Chapter -7 ANALYTICAL STUDY

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1 Chapter -7

Chapter-7 Analytical Study The analysis of the study of the excavated sites and explored sites is given below: Spatial Distribution of explored sites: The explored sites have been reported from all

2 Chapter-7 Analytical Study The analysis of the study of the excavated sites and explored sites is given below: Spatial Distribution of explored sites: The explored sites have been reported from all the six tehsils of Agra. The sitewise details of the sites in given in. The study shows that less attention is drawn for exploration of archaeological sites in Bah and Itimadpur tehsil. More attention was given to the area to the west of Agra particularly Kiraoli and Sadar (Agra). The present study has added two more sites in Bah. Fig. 7/1 : Distribution of cultures in explored sites in Agra region latest by Sept Comparative analysis of excavated sites: The excavated materials from archaeological excavations in Agra region is already studied in Chapter-4 under two heads i.e. excavations in archaeological sites or mounds and excavations in monuments. The first category are multi-cultural sites where 395

3 Table 7/1 : Distribution of cultures in excavated sites in Agra district. as the second category are single culture site of Mughal period. The excavations at Khalaua, Bateshwar, Sadhwara Khera, site near Hada Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri) and Bir Chhabili Tila has filled the gap by adding pre-mughal cultural remains in proper archaeological context.(table7/1). Cultural Study: The cultures of Agra region are briefly discussed herewith in the following paragraphs. Pre-historic Period The cultural history of Agra region starts with Mesolithic culture which is evident from discovery of microliths at Khera village near Fatehpur Sikri (IAR :79). The hillock with rock shelters in the vicinity of Fatehpur Sikri was an ideal place for the Prehistoric men of Mesolithic culture is evident from the rock paintings in shelters and finding of microliths from within the shelters as also from their vicinity. The tool assemblage of Mesolithic culture comprises of geometric as well as non- geometric microliths prepared by pressure technique. No microlith is reported from other area of the district except Fatehpur Sikri area in tehsil Kiroali, bordering Bharatpur District of Rajasthan. Though, Lower Palaeolithic tools comprising of choppers, flakes and hand 396

4 axes are reported from Goverdhan hill in Mathura district (IAR :48) and Alipur in Weir tehsil (IAR :69 ) in Bharatpur district, no Palaeolithic tool is reported from Agra region. Similarly, no palaeolithic tool is reported from neighbouring Dholpur district, but microliths are reported from half a dozen sites ( The finding of microlithic sites in Agra region in the area bordering Rajasthan is due to the geomorphology of the area, and also due to availability of raw materials for manufacturing stone tools, where as the rest part particularly on the banks on river Yamuna has not revealed pre-historic evidence, perhaps due to the lack of resources and natural settings ideal for pre-historic hunting and food gathering community. Neolithic culture Neolithic culture implies beginning of self subsistence economy which include pastoral as well as primitive agricultures. From the evidence of rock paintings we know the transition from Mesolithic hunting gathering to pastoral life began with the domestication of humpless cattle in the region. It is the beginning of Neolithic culture in the region. From exploration, no Neolithic tool is reported from Agra region. The scenario is same in neighbouring Mathura, Bharatpur district (Gupta 2010 & Bhagat 2012). But, a buff coloured sand stone celt is recovered from Period-I level of F-9, quadrant IV in a secondary context from excavation at Bir Chhabili Tila in (Sharma 2008:7). The director of the excavation reported it as a stray find because no Neolithic site is reported from Sikri area. It appears that he was not aware of the rock art evidence on Neolithic only a few km away from the excavated site. Sharma also adds that while carrying out leveling operation this antiquity could have been deposited at this site. It suggests that there were Neolithic men in the nearby area. Rock art evidence and the finding of a stone celt from excavation in secondary context prove that the Neolithic culture people were inhabited in the region. Proto-historic cultures Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture in the district is revealed from 397

