THE CULT OF THE VIRGIN MARY AND ITS IMAGES IN LITHUANIA FROM THE MIDDLE AGES UNTIL THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 1

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1 ACTĄ ACADEMIAE ARTIUM VILNENSIS THE CULT OF THE VIRGIN MARY AND ITS IMAGES IN LITHUANIA FROM THE MIDDLE AGES UNTIL THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 1 Aušra Baniulytė Central European University, Budapest I. INTRODUCTION The veneration of Marian images traces back to the early Christian times, when the Fourth Ecumenical Council (Ephesus 431) proclaimed the Virgin "the true Mother of God" (Theotokos) 2. From this time on, her images were after those of Christ, and even more they became equal to them 3. The variety of the Virgin's iconographic types in the Eastern Church, and the large quantity of her images in the West show the importance of the Virgin's cult in both faiths. The cult of the Byzantine icons of the Virgin Mary in the West started during the crusades to Constantinople, when her most venerated images were imported directly from East to West 4. The Eastern icon became an archetype for numerous Italian artists of Dugento and Trecento, as well as for the painters of the fifteenth century, when the copying of them became popular 5. After the Council of Trent, the Virgin's iconography and veneration, based on Eastern icon tradition, was well established in the West 6. Numerous copies of the most venerated icons spread throughout Western Europe. These copies resembled Greek icon painting in the iconography as well as in prototype 7. These images had the same function of the mediator as the icons had. However, if in the Middle Ages the cult of images was managed locally, during the Counter Reformation it became a matter of the whole Church, whose identity was dependent on the image. The monastic orders supported the veneration of Marian images. 8 The Marian cult established during the Counter Reformation in Western Europe reached Lithuania as well, where it was adopted and developed. Lithuania's historical, geographical, and religious situation added some peculiar features to the cult of the Virgin Mary. This thesis is a historical and iconographical analysis of the miraculous images of the Virgin Mary in Lithuania from the Middle Ages until the seventeenth century. These images were venerated like Byzantine icons; however, they are not icons, but some of their prototypes derive from Byzantium and sometimes the images were modified with new iconographic features. Their iconography and their veneration make them similar to Byzantine icons. These images, repeating and imitating Byzantine icons' prototypes were particularly widespread in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the end of the sixteenth, and the beginning of the seventeenth century. They were called miraculous and were directly connected with the cult of the Virgin Mary. During this period, of course, there were many of them in small villages as well as towns; however, many of these images did not survive until present day and it is known only from written sources such as inventories of the churches, that they existed. For others, which still exist in the churches of the small town or villages, it is sometimes impossible to find their origin and dating, because the documents of the churches, where they are located, or even the votive offerings testifying to their miraculous power, were lost, but they are still called mi- 157

2 raculous by local people. It is only possible to state according to their iconographic features to which period to attribute them. Therefore, these images are still awaiting the attention of restorers and art historians. Many of the other images are mostly from the late seventeenth to the nineteenth century; they already represent the later result of the spreading of the ideas of the Counter Reformation as well as the multiplication of copies of especially venerated images. For the analysis of my research I have chosen eleven most venerated images of the Virgin Mary dating from the fifteenth to the first half of the seventeenth century from the present day territory of Lithuania. These eleven examples, which I have chosen, represent the very beginning of the Counter Reformation in Lithuania. The cult of some of these images has been directly connected with many historical events, which happened in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during this period. The cult of the Virgin Mary in Lithuania can be divided into three periods alongside the development of Christianity: the first period until the Reformation; the second - Protestantism, and the third - the Counter Reformation. The period until the Reformation is very controversial and vague. The main reason for this is the absence of both written as well as iconographic sources. Except for a few sculptures, the altar paintings from the earliest churches, which were mostly wooden and destroyed by fire did not survive. Those images that survived were totally overpainted. However, the historical and religious development of this period also shows the development of Christianity as well as the cult of the Virgin Mary. The most important written sources are privileges 9 related to church foundations because according to the titles of the churches one can guess about the role of the Virgin in this period. The Livonian chronicles 10 is important for the analysis of the introduction of Christianity in on the Eastern Baltic coast as well as for the beginning of the cult of the Virgin. This chronicle informs us on the missionary orders and their function during the crusade of the German Orders to the Baltic lands. The main source for the analysis of the situation of the Catholic church and the cult of the Virgin Mary during the Reformation are the twelve letters written in 1551 by the Lutheran pastor, Martynas Mažvydas to the Duke of Prussia, Albrecht. 