Jews in Sarajevo and Bosnia on the eve of and during the Great War

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1 Jews in Sarajevo and Bosnia on the eve of and during the Great War Jews started settling in Bosnia in 16th century, after being expelled from Spain. Sultan Bayezid II admitted them into Ottoman empire. When Spanish Jews Sehardim arrived in another empire, they found Jews already living in Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Sofia, Skopje and other cities of Ottoman empire, but in such small numbers that assimilation was taking place. In Sarajevo, number of Jew inhabitants prompted forming of Jewish community in The community was central institution gathering all the Jews, settled disputes between them and held responsibility over communal and religious issues. It was central point for social, humanitarian and charity institutions. At the same time a Jewish community developed in Belgrade, and was predominantly Sephardic in character. Parallels between Sarajevo and Belgrade are important, for connections between Jews in these two cities were significant, especially during migrations and direct threats to Jewish community activities (as was the case in Belgrade in 17th, 18th and 19th century). Period of revolutions and changes following Napoleon's conquests indirectly influenced Bosnia. In Illyrian provinces and towns along the eastern Adriatic shore Napoleon made Jews full citizens, as he did in Ionian islands. After Vienna peace treaty the Europe tried a restoration, but that soon proved not feasible. A modernization was taking place in Ottoman empire during Selim III, but his death delayed the process for several decades. The Tranzimat (reforms) time came after year 1839 when sultan Abdulmecid started constitutional reforms in the empire. Religious minorities had their rights constitutionally protected in Due to unexpected rebellion in western regions of the empire and changeover on the throne, 1876 constitution had no opportunity to be applied, but for Sarajevo Jews that didn't make much difference after Austro-Hungarian occupation in From the Congress of Berlin until the eve of the Great War The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia in 1878 proved to be a significant point in the history of the Sarajevo Jewish community. For the first time the small, traditional Sephardic community was directly confronted with the arrival of significant number of the Ashkenazim. Since first years of the Austro-Hungarian occupation we can trace separate lives of the two parallel Jewish communities. A period following 1878 was crucial for development

2 of Sarajevo Jewish community, since it was transferred from an oriental and anachronic life into the Europe. By the onset of WW I the community became more complex, dynamic and mobile. It is also obvious that arrival of new administration accelerated its integration with majority population, especially in terms of language. For better understanding of the Jews in Sarajevo and Bosnia just before year 1914 it is very important to give the short history of their community under the Dual Monarchy, especially focused on the newcomers Ashkenazi Jews, as well as on the social history of both groups. Majority of Ashkenazi families immigrating to Bosnia and Sarajevo originated from other parts of Habsburg empire, mostly from Slavic provinces, so they could relatively quickly establish contact with majority population. Apart from Yiddish, they spoke German or Hungarian as well as some of the Slavic languages. They migrated primarily for economic reasons, since their new environment was one of the least developed parts of the country, and jobs were to be found in virtually any occupation. The other reason not to be neglected was anti-semitism, latently present especially in northern and eastern parts of the Dual Monarchy, so Jewish soldiers after serving army in Bosnia quite often decided to stay there. Censuses of 1885, 1895 and 1910 show increased number of Ashkenazim, following ascending trend of Jewish population. Population of Sarajevo Jews Sephardim Ashkenazim Jews % % % Social differentiation among Ashkenazim was not so pronounced as among Sephardim. The majority of them were professionals, small and mid-size merchants, craftsmen, clerks, qualified workers. In comparison with other population, Ashkenazim made highest percentage in health care. Ashkenazim in Sarajevo formed their community in