5 excavations at site near Hada Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri) and Sadhwara Khera (Inayatpur). OCP was reported from Nai- ki-gupha at Patsal in 1993 (Kumar etal.1993:28). In Nai-ki- Gupha rock shelter at Patsal few tiny sherds of ochre pottery of thin fabric have been noticed during further surface study conducted at the site by me along with my research supervisor. In the absence of shapes and designs it still remains doubtful and can only be confirmed by excavations. The scenario of OCP settlements in the neighboring Mathura district is similar to Agra where OCP is reported from the two sites only (Gupta 2010). Finding of OCP from 07 sites including the well known Noh in neighbouring Bharatpur district as mentioned in the previous chapter, compels us to think why OCP cultures in Agra district is reported only from 2 or 3 sites? Is there any need for excavating some of the explored sites? The sites associated with mythology or local traditions viz. Bateswar, Runukta, Poiya, etc. and others lying on major River Yamuna which have already revealed Painted Grey Ware cultures from surface explorations may yield OCP culture settlements, if excavated. Early Iron age cultures Painted Grey Ware Cultures in Agra district are found in wider geographical area. Till date PGW has been reported at more than 17 sites from surface exploration carried out from time to time since independence. Black- and-red ware has been explored at 07 sites only. The number of Painted Grey Ware and Black- and -Red Ware sites reported in neighboring Bharatpur district are quite more in comparison to Agra. More than 70 PGW sites and 23 Black and Red Ware sites have been reported from Bharatpur (Bhagat 2012). The Black and Red Ware is reported in a separate horizon between OCP and PGW from excavations at Noh in Bharatpur district (IAR :28-29; :34-35; :38; :26; :31-32; :41-42) and Atranjikhera in the then Etah district U.P (IAR :34-35; :45-49; :20-22; :44-47; :45-46; :37-38; Gaur 1983) The small scale excavations conducted at Gwal Khera (Khalaua), Sadhwara Khera ( Inayatpur) and Bateswar in Agra district were aimed at to check the status of Black- and-red ware (BRW) culture in stratigraphic context. These excavations have 398

6 not revealed separate horizon of Black-and-Red ware culture in the above three sites. The Black-and-Red ware is found from the Painted Grey Ware Culture horizon. The Blackand-Red ware sherds recovered from Sadhwara excavation are few in number i.e. 58 nos. These are mostly of coarse fabric and 20 sherds have cord impressed designs on exterior. Such type of cord impressions are found on the coarse red ware at the same site at lower levels. The corded coarse red ware is an associated ware of fine OCP ceramic assemblage revealed at Madarpur in Moradabad district, Uttar Pradesh (Sharma et.al, 2001). It indicates that probably there is possible continuity of some traits of early ceramic traditions in the Black-and-Red ware. But, finding of the BRW under discussion along with PGW culture as an associated ware in the region, suggests later dates for earlier pottery traditions. Excavation at site near Hada Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri) has also revealed Black- and-red ware from PGW horizon. As, Noh is located very close to Hada Mahal (Fatehpur Sikri), finding of Black-and-Red ware differently in cultural horizons raises various questions in mind. In many other important sites like Ahichchatra,, the same problem persists and need re-examination of the problem of black-and-red ware, an Iron age culture which has now pushed back the date of some sites in Ganga valley to beyond 1800 BCE. Few sites in the region like Runukta (associated with Parasuram and Renuka), Singna (associated with Sringi rishi), Poiya (associated with Lohagarh), Bateswar (associated with Jaina as well as epic tradition) etc. lying on the bank of river Yamuna associated with mythology or local traditions have revealed either Painter Grey ware sherds or NBPW sherds or both except the Sringi rishi ashram site. The modern temple of Sringi rishi stands on a mound, but no PGW or NBPW pot sherds has been found from the exposed section of about 2.5 metres. The newly discovered Jugsana Tila located to the north-east of Jugsana village at about 500 metre and about 1 km north-west of Sringi rishi ashram site has revealed PGW from surface, could be the ancient site associated with the tradition. Jarauli Khera near Shamshabad is associated with Jarasandh of Mahabharata and the mound is also called as Jarasandh-ka-Kila. Sculptures and temple architectural 399