11 The analysis of the period from the sixteenth - seventeenth centuries compared with the first period contains a larger source of information, both written and iconographic. This is not only because this period is closer to nowadays, but also because Christianity developed in Lithuania during this period as well as the cult of the Virgin Mary. However, this source material also contains some problems. The church inventories from the seventeenth and the eighteenth century provide little information about the images themselves. They usually mention only a list of images, which are in the churches, but do not describe them. Their importance is that these inventories mention gifts offered to the venerated images: votive offerings, silver coverings, and crowns. These inventories provide insights into the cult of a certain image and allow us to analyse when it was covered in silver. The acts of the church visitations from the nineteenth century give very detailed information about the images, describing them as well as providing a church history. However, due to their late date they are not such valuable primary sources. Sometimes, these acts repeated the information from the inventories of earlier periods, adding information. It is necessary to be careful with the facts which these church documents provide because sometimes the argumentation of such information is based mostly on legends and literary imagination, which were characteristic for the nineteenth century 12. Another problem concerning this source material is terminology 13 in the description of the images. For example, the inventory of the Dominican monastery in Raseiniai 14 refers to "icons" 15 in naming the images of the church. However, it is hard to believe that in the Dominican monastery and church there were only icons in the modern sense of this word, but not images. 16 This causes confusion because there is no possibility to know if there were any icons in this monastery. Another group of primary sources is the documentation detailing the restoration of the paintings. These documents and restoration analyses are certainly very important for the dating of images and for the their painting school definition. They also help to understand how and when the image was overpainted. The 158

3 changing in the iconography is very significant for the study of a certain period. Narrative sources written in the seventeenth century by A.W.Koiałowicz 17, S. Mankiewicz 18, and G. Gumppenberg 19 have been of great importance. They were contemporaries with the veneration of these images and wrote a history of these images and their cult. However, these descriptions mostly concentrate on the cult which is very important for the study of Marian images of the seventeenth century. The description of the iconography of these images is uninformative: po Grecku malowana^, pietum graeco habitu, or Ruthenico more. Another problem of above mentioned narrative sources is that during this period they intended to promote the cult of certain images; therefore, sometimes their descriptions were similar to panegyrics of the paintings. Narrative literature in the nineteenth and early twentieth century consist of mainly historical works which also analysed the cult of the Virgin. The most important authors of such studies were Michał Baliński 21 and Jan Kurczewski 22. Another group of writers such as Sadok Barącz 23 and Alojiz Fridrich 24, dedicated their work to selected miraculous images. However, the earlier literature was mainly about the cult of the Virgin. From the end of nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century research was focused on iconography. This was done mainly by Polish art historians such as Mieczysław Skrudlik 25. They particularly focused on the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of Mercy from Aušra Gate (Dawn). One of the most important studies of Lithuanian images was done by the priest Juozas Vaišnora 26, who collected a great deal of information about each venerated image in Lithuania. His research was not only on the images but also the analysis of the development of the Marian cult in Lithuania. Historian Zenonas Ivinskis 27 dedicated some chapters to the Virgin Mary in his study of the development of Christianity in Lithuania. The focus of these authors was on the veneration of the Virgin. During recent years more and more scholars are involved in the study of Marian iconography in Lithuania, such as Maria Kałamajska-Saeed 28, Laima Šinkūnaitė 29, and Rūta Vitkauskienė 30. For this thesis the works of the Russian scholars Kondakov 31, Lazarev 32, and Ouspenski 33 and the recent studies of Western European scholars, especially Hans Belting 34, Gerhard WolP 5, Hans Aurenhamme 36, and David Freedberg 37 are