELT. - Conceptual metaphors and metonymy.

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1 - Metaphors in ELT. - Conceptual metaphors and metonymy. In this unit we ll be integrating reading critically and writing academically under the light of metaphors. We ll see metaphors in different domains and resort to some books which highlight the crucial presence of metaphors in English and language-driven cultural representations. a. What metaphors do you know in education? For example: Teachers are orchestra conductors or To promote autonomy is to let students fly. Let s look at the following examples of teachers using metaphors to talk about their life and teaching (all excerpts taken from Bullough, R Exploring Personal Teaching Metaphors in Preservice Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education 42/1: 43-51) 1

2 What s the metaphor here? I (dis)agree with this teacher because 2

3 Did you ever do something like this as a child? Have you ever felt like this? 1. Watch the video Tailoring Metaphor (from the platform or at How does the teacher see education? Do you agree with her metaphor in her context? 2. Now, watch the video Democratic Classrooms (from the platform or at ). What metaphors does the speaker use in his talk? How can you interpret them? 1. Read the files named Metaphors in ELT 1 and 2 and answer these questions: a. Would you like to include activities on metaphors in your lessons? b. If you already have, how have you done so? 3

4 As you can see, metaphors are part of our daily and professional lives. This has been a simple introduction to more serious stuff. The book you re going to read now is a pearl. I came across this book when I was doing my Honours degree and since then I ve quoted it, paraphrased it, referred to it, etc, etc, etc hundreds of times. It s time for us to read Metaphors We Live By by Lakoff & Johnson. We re not going to read it all but you are most welcomed to on a personal basis. You are required to read chapters 1 to 13 inclusive. As you read along, highlight examples, underline definitions and take notes on any aspects that are not clear to you or margin notes that reflect your own understanding and development of the subject. The only thing I ll ask you to do is participate in the forum below and share with us what example in particular you ve found amusing/revealing/contradictory/etc. After reading Lakoff and Johnson, which example have you found interesting/amusing/revealing/contradictory/etc? Post your choice and explain! Now more reading to go The second book is called I d like you to read chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 13, and 14. You ll notice that every chapter has activities at the end. I d like you to complete the activities and check them against the answers at the back of the book whenever they re provided. 4

5 In both books above, metaphor and metonymy appear as central concepts in the study of linguistic and cognitive representations and domains. Based on some of my work in Political Discourse Analysis and former American president George W. Bush s speeches on the so-called War in Terror, I d like you to complete the readings and activities below. In Bush s speeches on the War on Terror, there are several instantiations of metonymy and conceptual metaphors. First, the most recurrent metonymy is A PLACE FOR A PERSON or the conceptual metaphor PEOPLE/GOVERNMENTS ARE PLACES. This feature gives Bush s discourse the idea that war is actually against Iraq rather than against Saddam Hussein and terrorists. Such representation is also emphasised by the conceptual metaphor A NATION AS A PERSON. Bush builds up the idea that war is against terror and Saddam Hussein, and so he hides the fact that bombs cannot be dropped on a single person but on thousands of civilians. Bush repeats the metonymy A PLACE FOR A PERSON when referring to his administration, Saddam Hussein, and other governments around the world, that is, he tends to present places rather than the people actually involved in the issue. It might be said that his intention is to present a picture that involves everyone and make everybody responsible. Besides, the sociological representation created is that Iraqis support Saddam Hussein. The following are instances of the metaphor presented: the entire world has seen for itself the state of union, and it is strong. (20 th September, 2001) We ask every nation to join us. (20 th September, 2001) But this country will define our times, not be defined by them. (20th September, 2001) America s determination to lead the world in confronting that threat. (7 th October, 2002) The threat comes from Iraq Iraq s weapons of mass destruction are controlled Iraq is unique. Iraq possesses ballistic missiles with a likely range of hundreds of miles We re concerned that Iraq is exploring ways of using these UAVS for missions targeting the United States. 5

6 Over the years, Iraq has provided safe haven to terrorists Iraq could decide on any given day to provide a biological or chemical weapon to a terrorist group or individual terrorists. To the contrary; confronting the threat posed by Iraq is crucial to winning the war on terror. The evidence indicates that Iraq is reconstituting its nuclear weapons program. The world has also tried economic sanctions and watched Iraq use billions of dollars in illegal oil revenues to fund more weapons purchases America wants the U.N. to be an effective organization that helps keep the peace. America speaks with one voice (PERSONIFICATION) The United States has no intention of determining the precise form of Iraq s new government. (26 th February, 2003) In confronting Iraq, the United States is also showing our commitment to effective international institutions. If war is forced upon us by Iraq s refusal to disarm The world has a clear interest in the spread of democratic values, because stable and free nations do not breed the ideologies of murder. (they also represent the conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE LIVING ENTITIES) The United States made military and moral commitments in Europe and Asia (6 th November, 2003) Afghanistan faces continuing economic and security (6 th November, 2003) And now the world is uniting to send a clear message to the regime in Tehran: Iran must end its support for terror. (7 th September, 2006) We can find instances in which Bush regards abstractions such as values and ideas, feelings or religion as (moving) material objects, they might be also seen as personifications. This representation might create the idea that Bush can even control entities which cannot be seen: freedom itself is under attack. (20 th September, 2001) The terrorists are traitors to their own faith, trying, in effect, to hijack Islam itself. Even grief recedes with time and grace. 6

