We started off the year by studying different forms of government. The most common form of government throughout history has been a(n) in which one

Transcription

1 Global History and Geography Mr. Hayes Final Exam review (cumulative) Exam Review Sheet We started off the year by studying different forms of government. The most common form of government throughout history has been a(n) in which one person rules by inheriting his/her power. This inheritance of power is similar to another form of government found in early Athens called a(n), in which a few families inherited their title and land and held all the power. Two forms of government that were both based upon majority rules were and. We also studied different economies. The first type of economic system that developed was one in which people were subsistence or self-sufficient farmers and this was called a economic system the Neolithic people had this kind of economic system. Then there were two theoretical systems: a economic system in which individual buyers and sellers made all economic decisions and a economic system in which the made all the decisions. The only one to exist today in all countries is the economic system with is a blend of the two previous systems. At first, humans were hunter-gatherers and they were nomadic or migratory these people were known as humans. Then there was a change in the climate. The last ice age ended about 15,000 years ago and temperatures around the earth rose. The discovery of brought about the Revolution. A new culture for humans developed as a result. They began to animals and to create permanent settlements. Most of them began to settle in valleys and civilization developed due to access to irrigation and transportation. Four river valleys that people settled in were the (AKA: Mesopotamia or Fertile Crescent), the, the (which was impacted by or seasonal winds), and the Huang-He river valley civilization in China, which bordered on the Yellow Sea. The Huang-He was the most isolated due to the natural barrier of the Himalaya mountains and Gobi desert to the West. They began calling themselves the Middle Kingdom, thinking they were the only and most superior culture on the planet; this attitude is considered. The people of China developed a political belief that certain rulers would gain the favor of the gods (called the ), would come to power, stabilize the country, then grow corrupt and things would go downhill until a new ruler overthrew them. This was called the. The also developed a belief system called in which education was prized, and creating a harmonious society was the goal above all else. There was also a strong belief in or respect for elders and a focus on the 5 in Confucianism. Another belief system was, which focused upon following a natural order and living close to nature. Finally, the Qin dynasty adopted a political and belief system called, in which the government created harsh laws to keep order in society. In another river valley, the ancient Babylonians developed the first written set of laws called, which relied on harsh punishments to control behavior. We also studied a number of religions. is a religion in which its people worship many gods, often nature spirits and venerate their ancestors. In Japan, this belief system is called. In the religion of, which developed in South Asia after the Aryan invasions, they also worship many gods. There is a strong social structure that developed called a. Practitioners of this religion believe in doing their dharma which is to rid themselves of, in order to get good karma so that they will be reincarnated or reach, the goal. A religion that grew out of this is. Getting rid of is still a pathway to its goal, but one major difference is that there is no, all are equal to worship. In the Middle East was founded by a man named Abraham. The most innovative belief of this religion was

2 that it was, or they believed in only one god. A system of ethical living was also handed to these believers by their god, called the. Two other religions that grew out of this were and. was founded by Muhammad and also believed in only one god. In order to be a good Muslim, one had to follow the. They consisted of during Ramadan, giving to the poor, 5 times daily, having faith that there was only one god, and making a to Mecca once in their life. We studied a number of civilizations that experienced a or time of relative peace and prosperity during which the arts, culture, learning and innovation flourished. One such age occurred in India, which is a large (geographic feature) and it was called the Empire. There were a number of achievements in mathematics like decimals, numerals and fractions. There were also a number of medical advancements like surgery, vaccinations and hospitals. The Persians were also a significant Empire located in modern-day. They were known for their tolerance of conquered peoples, breaking their empire up into 20, and the, which allowed for quick communication and military movement. We also studied three Empires of West Africa called,, and. All made their fortunes off of the and trade. As Arab traders were able to cross large expanses of desert due to the introduction of the, they tapped into the - trade routes and brought more wealth to West Africa. They also brought, their religion. The most famous ruler of West Africa was who was Muslim from Mali and made a magnificent pilgrimage to. The city, which was written about by (a famous Muslim scholar and traveling writer), became an important Islamic university town. In ancient Greece, we studied that there were lots of mountains and small islands that made it difficult to unite the island. This is a lot like in East Asia which is made up of 4 major islands and is considered a(n) or chain of islands. Two city-states that developed in Greece were and, which had very different cultures, but were both very nationalistic and militaristic. Through Alexander the Great, the Greek culture impacted many other ancient cultures (Persian, Egyptian, and Indian) and mixed with them to produce the Age. The capital city of this synthesized culture was,. Alexander attracted the greatest thinkers to his capital with high salaries at a research university there called the. Greek culture had a major impact on another ancient civilization: Rome. In turn, Rome had major accomplishments in architecture like the and the. They also made great advancements in engineering of roads and waterways called. Finally, Romans had a government called a and a set of laws called the that impacted Western Civilization. The Eastern Romans, also known as the, under Emperor preserved Roman law in something called. One religion that the Romans officially disliked at first and then adopted later was, which grew out of. Another religion that also grew out of these two and was monotheistic was Islam. As it grew and spread, lands that adopted Islamic culture went through a golden age under the Abbasid dynasty. They built a new capital called which is in modern-day Iraq. Similar to the research university in Alexander s capital, the Abbasids built the, which attracted scholars from all over their empire. Getting back to the Eastern Romans, or the, their capital was and was at the crossroads of Asia and Europe and was an excellent strategic location for trade. Its greatest contribution to world history was the preservation of Greek and Roman achievements. In addition to Roman laws, they also preserved Roman architecture and Christianity, as evidenced by the building of the, which was the largest church in Christendom for nearly 1000 years. In a