3 September 1879, and their synagogue, the only one still used for sacral purposes, in One important year for Sarajevo Ashkenazim was 1898, since that year they got new community leader, Mavro Rotkopf, and a new rabbi, Dr Samuel Weszel. Both of the gave his mark to the first three decades of 20th century and turned the community into a modern organization. In parallel with important and numerous Sephardic associations, the Ashkenazim had their own ones: Ahdus (Jedinstvo) founded in 1906 to get together primarily craftsmen of Eastern Europe origin; female Ashkenazi society, founded in 1902 and mostly involved in charity, support of children, elderly and sick; Chevra kadisha society that looked after Ashkenazim cemetery and burial of its members was also founded that was the best proof of wish of Ashkenazi to settle in Sarajevo. It is interesting to note the changes of Ashkenazi attitude towards political activity. In the first decades of Austro-Hungarian administration they were mostly apolitical, but that changed at the turn of centuries. Due to the increase of anti-semitism in Russia and the development of Zionist movement (especially after the Basel congress in 1897) younger Ashkenazim became more involved in politics. It was shown by establishment of student organizations of which Jehuda Makabi was the most significant. Jehuda Makabi was founded under the auspices of "Jewish national society", in the beginning exclusively Ashkenazi organization, later open for all Jews. Those societies diminished differences between two Jewish groups, for young members had more and more common organizations. Important role in bringing together Ashkenazim and Sephardim had student organizations outside Bosnia, like Bar Giora in Vienna or Judeja in Zagreb. After studying elsewhere, Jewish students from Sarajevo founded in 1904 the first Zionist association in Sarajevo: B ne Zion. It was only a year after Gideon was founded in Belgrade and before Judeja was founded in Zagreb (in 1908). Sephardim were resident much longer in Sarajevo and made approximately 85% of Jewish population. Situation after 1878 found them unprepared and forced them to modernize in accordance with a new state. Differences between them and Ashkenazim were large, so two communities led separate lives with little contact between their organizations until But during the war an integrating factor became the language: Serbo-Croatian that was after 1894 introduced in Jewish schools. Another, already mentioned factor was the development of Zionist movement and increased involvement of young generations in joint societies.

4 The social differentiation was more noticeable among Sephardim than among Ashkenazim. Sephardim were mostly traders and were less educated than Ashkenazim. Unlike Ashkenazim, there were several very rich Sephardic families that adopted to new merchant routes very quickly. Salom and Alkalay families were among the richest and the most respectable. Salom brothers were running several businesses, matches manufacturing was the most lucrative of them, but they also had their bank. Alkalay brothers had cigarette paper factory and a leather factory. Trade directions changed dramatically after change of power in 1878, instead of Dalmatian towns and Split in particular, new trade directions Vienna, Pest, Prague, Zagreb and Trieste took their place. Imports via Thessaloniki and other towns in former provinces of Ottoman empire became insignificant in comparison to imports of ready-made goods, fabrics and silk from northern parts of the Dual monarchy, while overseas goods mostly came via Trieste. Changes in structure and name of successful Jewish companies show they turned into shareholder companies and accepted modern business ways. The goal of that was more efficient gathering of finances to increase capacities and profits. Shareholder company did not decrease business profits, just involvement remained anonymous and inconspicuous. There are several examples to illustrate this: shareholder corporation Krivaja in Zavidovići formerly was Eisler i Ortlieb, while corporation Jela d.d., specialized in logging and wood processing originally was Rafael Z. Finci et co Sarajevo. According to the estimates of economist Himko Kamhi, approximately 1/3 of Sarajevo commercial activities was in Jewish hands. Despite its moving to smaller settlements after 1878, Jewish population did not lose its pronounced town character. Census of 1910 showed town population made more than 95% of Sephardim and almost 90% of Ashkenazim. The table shows number of Jews tripled under Austro-Hungarian administration, for there were 2077 of them in 1879 in comparison to 6397 (4985 Sephardim and 1412 Ashkenazim) in Linguistic Acculturation of Sarajevo Jewry Language Serbo-Croatian % Ladino 5, % % German % Hungarian % Other % %