7 members of early medieval period have been discovered from the site and may yield early cultures, if excavated. But, nothing can be speculated merely on the basis of a particular site associated with mythology or Indian tradition. Pargiter, a great proponent of the tradition himself had asserted the general trustworthiness of the tradition is the fact demonstrated, whenever it has been possible to test traditions by results (Pargiter1972:6) of 'discoveries and excavations' (Sinha1985: ). Early historic period NBPW Culture in the region covered the same geographical area of preceding PGW Culture, but the number of sites reduced to almost half. Though NBPW is associated with the second urbanization, the excavations at Sadhwara Khera, Bateswara and Hada Mahal has not revealed any fortified settlements. The reasons of which most possibly due to limited operation area of excavation. Another reason could be that there was less possibility of danger of flood factor, due to the location of these settlements on small river system i.e, Khari except Bateswar. The settlement of Bateswar was at higher ground level over the naturally elevated ravine formation. Mauryan terracottas have been reported near Agra Fort, but no NBPW pot sherds could be noticed from surface exploration. There is possibility of finding early cultures from the mounds located near Ram Leela ground extending upto Buddha Vihar Bus stand near Bijli Ghar, excavation can help us in solving the issue. The issue of identification of the site of later settlement of Badalgarh which was attempted by Carlleyle about 140 year before also need to be examined. Sunga, Kushana and Gupta period sites are found from explorations though less in number. Excavations have also revealed the above cultures, in stratigraphic context. The sites of Sunga, Kushana are concentrated more in the area bordering Bharatpur and Mathura district. During the Kushana period Mathura was developed as a great centre of art and Mathura school of art. Images of Yakshas, Nagas, Jaina, Buddhist and Vaisnava cult were carved in the region. Parkham Yakshi which is quite famous is located very close to Agra. But the findings from Agra is very negligible. Although, there are few 400

8 Yakhsha images reported from Chauma Shahpur and Kushan Brahmi inscriptions near Fatehpur Sikri area at Bandrauli and Dura which is more close to Mathura in comparison to the southern part of the Agra district. Further, no Buddhist or Jaina image of Kushan period is reported from Agra so far. Naga Cult Depiction of a snake motif at Rasulpur rock shelter and finding of early Naga images belonging to Kushan period at Churiyari, Chauma Shahpur and colossal Naga image at Bharhkaul near Fatehpur Sikri proves continuity of Naga cult tradition in the region. Mathura ceased to be stronghold of Bhagavatism during Saka-Kushan period. The Mathura Naga statuette inscription proves the prevalence of serpent worship in Mathura which is important in view of the story of Kaliyanaga and his suppression by Krisna (Kapoor 2002: 455). The Nagas were once upon very powerful in the region. On the eve of rise of the Gupta power, seven Naga kings reigned here (Mathura) (Kapoor 2002: 455).The Naga cult continued in the region during the early medieval period is evident from the panel at Chauma Shahpur depicting Nagas and Naginis. The cult of Krishna or Balarama is evident from Agra region with sculpture of Balarama reported from Patsal belonging to Kushan period. Sculptures describing scenes st nd from Krishna's life found from Mathura dates back to 1-2 cent. A.D. at the latest. V.S. Agrawal refers to a statue of Balarama (Samkarshana of Vasudeva Krishna cult) as nd belonging to 2 cent B.C. (quoted by Chattopadhya 1962:35). The Balarama cult continued in the later periods and still worshipped in the region with many temples in the name of Dauji. Gupta period remains has been reported at many places of the Agra region from exploration as well as revealed from excavation, but no major art centre is brought to light. Early medieval period th During century A.D. the area, the area flourished with art and architecture as revealed from the temple remains at Tarhat boarding Rajastan, at Chandwar now in Firozabad district at Tehu and Sakalpur in Itimadpur tehsil, at Kamtari in Bah tehsil, at 401