3 religious split, or with the Pope and the Catholic Church, they became Eastern Orthodox Christians. They were also responsible for the spread of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to the, whose capital was Kiev. Byzantine architecture, mosaics and icons are still seen today all over Russia through this cultural diffusion. The Russians, while still culturally tied to the Eastern Romans, even taking the title which came from the title Caesar, were conquered by the and became known as the Khanate of the. The could do this due to the excellent leadership of, their horsemanship and the invention of the which allowed them to stand, pivot and shoot arrows around them while riding. As they conquered across Asia and Eastern Europe, there was a rise in trade along the because they offered a strong security force in lands they controlled. They were also able to conquer China, which had been going through a golden age of two dynasties: the and dynasties, which were responsible for innovations such as the mechanical clock, the abacus, gunpowder, acupuncture, paper money and movable type. Another East Asian nation that we studied was, which borrowed a lot of culture from China, through Korea (which acted as a cultural land bridge). Their earliest belief system developed from all the natural disasters they suffered from and was known as, which worshipped ancestors and nature spirits. From the late 700s to about 1200, this culture went through an era, known as the, which focused on Court life, rituals, painting, poetry, and etiquette. After this period of strong centralization, power broke down and large landowners called seized power. This new political system was called and was based upon military loyalty for land. The new warrior class that developed was called the and they had to adhere to a code of conduct called. The Emperor was still recognized as the top of society, but was only a figurehead; the person with the real power was the. The Middle Ages of Western Europe developed as a result of the fall of the. Security declined, trade was disrupted and cities were major targets of invading armies. For this reason people left the cities and moved to small communities called. With this new community, a new economic system called developed and it was based mostly on the activity of, which was done by the. In this system, the community was or it produced all the things it needed by itself with no outside help. The head of this community was called the, and all his power and wealth was based upon the fact that he owned. A new political system called developed out of a need for security and it was based upon military service and loyalty in exchange for land. The land given to (lesser lords) or knights in return for loyalty was called a. Just like in, which was also based upon a system, the warrior class (knights) followed a code of conduct called, in which generosity, loyalty to one s lord and God, and respect for women were all virtues (in Japan, the code of conduct was called bushido). There was very little trade during the Middle Ages and with only a few exceptions (most notably from, a city on the northern Italian peninsula, who ventured to, lived in and wrote about the East) there was very little contact with the outside world. The only institution to survive the Roman fall and to have the most power during the Middle Ages was the ; it was the only unifying force in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. They exerted their power of secular kings by using their ultimate weapon:. In fact, Pope Gregory VII used this over the German Emperor Henry IV to get his way during the controversy over, which was when kings appointed bishops. The Church was significant for a few reasons. First of all they used to create a legal system that applied to all Western Europeans. They charged a 10% tax called a. With that money they built hospitals and provided basic health care to people. They also used the tax to build new Cathedrals to inspire people and give them hope. A new form of architecture called developed during the late Middle Ages. New features like spires, huge stained-glass windows to tell biblical stories and vaulted arches were seen in this