7 Either way, this danger will be removed. (26 th February, 2003) the terror threat is removed stability cannot be purchased at the expense of liberty. (6 th November, 2003) And we have seen this kind of shameless cruelty before (11 th November, 2005) Abstractions are also seen as material objects that weigh. Such image might help create the idea that force is necessary: Our nation, this generation, will lift the dark threat of violence from our people and our future. (20 th September, 2002) unburdened by conscience (11 th November, 2005) Furthermore, abstractions, that is, states, are seen as places: the people of the Middle East leave the desert of despotism for the fertile gardens of liberty (11 th September, 2006) President Bush portrays people, enemies included, in several ways; these are surface instantiations of conceptual metaphors. Complete the gaps below with the following conceptualisations. One is needed more than once. 1. ENEMIES/GOVERNMENTS ARE ABSTRACTIONS/IDEAS. 2. ENEMIES ARE ANIMALS. 3. PEOPLE ARE POSSESSIONS. 4. THE ENEMY IS A MOVING ABSTRACTION/IDEA. 5. THE ENEMY IS A MOVING ENTITY. Terror unanswered can not only bring down buildings, it can threaten the stability of legitimate governments. (a., 20 th September, 2001). we will not allow the triumph of hatred and violence in the affairs of men. (b., 26 th February, 2003) 7

8 we are hunting down the killers one by one. (c., 26 th February, 2003) The war came to our shores (d., 11 th 2005) the evil that reached our shores (e., 11 th 2005) November, November, We ve lost some of our nation s finest men and women in this war on terror (f., 11 th November, 2005) we have waged an unprecedented campaign against terror at home and abroad (g., 7 th September, 2006) I want to speak to you today about the struggle between moderation and extremism that is unfolding across the broader Middle East. (h., 29 th September, 2006) ANSWERS 1 Bush s discourse clearly illustrates the conceptual metaphor TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT: The hour is coming when America will act, and you will make us proud. (20 th September, 2001) The time for denying, deceiving, and delaying has come to an end. (7 th October, 2002) until the day of their freedom finally arrives. (6 th November, 2003) we face a difficult road ahead (TIME IS AN OBJECT AND WE MOVE THROUGH IT, 11 th September, 2006) Events/actions, ideas, and feelings are treated in different ways: And he is moving ever closer to developing a nuclear weapon. (ACTIONS ARE PLACES, 7 th October, 2002) As progress is made toward peace (EVENTS ARE ABSTRACTIONS MOVING, 26 th February, 2003) 1 A1, B1, C2, D5, E4, F3, G1, H1. 8

9 Many Middle Eastern governments now understand that military dictatorship and theocratic rule are a straight, smooth highway to nowhere (POLITICS IS AN OBJECT AND WE MOVE THROUGH IT, 6 th November, 2003 Today I ll deliver a progress report on the steps we have taken since 9/11 to protect the American people, steps we ve taken to go on the offense against the enemy, and steps we are taking to win this war on terror. (EVENTS/DECISIONS ARE WALKING ENTITIES, 7 th September, 2006) the clouds of war will part (EVENTS ARE MOVING OBJECTS, 11 th September, 2006,) Bush regards money as food; this conceptual metaphor appears instantiated in the quote that follows: We will starve terrorists of funding, (20 th September, 2001) Bush attempts to build pathos with his audience by presenting people and himself through metonymy referring to a part for the whole. Besides, the second quote portrays him making clear that feelings are objects: Yet the human heart desires the same good things, everywhere on Earth (26 th February, 2003) My heart breaks for a mother or father, or husband or wife, or son and daughter; it just does. (20 th December, 2006) Metonymy can also be found in the quotes below: At this hour, a new generation of Americans is defending our flag and our freedom in the first war of the 21 st century. (ONE ENTITY STANDS FOR ANOTHER: the flag stands for the USA, 11 th November, 2005). Nine-Eleven also revealed the need for a coordinated approach to terrorist watchlists. (ONE ENTITY STANDS FOR ANOTHER, DATE FOR EVENT, 7 th September, 2006). 9