5 Departure of Turkish administration presented big challenge for Sephardim, for they had to leave their relatively closed world. The new system opened the door for free development, both commercial and social, so many Sephardim realised they had to exit closed circuit, mix with other citizens and take active role in accordance with new times challenges. Tendency to keep status quo was evidently present with some, especially elder community members. The resistance towards new times lasted longest in education and culture, but it also almost disappeared during war years. The best example of such resistance towards new times was relatively late inclusion of Sephardic children into secular education. Serbo-Croatian was included into curriculum of Jewish schools in 1894 so children could study non-religious subjects. "Talmud Torah" school ceased its existence in 1910, the building it used since 1903 was brought down to have new state elementary erected in the same place. The real importance of "Talmud Torah" school and education young Sephardim received there becomes clear from statements Dr Moric Levy gave after being elected for a chief rabbi, for he considered reactivation of Talmud Torah and reintroduction of religious education one of priorities to slow down or prevent assimilation of Sephardic Jews. Assimilation was present but still not evident from the last census of 1910, when 98% of Sarajevo Sephardim declared Ladino their mother tongue. That percentage will fall dramatically in the years after Sephardic community in Sarajevo and Bosnia had numerous societies. Almost 30 Jewish societies were founded until the outbreak of the Great War in Most of them had either same or very similar goals and interests, as majority of them were focused on humanitarian and social work. Their main recipients were poor Jewish families and their children. As most of those societies were limited to small areas and neighbourhoods, just few were covering all of Sarajevo and even fewer entire Bosnia and Herzegovina. The most important and most influential was La Benevolencija founded in It was founded by the wealthiest Jewish Sephardic members and its main goal was helping impoverished Jewish families. Until 1908 it was covering Sarajevo, but after that year it expended to entire Bosnia and Herzegovina. Usual means of helping other Jews were in training them in different skills and helping their education. Prior to the war, the organization was focused on helping build a new generation of Jewish craftsmen and educated youth. The success it achieved soon made it change the rules and at a general annual meeting La Benevolencija adapted a new article of

6 its constitution that meant the organization will help all Sephardic Jews of Bosnia seeking help in high schools, artisan schools, various courses and higher education. Goals were also extended to cover helping young Sephardic artisans in need. The importance of helping young Sephardic Jews was tremendous, because even in the last decade before the war not all Jewish children could attend high schools, while university studies were possible only in cities outside Bosnia, like Vienna, Prague, Graz, Zagreb. Anyway, outbreak of WW I presented a break in this activity, since majority of help recipients had been mobilised. Another important society for the Sephardic Jews of Sarajevo was the glee club Lira, founded in The goals of Lira were in the beginning quite modest: maintaining local, mostly vocal, music among Sephardim. But in the first decade of the 20th century the society grew and formed its choir. Importance of Lira increased for it became very popular society for both men and women, and its concerts in Sarajevo gained popularity among all the citizens in just prior to the war. Important event in the history of Lira was when it hosted Srpsko-jevrejsko pevacko drustvo (similar Jewish glee club) from Belgrade in May Very cheerful event was the proof of very strong links between two Sephardic communities, those of Sarajevo and Belgrade. Also, during their visit Belgrade guests left their hosts impressed with a performance of Mendelssohn's Elijah Jews organized in various societies had to cease their activities when the war started, for orders were given to stop all activities due to exceptional circumstances. One of the most important societies, "Jewish national society", also had to be abandoned. The best input of Jewish community is possible trough its periodic. In this text the Zagreb Jewish journal "Židov" was the most important source of situation in Sarajevo. Dr Moric Levy finished rabbi studies in Vienna, where he also finished philosophy studies, achieving a rank of doctor. Later on, he returned to Sarajevo and became one of the most prominent community members. One text published in Zagreb Jewish magazine "Židov" dated October 1917 shows Jewish Sephardic community in Sarajevo feared it could be assimilated and lose its identity. Dr Moric Levy, who became chief rabbi in the same year, was at the time in Zagreb as a guest of Ashkenazi community and gave for their magazine his opinion on situation Sarajevo Jews found themselves in. After being elected to the position that was vacant for 14 years, Dr Moric Levy starts his statement with a lament over