of particular importance for the comparative analysis of Marian iconography. The following discussion of this topic will be divided into two chapters. The second chapter will consider the development of Christianity until the Reformation in relation to the Marian cult. It will describe the problems concerning the Christianisation of the country, as well as the main influences on this development. The third chapter, which is divided into three sections will analyse the religious development in Lithuania during the Counter Reformation, which also coincided with the rise in the cult of the Virgin Mary. The first section provides a general historical, cultural, and religious background to this period. The second is a discussion of the cult of the Virgin Mary and the role of her images in society. The third section is an analysis of the images themselves, which is based on the catalogue appended to this thesis. The catalogue is a separate part of the thesis, which provides iconographic analysis of the eleven most venerated images of the Virgin. II. THE MARIAN CULT IN LITHUANIA FROM THE MIDDLE AGES UNTIL THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY This chapter is a presentation of the development of the Marian cult in Lithuania from the fourteenth until the sixteenth century. Late christianisation of the country and the situation between the Latin West and the Orthodox East caused a particular religious situation from the Middle Ages to the sixteenth century. Moreover, in this period people of various faith lived here: pagans, Orthodox Christians, Catholics, Muslims, Jews, and Karaites. Faith was one of the most important factors which strongly influenced not only the society of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereafter the GDL) in this period, but it played a very significant role in its cultural development. The Marian cult is indeed only one aspect of the Catholic faith; however, it has an influence on certain periods and certain places throughout the Middle Ages. It was also very significant in Lithuania's historical and religious development until the sixteenth centu- 159

4 ту. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to provide the peculiarities of Lithuania's religious situation in this period and to discuss the reasons which caused the formation of the Marian cult. Lithuania was the last country in Europe to be christianised. The Catholic faith came to Lithuania, having already highly developed the cult and forms of the worship of the Virgin Mary, which started after the christianisation of the country in The first King, who adopted Christianity in 1251, was Mindaugas (Mendog) 38. Though he was baptised in 1251, and crowned King of Lithuania in 1253, this did not result in the christianisation of the country 39. The North Eastern part of Lithuania was christianised in 1387 by King of Poland Jogaila (Jagiełło) and his cousin Duke Vytautas (Witold), and the Western part of the country known as Samogitia 40 was christianised in 1417, by initiative of Grand Duke Vytautas 41. In spite of the late christianisation of the country, in the two preceding centuries the Lithuanian nobility and their followers had already been in close contact with Christianity: Roman as well as Orthodox 42. From the very beginning these two faiths were important in the country and both determined the peculiarity of the veneration of the Virgin Mary. A very important role for the acceptance and the popularity of the cult of the Virgin Mary in this early period was the geographical position of Lithuania between Livonia and Prussia, where a strong cult of the Virgin Mary had already been introduced by the mendicant, the Augustinian and the Cistercian orders, and two Teutonic Orders. 43 Livonia, which today comprises Latvia and Estonia, was Lithuania's main rival for the Eastern Baltic lands in the late Middle Ages 44. At the end of the twelfth century the Cistercians and the Augustinians did missionary work in Livonia and Prussia 45. The first missionary and first Livonian bishop was the Augustinian Mainhard who founded the monastery of the Virgin Mary, near the parish church Ikiškilė (Lat. Ykescola), sometime around In 1201 it was transferred to Riga by Albert of Buxtehude 46, bishop of Livonia; He dedicated this monastery together with the cathedral to the Glory of the Virgin Mary 47. The same Livonian bishop Albert with the help of the Cistercian monk Theodoricus founded the military order of the Sword Brothers, Fratres militiae Christi de Livonia, in The second Teutonic order, Fratres hospitalis sanctae Mariae Theutonicorum lerosolimitari, was settled in Prussia in Later, these two orders acted together with the Augustinian and the Cistercian monks 50, for example: the Livonian chronicles mentions that in 1208 the army together with the Augustinian abbot Theodoricus and provost Engelbert captured the castle of the Selen (the Baltic pagan tribe) where the banner of the Virgin was risen in the tower of the castle, then, the abbot and the provost together with other priests instructed them the Catholic faith and baptised 51. For the Teutonic Knights the Virgin Mary was the symbol of their opposition to enemies. Her cult served to strengthen the Order's political position and authority in Prussia. The idea that the Teutonic Knights identified