10 NOTE: I use metaphors here to include metaphor, personification and metonymy. THIS ASSIGNMENT CAN BE DONE IN PAIRS. BOTH SHOULD UPLOAD IT UNDER EACH NAME. 1. Watch Does Robinson use any metaphors? If he does, transcribe one and analyse it. 2. Go back to the book The Element by Robinson we read in unit 2. Find 5 examples of metaphors as seen in our books for this unit and analyse them. Copy and paste the paragraph or sentence in which each example appears. THIS ASSIGNMENT CAN BE DONE IN PAIRS. BOTH SHOULD UPLOAD IT UNDER EACH NAME. 1. Choose a newspaper article in English from 2014 (scan and paste the article in your word.doc submission) or a text in an English coursebook and analyse it in terms of the concepts covered in Lakoff & Johnson. See the examples below to help you as a guide. Your analysis may be simpler, though it all depends on the richness of your text. Your answer should be around words. 10

11 The headline illustrates the conceptual metaphor POLITICS IS WAR. In this case, the war has two opponents, two mayors in New Zealand. The linguistic evidence for this conceptual metaphor is discovered once the reader moves on to read the article. It is interesting to see, once the reader has gone through the article, how the headline acquires a new dimension, a new meaning. Once the reader realizes that there are two mayors, he or she understands that this fact activates the term roses and that fight over is activated, in turn, by the linguistic item war. 11

12 In order to construct this metaphor the journalist, Anne Benston, selectively projects those attributes prototypical of The War of the Roses, mainly number of opponents and level of the discrepancy over an issue. Through the principle of family resemblance it is asserted that as the House of York and the House of Lancaster once confronted with each other, so did these two mayors. The features of The War of the Roses can be mapped onto the target domain so as to conceptualize the abstract notion of politics in terms of war. However, when the reader comes to realize that the event in focus is a flower show, roses is given a new meaning. The reader will also take roses as a representation of the whole, then, it is an instance of metonymy, a part (roses) for the whole (the flower show). Last, this metaphor is nominal because of the use of the nouns WAR and ROSES. The first term, that is, war motivates other realizations, for example, the linguistic construction which precedes the metaphor under analysis, gloves off in, which suggests two interpretations: 1- the mayors (viewed as lords in the conceptual metaphor) take their gloves off for battle; 2- people who take care of roses wear gloves. Also, this metaphor activates the verb fight and the use of over instantiates the conceptual metaphor CONTROL IS UP. On line 23 we find the linguistic item focusing referring to the term initiative. We can consider this as an expression of IDEAS ARE OBJECTS. However, we must take into account that synonymy plays a key role here since initiative is used as an equivalent of competition (line 22). On lines 25-26, we find that expressions of interest would be met is an instance of personification, giving the term expressions human status. Humans can be met, so can expressions. Also it might be added that if the item expressions is taken as ideas we can also say that IDEAS ARE PEOPLE. On line 34 the item that (statement in previous paragraph) comes with a rider, is an instance of another conceptual metaphor. The verb comes is activated by that, a deictic expression which refers to the official declaration stated by the Rotary Club about cancelling the event, and the item rider. The metaphor here is that LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE MOVING OBJECTS because language cannot come or go, that is, it cannot move through time or space. The conceptual metaphor EVENTS ARE LOCATIONS can be illustrated by the linguistic item up (line 44) which refers to the event under controversy. On that same line we find another conceptual metaphor EVENTS ARE (MOVING) OBJECTS portrayed by the show's dumping. Here, the target domain is show while the source domain is mapped in dumping which gives the idea of something that can be dropped. Another conceptual metaphor which appears at the end of the article is a drop in attendance. Such expression activated by drop is an instance of LESS IS DOWN (as opposed to MORE IS UP) because a small number of attendants is seen as falling ( down ) motion. In the article we also find instances of metonymy, particularly INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE and PEOPLE FOR PLACES. In the first case the examples that show this metonymy can be found on these lines: on lines 31 and 43 Rotary stands for the people who make up this institution and who take decisions. On line 46 Herald, that is The New Zealand Herald, stands for the people who understand the issue and the decisions taken. In the second case, on lines 22, 25 and 30 the names of the cities, Manukau and Hamilton stand for their politicians and people involved in the issue. All these institutions and cities are also examples of personification since they cancel, understand, announce and bide. Therefore we can also say that these represent, in turn, an ontological metaphor by which they are specified as persons, then, INSTITUTIONS ARE PEOPLE. 12