7 disappearance of "Talmud-Torah", a religious school that was giving religions knowledge to many generations of Sarajevo Sephardim. It used to be the most significant Jewish school in Sarajevo for a long time, and Moric Levy considered it meritorious for Bosnia and Herzegovina Sephardim getting their electoral curia, and therefore a position of Sephardim chief rabbi. Election of Levy for a chief rabbi, according to his statement, came at the time when Sephardim are surrounded by new circumstances, a crisis threatening their assimilation. He considered at that moment Sephardim in Bosnia and Herzegovina are at the crossroads, they will either...like Western Jews disguise their Jadishness and slowly disappear in waves of assimilation", or will find their way under new circumstances, keep their mentality, protect their national identity and live their separate life.. Sephardic community in Bosnia and Herzegovina hoped that Levy's arrival would have impact on on-going assimilation process, best perceived through increased use of town language: Serbo-Croatian. They expected Levy would revive autonomous schools with Jewish tuition in Ladino language. A hope has been expressed that one strong organization gathering all Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina would help reaching goals. The forming of overall Jewish organization towards the end of war was primarily a result of Sephardic fear of assimilation. Towards the end of 1917 magazine "Židov" reports a pretty clear picture of assimilation taking place in Sarajevo, best seen through educational system. Community members complain children show no interest in "Talmud Torah" school, bringing school to the brink of extinction. Teachers lacking motivation are incapable to teach children, so profane schools remain virtually the only solution left. Elder community members feared that equals assimilation. A regret was present for war conditions and the fact many community members were at the frontline. That, together with lack of funds, caused magazines "Moriah" and "Nationalverein" to abort their publication. War conditions made Jewish societies either to stop their work or to make long brakes, so female Jewish society made a break all the way to the autumn of 1917, when members gathered after more than 3 years. Foremost issue they dealt with was social care for children and mothers. Mostly female community members organized a theatre evening in December 1917.

8 News on Hanukkah celebration revealed that majority of young Jews were absent and local Maccabi society remained almost with no members, for they were mostly on different frontlines. In war times Jewish press regularly reports status on all fronts, especially on Jewish soldiers, war prisoners and wounded on both sides. Zagreb Jewish community was predominantly Ashkenazi, so focus was on eastern borders, mostly Galicia, Bukovina, Russia and Italy. Lists of captured soldiers showed Jewish prisoners were present on both sides, since Jews volunteered on either side. Reporting of "Židov" at the beginning of 1918 showed further fear of assimilation and religion disappearance, mixed with wondering...why are we Sephardim in a crisis just now, why didn't we have such a crisis say, 100 or 150 years ago.. Sephardic community found itself at the crossroads, fearing most of Western culture that slowly reached and amplified crisis in all aspects: schools, temples, relation between young and elder members. They feared most for young ones:..they seemed to hesitate and didn't know what to do. Ways to solve the crisis were renewed importance and activity of schools having less and less attraction for young Sarajevo Jews, a present wish they became "active nationalist Jews". That phrase related to acceptance of Zionist movement, but also preservation of unique Sephardic culture. The biggest shortcoming of Jews, especially numerous Sarajevo and Bosnia Sephardim, was thought to be they were always divided and had no powerful joint organization with Sarajevo Ashkenazim. There was no cessation of Jewish commerce in Sarajevo at the beginning of 1918, as proved by establishment of "Jewish central bank", with between 2 and 3 million crowns startup capital (the star-up capital was at the end 1 million). Principal shareholder and manager was Dr Alkalay, since Alkalay family already possessed a bank. The aim of the bank was to help Jews running small and mid-size enterprises, endangered by the war. One of the reasons for founding Jewish bank was that other ethnic groups in Bosnia, such as Croats, Serbs, even Moslems already formed their monetary institutions. Magazine "Židov" warned that founding