themselves with the Virgin Mary resulted in the concept of Teutonic Prussia as the Virgin Mary's property and her patronage over the Teutonic Order 52. Therefore, in early 1202, the bishop of Livonia, Albert of Buxtehude adopted for his country the name "the land of Mary," and this title of Terra Afarianawas bestowed by the Fourth Lateran Council in The motif of the Teutonic Knights as Mary's defenders appeared in their religious literature at the end of the thirteenth century, and this idea was used by the Order's propaganda until the beginning of the sixteenth century 54. Certainly, this ideology inspired naming the castles in Mary's honour: three Marienburgs, two Marienwerders, Frauenburg, and Marienhausen 55 as well as churches and monasteries dedicated to the glory of the Virgin Mary founded by the Teutonic Order 56. The development of Marian iconography was also related to the Teutonic Order's patronage. For example, the most popular theme was Mary's Triumph (Glorification), the most significant iconographic type was Mary's Coronation by Christ 57. The expeditions to fight in Lithuania were also related to the feasts of Virgin Mary 58. Such expeditions became a commemoration of these days. The consequence of this was that opposition to the Teutonic Knights was the same as opposition to the Virgin Mary. The battle against the Order on Mary's day was interprated as agression 59. After the christianisation of Lithuania, the first churches founded by the King of Poland, Jogaila and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas were mostly dedi- 160

5 cated to the Virgin Mary 60. The early Marian cult in Lithuania, particularly, was linked to Grand Duke Vytautas. This is possible to notice from his foundation of and privileges for churches and monasteries, including the monastery of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary in Old Trakai (1405) and the church of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary in New Trakai (1409) 61. Although the number of churches built in the fifteenth century was not very large, "the largest part of them were dedicated to the Virgin Mary... The Virgin Mary was the Patroness for every third church", founded by the Grand Duke 62. Another very important fact, which shows that Grand Duke Vytautas strongly propagated the Marian cult is his coronation date, the 8 th of Sepember, - the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin 63. According to the historian Zenonas Ivinskis, one explanation for his acceptance of the Marian cult could be that he wanted to stop the conflicts with the Teutonic Order, because even after the christianisation of the country the Teutonic Order continued to attack and spread various negative information to Western countries against Lithuania. Vytautas wanted to show that Lithuania was as Catholic as Livonia 64. Therefore, the only way to oppose the Teutonic Knights was to establish the cult of the Virgin Mary in the same way as it was developed in the territories under the rule of the Order. A different explanation could also be that the Grand Duke propagated the Marian cult very much, following the model of Western countries, particularly Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia where the veneration of the Virgin was widespread and this Western experience came together with the christianisation of the country. First, Catholic feasts were introduced which were celebrated in the whole Catholic church and others which were celebrated in Poland 65. Bishoprics were also founded in Vilnius and Medininkai 66. Moreover, new Catholic churches built in the fifteenth century needed priests. Therefore, many students from Lithuania went to study at the Universities of Cracow and Prague. At the same time many of the clergy from Poland came to do their missionary work in Lithuania 67. Therefore, they brought the Catholic traditions which had already existed in Europe in this period. The missionary work of the mendicant orders, the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which started from the middle of the thirteenth century during the reign of King Mindaugas, was also very important for the Marian cult in Lithuania. At the beginning, they came mostly from Livonia to Lithuania, and they were particularly important in the court of the Grand Duke when the Franciscan Friedrich von Perenstein ( ) became the archbishop of Riga 69. Later in the fourteenth century until 1341, the Franciscans mostly came from Saxony and after 1342 from Bohemia 70. From the letters of Gediminas (Giedymin) it is known that in the early fourteenth century the main missionaries in Lithuania were the Franciscans and the Dominicans; there even was a rivalry between them 71. In the early fifteenth century, in 1405, Grand Duke Vytautas settled Benedictines in Old Trakai coming from Tynec monastery near Cracow 72. These orders, introducing the Catholic liturgy along with liturgical books and manuscripts, were propagated the veneration of the Virgin Mary in Lithuania. One part of the liturgical books was brought from the monastic centres by missionaries, the other part was illuminated and copied in the local monasteries, for example, in the Benedictine monastery of Old Trakai 73. The manuscripts were mostly copied by the Franciscans; there was, for example, one scriptorium in Kaunas