9 Kagaraul and Bisalpur in Kheragarh tehsil, at Bir Chhabili Tila, Satha, Patsal, Imlaoda, Chauma Shahpur near Fatehpur Sikri in Kiraoli tehsil. The loose sculptures at many sites are documented and discussed in Chapter-5, whereas earlier there was no identification of the sculptures except mention of discovery of medieval sculptures reported from a dozen sites. The study has revealed that there were temples of Hindu and Jaina flourished th in the region during the early medieval period particularly century A.D. and all the sects thrived together. Rock cut art tradition was also prevalent in the region revealed from discovery at Tarhat.Though Buddhist antiquities are reported from Burhiya- ka-tal in 1880s, no Buddhist antiquities is reported from the region except the stray find of a head of Buddha in red sand stone from Dak Bunglow, Fatehpur Sikri. But it is still th th doubtful, as Sikri was a great centre of Jainism in century A.D. as revealed from the discovery of Jaina sculptures and temple remains. Settlement on hill top of upper Vindhyan formation is brought to light at Tarhat in th Kheragarh tehsil and Bandrauli near Fatehpur Sikri. The former dates back to century where as the latter is dated to early centuries of Christian era. Remains of palace at Jagner Fort constructed on hill top also pre-dated to Mughal period. It is also revealed from the study of the settlement pattern of sites that during Early Medieval period there were habitation/ settlements on the foothills noticed at places like Rasulpur, Patsal, Barhkaul, Santha, Tarhat, Bargawan Khurd, Fatehpur Sikri. Even it continued upto Mughal period as evident from Mughal period deposit on the foothill of ridge and on the bank of ancient natural lake. Agra region during the Sultanate period Inscriptions of Sultanate period is reported from Nagar village and Churiyari in Fatehpur Sikri locality as mentioned in Chapter-3 and Chapter-5. But no remains of Sultanate period is reported from any other part of Agra district, from Kheragarh, Bah, Fatehabad, Itimadpur tehsil. Lodis and Mughals Due to its strategic location, the Lodis and the Mughals established their capital. The Mughal period witnessed major building activities in Agra region with Agra as the seat of political power for long time. The Mughal history is well recorded in literary, epigraphically source and monuments. The Mughal monument building activities are 402

10 mainly concentrated in Agra Sadar, Kiraoli and to some extent in Itimadpur and Kheragarh tehsil. The Bah and Fatehabad witnessed less construction activities during the Mughals. The excavations, small/trial probing at some of the Mughal monuments like Fatehpur Sikri, Mehtab Bagh, Ram Bagh, Taj Mahal, Agra fort has revealed that some structural activities buried underneath and added our known written history. The Fatehpur Sikri excavation is important because the excavation has revealed settlement pattern of the habitation of common man of Mughal period which include house complexes, Mughal bazar, streets, Hammam etc. The myth related to black Taj Mahal is proved false due to archaeological excavations at Mehtab Bagh. References Bhagat, Shiv Kumar, 2012, Archaeology of Bharatpur, unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Gaur, R.C. 1983, Excavations at Atranjikhera Early Civilization of Upper Ganga Basin, Motilal Banarasidas on behalf of Deptt. of History, AMU. Gupta, Vinay Ku., 2010, Braj- An Art and Archaeological Study, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, National Museum Institute, New Delhi. Indian Archaeology- A Review :34-35 Indian Archaeology- A Review :28-29;45-49 Indian Archaeology- A Review :34-35;20-22 Indian Archaeology- A Review :38; Indian Archaeology- A Review : Indian Archaeology- A Review :31-32 Indian Archaeology- A Review :41-42 Indian Archaeology- A Review :48 Indian Archaeology- A Review :69 Kapoor, Subodh (ed).2002, Encyclopedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Cosmos Publications, New Delhi, p.455. Sharma, D.V., 2008, Archaeology of Fatehpur Sikri, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, p.7. Pargiter, F.E.1922, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford, Reprint 1972, p. 6. Sharma, D.V. et.al, 2001, Excavations at Madarpur in Puratattva, No.32, 2001 Sinha, B.P.1985, Indian Tradition and Archaeology in K.N. Dikshit (ed.) Archaeological perspectives of India since independence. Book and Books, New Delhi,

MAHĀBHĀRATA HISTORICITY. by Prof. B.B. Lal

MAHĀBHĀRATA HISTORICITY. by Prof. B.B. Lal MAHĀBHĀRATA HISTORICITY by Prof. B.B. Lal THE PROBLEM There are two extremely divergent views about the historicity of the Mahabharata. To the faithful, everything mentioned in the text is true to the