9 of "Moslem central bank" by Bosnian Moslems in Sarajevo presented last reminder to Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina to form their own monetary institution. Despite the war, the beginning of 1918 brought brighter perspectives, for separate peace with Bolsheviks revived among Jews hopes for that war is nearing its end. One of results was a permit to "Jewish national society" to renew its activities. News from June 1918 described activities of renewed Jewish societies in Sarajevo. It is noticeable Yugoslavia was mentioned much more, followed by a question "would Yugoslavia leaders be interested in full equality of Jews with other citizens?" "Židov" expressed its mistrust and mentioned examples proving otherwise. After the summer and at the beginning of the Fall news in "Židov" changed, paid more attention to issues of Yugoslavia and Jews future and perhaps newly established Yugoslav state rather than idifferently organized Habsburg countries. "Židov" stated that Jews of Croatia and Bosnia were supporting Yugoslav state from the beginning and such news became more frequent since summer First page declaration in "Židov" of stated that Jews of Yugoslav countries and general Zionist organization from Yugoslav countries unanimously supported constitution of National council of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs and its declaration on Further texts stated Jews from Austro-Hungarian countries populated by Yugoslav tribes supported the idea of Yugoslav state from the beginning of 20th century and that in "Krakow program" they among the first proclaimed a right to national self-determination. Important were the news of November 7, when Serbian lieutenant colonel Ranković met Sarajevo chief rabbis Levy and Weszel, as "Židov" reported. Chief rabbi Levy answered Ranković:..they knew their brothers in Serbia enjoy equal status, so Jews have a lot of sympathies for Serbian nation, for Serbs are leaders in real democracy and tolerance in Balkans; Serbs are freedom fighters for liberation of all oppressed people, and Jews fought for centuries for equality and self-determination, so they have a lot of understanding and appreciation for leaders and protagonists of sacred ideas of freedom and equality...

10 Jewish national board of Sarajevo on sent to the National council Slovenians, Croats, Serbs the following statement: We, the Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who always lived in brotherly communication with people of these countries and shared everything good and bad, follow with best wishes political tendencies of Yugoslav nations and feel obliged to give following statement: As aware and national Jews that always and above all respect big ideas of self-determination of nations and democracy, support the program of National council of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs included in the declaration of so as the sons of these countries we see in that declaration (Article 5) fully guaranteed free development of Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina... In the years preceding 1914 Sarajevo Jews fully integrated into the empire, with noticeable differences between Ashkenazim and Sephardim. Even then they formed two separate groups. As a younger group in Sarajevo Ashkenazim adopted faster and easier, although they were present in town just a few decades, unlike Sephardim who were there for centuries. Ashkenazim were coming from other parts of the Dual Monarchy, so they didn't face problems of adjusting to a new system as Sephardic community was. Besides, in new times and new commercial possibilities they benefited from their education, skills and could much easier join new tides in Sarajevo and Bosnia. It is important to notice that their knowledge of German, Hungarian and the language of local population also made integration into everyday life easier. Their secularity and education were their biggest advantage in comparison to native Sephardim. On the other hand, Sephardim managed to adapt to new times just before the war and merits for that belong to the richest community members and societies they formed. Even so, significant crisis of identity was also present for elder community members feared strengthening of secular schools, loss of religiousness, decreased use of Ladino and mixing with Ashkenazim and other nations imposed by commercial reasons would lead to the loss of identity. Unlike other European towns, there is no evident ascent of anti-semitism in Sarajevo before the war, not even during the war itself. Anti-Semitic incidents did occur occasionally in Bosnia, but much more in other provinces of the Dual Monarchy during last months of WW I.

11 The idea that brought both Jewish groups together was Zionist movement, for each group was thrilled by it. Sephardim anyway feared their specific identity could melt for Ashkenazim had huge majority and lead the movement. That would be prime reason for the schism that appeared later on, after Zionism was unifying factor for Sephardic and Ashkenazi youth, as were Serbo-Croatian language and education they received in the years preceding WW I. The two communities were brought together also by occurrence of the war and hardship they encountered. Differences were still present, but not as visible as before The war outbreak Sarajevo Jews didn't meet with zest for it could bring nothing good to them, and Belgrade and Sarajevo Jewish communities were on good terms with each other, but war put them on opposed sides. Reports on wounded, captured, interned persons depict care of Sarajevo Jews not only for the Dual Monarchy citizens, but for Jews in all opposed armies. Major changes that took place in 1918 and forming of Yugoslavia didn't take Sarajevo Jewish communities unawares. During the war itself members of both communities were loyal citizens of their state, but after summer of 1918 available periodicals show Sarajevo Jews were solidarity with majority Sarajevo population in their desires. So in October 1918 the Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina supported the National council of Slovenians, Croats and Serbs and showed their sympathies towards initiative of forming new Yugoslav state.