Bernardine (Franciscan Observant) monastery 74. At the same time, the Orthodox faith also had major influence on the veneration of the Virgin Mary. During the late Middle Ages, the Slavic lands were the targets of Lithuanian attacks. From the middle of the thirteenth century, the territory of the Catholic Mindaugas' 75 consisted not only of Lithuania proper 76, but also of Slavic lands as well (part of the Black Ruthenian territory (present day Belarus'). Later, from the fourteenth century till the sixteenth century, the state of the GDL comprised also the North Western part of Red Ruthenia (Ukraine) 77. Therefore, because of its expansion into Ruthenian territories Lithuania was also nr der the influence of Orthodoxy. Catholicism and Orthodoxy had deep religious implications which were important for the veneration of the Virgin Mary as well as for the general religious development. The Orthodox faith was quite accepted among the Lithuanians because the Orthodox Christians were not aggressive against the pagans compared with Catholics, 161

6 for example the Teutonic Order 78. The historian Jerzy Ochmański reported that in the fourteenth century in Vilnius there were twelve Orthodox churches and one monastery; and there were only four Catholic churches and one monastery 7 '. The presence of Orthodox churches and monasteries in this period produced Orthodox liturgical books for the worship. It is known that in Vilnius and Trakai the Gospels were written for the Orthodox church of the Mother of God, and the Psalter for St. Nicolas church 80. The most important manuscript from the thirteenth-fourteenth century is the The Gospels of Lavryshev 81. According to tradition, these Gospels were written in the monastery of Lavryshev near Novgorodok on the River Neman, which was founded by the son of King Mindaugas, Vaišvilkas (Voishelk), duke of Novgorodok, who accepted the Orthodox faith and was baptised with the name of Elisey Lavryshevsky 82. He founded the monastery of the Mother of God in Later, this monastery was called after the name of the founder. It became popular among the Lithuanian nobility; here they accepted the Orthodox faith and were baptised with Orthodox names 83. The Orthodox faith was accepted by Lithuanian dukes because of the expansion in to the Slavic lands, and there they became rulers as well as allies of the Grand Duke. The same way was followed by the other lieutenans of King Mindaugas: Tautvilas ruled over Polotsk, Vykintas over Vitebsk, and Edivydas over Smolensk 84. Historians call the reign of the Dukes of Vaišelga and S varnas at the end of the thirteenth century the Golden Age for the Orthodox 85. Another way of spread of the Orthodox faith was through marriages. For example, the foreign diplomacy of Grand Duke Gediminas was based on the marriages of his numerous daughters. He established a network of marriage alliances with his rivals in Poland as well as in Ruthenia 86. The influence of the Orthodox faith on the GDL's culture continued in the later period as well. Lithuanian historians think that during the period of the thirteenth- fifteenth centuries the Orthodox influence on the GDL's culture was stronger than the Catholic one 87. Therefore, the confluence of the two faiths caused a very particular syncretic culture in the fifteenth century; for example, Orthodox churches or liturgical objects mixed with the elements of the late Gothic and Renaissance styles 88. The Orthodox faith also brought to the GDL the tradition of the veneration of icons. From late antique customs the Orthodox Christians took over the veneration of the icons of the Virgin Mary. Albertas Vijukas- Kojelavičius (Wojciech Wiiuk Koiałowicz) describes in his History of Lithuani^ the parley for peace in Moscow, in 1570, where the Moscovian noblemen asked to exchange prisoners for the icon of the Virgin Mary, which was famous for the miracles in the Grand Duchy of Moscow but had been brought to Vilnius by Queen Elena, the wife of King Alexander ( ). After her death this icon was transferred to the Vilnius Orthodox church of the Virgin Mary, which later was named after the Holy Trinity 90. From this description it is clear that at the end of the fifteenth century in Vilnius there was the Orthodox church of the Virgin Mary in which was an old and very venerated icon that had already been famous in the Grand Duchy of Moscow 91. Icons had already been used among the Orthodox Slavs of the GDL as well as among Lithuanians who accepted the Orthodox faith, or through the marriage with Orthodoxs 92. The chancellor Albertas Goštautas (Albrycht Gasztold) received an inheritance from his grandmother who was the duchess of Trobai (Kniagynia Trabskaja). Her testament of 1510 mentions two icons covered with silver casing 93. Another document, which testifies that Albertas Goštautas venerated icons, even though he was Catholic, is his testament, preserved as a part in the inventory of the chapel of the Goštautas family of Vilnius Cathedral in 1551, where he described the icon of the Virgin Mary covered with very precious silver casing, and he asked item tabulam imaginisgloriosissimae Virginis Matris Mariae Dominae nostrae, grecaepictam cum lapilis pretiosis et margaretis, earn volo poni et collocari in capite sepulchri mep^. Therefore, Orthodox faith and the veneration of icons had also great importance for the cult of the Virgin Mary. While the Orthodox faith spread in Lithuania, Catholicism was popularised by the Dominicans in the Slavic territories of the GDL 95. There, Catholic churches and the bishoprics of Kiev (1405), Vladimir (1400), Lutsk (1427) were founded by the Dominicans. In the sixteenth century, the Bernardines did missionary work. 162