13 Wave of Car Bombs Kills Dozens in Iraq By DURAID ADNAN Published: July 29, 2013 BAGHDAD A surge of violence in Iraq continued Monday when 15 car bombs killed at least 50 people and injured more than 100, according to security officials. Ten of the bombings were in Baghdad, mainly in Shiite neighborhoods. The targets included a hospital, a restaurant and markets. At least 34 people were killed and more than 100 were wounded, the authorities said. Officials in the Shiite-led government of Prime Minister Nuri Kamal al-maliki, fearing that even more devices could be detonated, tightened security in Baghdad. Long lines developed at vehicle checkpoints as the security services searched cars for explosives. Since the start of Ramadan on July 10, coordinated bombings and other attacks have intensified. That has revived fears that Iraq could return to the levels of sectarian violence seen over the last decade, after the American-led invasion in While the violence is below the levels of the peak of the insurgency in 2006 and 2007, when the country moved to the brink of civil war, bombings remain common. As many as 700 people are believed to have been killed this month. Militants among the minority Sunnis have been emboldened by the civil war in neighboring Syria, where the Sunni majority has been trying to overthrow the government of President Bashar al-assad, which is dominated by his Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiism. The Iraqi Interior Ministry issued a statement urging resistance to the attackers efforts to feed sectarian divides, plunge the country into chaos and paralyze civil life. Without going into details, it warned that the attackers were able to mount such coordinated assaults because they had political and sectarian support. In Kut, southeast of Baghdad, two car bombs exploded near a bus station, leaving 6 people dead and about 20 injured, according to a medical official. One of the wounded, Ali Numan, 33, said: We got wars from Saddam, we got tanks and rockets from the Americans, and now with Maliki we have car bombs every day. Nothing has changed in Iraq, and nothing will change. People die every day. Two car bombs detonated in Basra, in southern Iraq, killing at least 3 people near a market and wounding 14, a police official said. And in Muthanna Province, a car bomb exploded at a market in the city of Smawa, killing 6 people and injuring 19, according to a police official. There was also violence in Tikrit, north of Baghdad, where attackers blew up a house belonging to an Iraqi Army officer, killing one person and injuring two. Nine days ago, an explosion in the central Baghdad neighborhood of Karada killed 9 people and wounded 17, the police said. That was part of a surge of violence that left at least 46 people dead inside and outside the capital. Meanwhile, the commander of the Baghdad operations, Lt. Gen. Abdul Amir al-shammari, said at a news conference that the security forces had recaptured 349 of roughly 800 prisoners who escaped from the Abu Ghraib prison this month. Yasir Ghazi contributed reporting from Baghdad, and Stephen Castle from London. The article s headline which we have chosen Wave of car bombs kills dozens in Iraq contains some metaphors in itself that provides the basis for the linguistic expressions seen throughout the whole article. As the reader continues to read, he/she discovers that the wave of car bombs refers to a repetition of car bombings at different times in the same place which are made specific along the article. Moreover, this expression is personified through the word kills which is considered a 13

14 human attribute. Furthermore, the word dozens is a quantity expression which reflects the metonymy EXPRESSION FOR PEOPLE, since it refers to a large number of individuals. A container metaphor is also present in the title in the words in Iraq since the preposition in suggests an inside and outside of a place, which in this case is Iraq. In addition, a lot of container metaphors similar to the example above are evidenced throughout the whole article. For example: the phrase in Shiite neighborhoods on line 3, the statement in Baghdad (line 3), in 2003 on line 11, inside and outside the capital (line 35), and others. Moreover, some examples of personification can be appreciated in the text. On line one and two, both the verb killed and injured which are human actions (to kill, to injure) are attributed to 15 car bombs which are inanimate objects. Then, on line seven, the phrase Long lines developed indicates that long lines develop as humans develop. On line 13, the phrase the country moved to the brink of civil war bares an example of the metonymy PEOPLE ARE PLACES, since the expression the country refers to the country s people. The same expression is seen on line 19, where the country in the phrase plunge the country into chaos once again refers to the country s people. Furthermore, the phrase The Iraqi Interior Ministry issued a statement (line 18), is an example of using INSTITUTIONS FOR PEOPLE, since the Iraqi Interior Ministry refers to the representatives of this organization. On line 12, the article provides an example of the conceptual metaphor LESS IS DOWN through the statement the violence is below the levels of the peak. Here the word below suggests a down orientation while indicating that the violence is less than the levels of the peak. At the same time, the peak expresses that MORE IS UP (as opposed to LESS IS DOWN) since it refers to the most amount of violence. Another conceptual metaphor found in the text is that of IDEAS ARE OBJECTS. This is seen in the phrase We got wars from Saddam on line 24, where the idea of war is seen as an object which can be gotten or given ( we got ). On line the item Without going into details, is an instance of another conceptual metaphor. The verb going is activated by the content discussed in the previous lines, and the words into details. The metaphor here is that LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE MOVING OBJECTS because language cannot go anywhere. In other words, it cannot move through time or space. 14