4 architecture. The Church also received a letter from the Emperor to help in a fight against the, who had taken the holy land ( ) and were threatening to take Constantinople as well. Pope then called on French and German knights to take an armed pilgrimage, called a to take back the holy land. They went to earn salvation and escape feudal oppression. The are seen as a successful failure for a number of reasons. First off, they took back the holy land, but only for a short time in the end, it was lost to Christian control for good. However, the Christian Crusaders did encounter new goods and new business ideas and brought important changes back to Europe. As they brought back these new goods, demand for the goods increased, which increased between Western Europe and the East. Cities in the north of Italy, like began to see (people moving to the cities) as there were more jobs. People began to be paid in cash, and land was no longer the only form of wealth. More left the and moved to the cities to be paid in cash. Merchants became wealthy and paid more taxes to the kings, who consolidated their power. These changes are known as the Revolution. One deadly outcome of the new increase in exchange between the East and Western Europe was the which affected Europe around the year About 1/3 of Western Europeans died, but even this had an unexpected benefit for those that survived. Due to all the death in the cities, there were many jobs open for peasant survivors who could then raise their status in society. Due to huge populations moving to the cities and towns, conditions in the city worsened and cheap, poor quality goods were found everywhere during the early years of the Revolution. As a result,,or associations of workers from the same industry, formed to help themselves and their community. As towns and cities developed and merchants became wealthy, they began to pay more in taxes to kings. The kings, in turn, spent money on huge armies and did a number of things to increase their power. In France, the king sent out to oversee courts of his lesser lords. He also establish an, which people could use to bypass their own local court. Finally, in order to raise taxes and avoid rebellion, France established the, an advisory group made up of the bourgeoisie, the nobility, and the clergy. In France s rival country, who they fought in the, the king sent out royal judges to oversee lesser lords courts. The king also set up (a group of local neighbors), to decide local court cases. Finally, the king signed a contract called the which gave his nobles the right to habeas corpus in return for their tax money. He also established a tax-advisory board of burgesses (wealthy merchants), knights, lesser lords, and clergy called. Eventually, the people would limit the monarch s power even more with the of Right, and the Revolution, in which Dutch monarchs were given the crown in exchange for signing a Bill of Rights, giving people legal rights. A new era in Western Europe began to emerge. From Western European society experienced a rebirth of arts, learning and high culture, called the. Money from the Revolution made merchants and bankers in northern city-states very wealthy. Therefore, the began in. They began to use a strategy called in which they used their wealth to gain political power by paying artists, writers and architects to create great works. The most famous family to use this strategy was a banking family from named. Many of these artists looked to the (ancient Greece and Rome) for inspiration and ideas. The most famous accomplishment financed by Cosimo de was the completion of the, designed by (last name). They also financed a number of famous artists. is known for his statue, the first bronze free-standing nude statue since ancient Rome. They also funded, who was known as a man because of his accomplishments in many different areas including sculpture, painting and invention. His most famous sketch, the, is said to represent the core values and ideas of the Renaissance. In fact, the philosophy of the Renaissance was called, which focuses on individualism, humans, their experiences and how they have the capacity to achieve anything, even the seemingly impossible. Another

5 famous artist at this time, and also considered a man, was a young sculptor named, most famous for his painting the ceiling of the and his carving of the statue. A writer who tried, but failed to get the backing of the family was (last name), who wrote a book called The. It was a book that advised people how to get political power and how to keep it, by arguing that a leader should be both feared and loved, but since that is difficult, it is better to be than. Soon ideas spread to the northern countries of Europe and painters like Jan painted in oils and used bright colors and realistic, individualistic faces. A group of writers, known as began to take the idea that humans could achieve anything, even a better society, and began to question the Church and its traditions. One Dutch writer named (last name) wrote a book called The of, in which the main character represents the Church and talked about all the silly things that she does and how silly followers of her are. With the invention of the by (last name) in Mainz, Germany in the 1450s, books written by these began to spread very quickly and became a headache for the Church. The first book to be mass produced was the. The mass production of books by the, had a number of other significant effects in the fact that it lowered the cost of books, effectively allowing more people to have access to books, therefore increasing or the ability to read and write., a monk from, Germany used this invention to great effect after he nailed his to the door of the cathedral there. His complaints against the Church were largely focused on the sale of by priests representing the Pope. The Pope asked him to renounce the and he refused, after which the Pope decided to him. then proposed that one could only win salvation through in God s forgiveness. He also believed that all people should read the for themselves and that it should be accessible to people by having it written in the. This protest against Church practices sparked the beginning of the. King of England also broke away from the Church for not granting him an. He created his own Church of England also called the Church. John Calvin from Geneva, Switzerland set up a government and led a strict society there in Switzerland. The most important concept of Calvinism was the idea that God has already chosen who will be saved, also known as. In response to most of Northern Europe breaking away from it, the Catholic Church launched its own to address all it problems. The of convened over 18 years and proposed a few changes. The, or secret court system was put into place to search for heretics and stamp out heresy. The doctrine of, which stated the Pope was never wrong, was introduced. Finally, a group of Catholics led by of founded the of, also known as the. This group went on to found a number of schools to educate priests and others and they traveled around the world as missionaries for the Catholic Church. Some of the effects of the were religious disunity in Western Europe (which didn t exist before), a decrease in the power of the and the Church, new Churches and the Catholic. In Chapter 19, we began talking about exploration, and surprisingly to most, due to their advanced technology the were exploring the Pacific and Indian oceans long before the Europeans. Under the dynasty, the famous admiral went out on trade and diplomatic missions and traded with people as far away as the East coast of (continent). When the emperor called for the desertion of the fleet of ships, all people obeyed him because of their belief in (belief system) which called for. Trading was seen as unimportant and they did not value the cultures of others, referring to them as barbarians and inferior (this attitude is known as ). As Europeans learned more during the Renaissance and gained new technology from the Muslims and Chinese, they were then able to go out and explore. The first nation to prepare an all-water route to the East (India and China) was, who began charting a route down the coast of Africa. Prince the set up a school where mathematicians, shipwrights, and cartographers could

6 come together to share the latest knowledge. In 1498, completed the first all-water route to India and back. The Indians were excited about trading, the Chinese were uninterested and the Japanese were interested in trade for a short time and particularly for. The (government of Japan) closed off the entire country to trade (except the and the ) due mostly to Christian who came along with many of the traders. The other country to begin looking for an all-water route to the East was, s neighbor. Instead this country hired who claimed that he could get to China and India faster by going. Fortunately for Columbus, he ran into the, (specifically the islands) otherwise he and his crew would likely have died at sea. Although Europeans at first claimed that the people of the New World were uncivilized, there is quite a bit of evidence that they were, in fact, very advanced civilizations. First, there was the, who were an affiliated set of city-states on the Peninsula. They were highly advanced in, using a system of dots and bars for numerals. They also had a highly advanced solar which allowed them to build very elaborate pyramids to their gods. Another group was the Aztec, whose capital, was built on a swampy island. They were also advanced in and had an accurate solar and they were some of the greatest engineers of all time, building an to bring them fresh water, a to connect their island to the mainland, and to expand their available farmland. All this suggests a highly developed and organized society with the ability to adapt to their environment. Finally, the from the mountains of South America were also incredibly advanced and organized. They built a massive road system to connect their empire, including bridges across chasms. They collected tribute in the form of labor, called, for which conquered people would help maintain the road system and work on public projects, like the sides of mountains for farming. They would also build or granaries for their people to have food in times of famine and they even genetically modified the into 3,000 different varieties to avoid famine due to blight. The easily conquered both the and the Aztec due to their superior and forming alliances with enemies of the Aztecs. There is also a theory that played a large role in the downfall of the peoples of the Americas, due to their lack of immunity. The event of continuous contact of Europeans and the New World in and after 1492 is referred to now as The. One interesting result is a massive flora and fauna diffusion between the two worlds, known as the. Europeans began to claim new lands in the New World; these lands were known as. Their sole purpose was to enrich the mother country. Due to the Revolution, which was already underway, many turned to a new economic system called, in which private citizens (not governments) began to invest in businesses and development of resources with their own money in search of profits. These investors often created companies, to limit their liability in a business which created plantations and mining operations in the new world. These plantations and mines would produce natural resources and ship them to their mother countries for cheap. The mother country would then make these into and sell them to other countries and back to their. This system of using the colony to enrich the mother country was known as as it created a of (exported more than they imported). Soon, the plantation owners of the New World were looking for cheap labor and as the native American population decreased through the 1500s, they began to look to for enslaved labor. Soon enslaved people were coming across the Atlantic Ocean (a forced journey known as the ) to create large supplies of cheap labor. All together the slaves coming from and going to the Americas, the Americas producing raw materials and shipping them to Europe, the Europeans making and selling them to the for more slaves created a pattern of trade known as the System.