7 The main aim of these missions by Catholics was to get influence on the Orthodox of the GDL 96. This ambiguity of Catholic and Orthodox Christianity in the GDL caused the idea of a church union which existed from the time of Grand Duke Vytautas but was realised only in the late sixteenth century 97. In the sixteenth century the Marian cult in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as in whole Western Europe was disrupted by the Reformation. The Reformation in Lithuania first came from Prussia, where the last grand master of the Teutonic Order, Albrecht of Brandenburg conversed to Protestantism and in incorporated the Order into the Prussian Principality 98. There is no doubt that the Protestant University of Königsberg played a very significant role for the development of the Reformation in Lithuania 99. The ideas of the Reformation also derived from Poland and Germany and mostly through the aristocracy. The children of noble families went to study at Western Universities, particularly, to the universities of Leipzig, Heidelberg, where Protestantism was strong, and they were influenced by these ideas. In the sixteenth century almost all the nobility of Lithuania became Protestant 100. During the reign of King Sigismund the Old ( ) the Reformation was restricted by the king 101. However, the situation changed when King Sigismund II Augustus ( ) became the ruler and Protestantism had no difficulties being spread 102. The most active and strongest Protestant was Mikalojus Radvila the Black (Mikołaj Radziwiłł "Czarny") ( He was the richest and most influential nobleman, against whose actions King Sigismund August did not protest 104. One reason for this was that the King was married to Barbora Radvilaitė (Barbara Radziwiłł), the cousin of Mikalojus Radvila the Black. Therefore, when Radvila accepted Reformation, all the nobility followed his leadership for political, social, and religious reasons 105. The Reformation was also accepted by some Catholic priests, and even Orthodoxs ones 106 The main reason which caused the widespread of Reformation in the GDL was the weak roots of Catholicism: firstly, the hierarchy of the church was still very weak and passive; secondly, the immorality of the priests, as the pope's legate, Commendoni, noticed that the priests who arrived from Poland, were neither educated, nor moral. Therefore, the weak Catholic church was not able to resist the against the influential and educated Protestant nobility 107. The most critical period for Catholicism was the middle of the sixteenth century. However, one document testifies that the Marian cult still existed in this difficult period, and was not stopped absolutely by the Reformation. This is a letter of the Lutheran pastor in Prussia, Martynas Mažvydas (Martinus Mosswidius. Parochus Regnetensis], written in 1551 to duke Albrecht of Prussia. In this letter, the Lutheran pastor complains to the Duke that he has many difficulties in converting his parishioners to the Lutheran faith because they, in spite of his force, followed the doctrina Papistamm. Moreover, very few of them come to his service paucissimi enim adsunt. Finally, worst of all they go to celebrate the feast Marine Virginisgloriosae in Szidllowo (Šiluva), in Samogitia, or for their marriages and for the other Catholic feasts go to Lithuania to the most famous Catholic churches in Švėkšna, Batakiai, and Jurbarkas 108. From this letter it is clear that Catholicism in Lithuania was not absolutely destroyed, and it is known that at least in the middle of the sixteenth century the shrine of the Virgin Mary of Šiluva was quite famous. From the evidence discussed in this chapter, it is clear that the development of the Marian cult was influenced by both the Latin West and Orthodox East; which side was stronger, depended on the GDL's political orientation as the historian Alvydas Nikžentaitis noticed 109. These two cultural influences were equally important in the formation of the Marian cult, which, not really stopped by the Reformation, highly developed during the triumph of the Counter Reformation in the seventeenth century, when Catholicism finally took a decisive position in Lithuania. This will be discussed in the following chapter. III. THE CULT OF THE VIRGIN MARY AND ITS IMAGES IN THE SIXTEENTH AND THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES The previous chapter discussed the christianisation of the GDL from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. A general background of the religious situation was provided presenting the main peculiarities of christiani- 163

8 sation which was also related to the development of the Marian cult. This development was disrupted by strong Reformation in the middle of the sixteenth century. However, almost at the same time the Counter Reformation reached the GDL. This religious movement was very important for the consolidation of Catholic faith in Lithuania. The veneration of the Virgin Mary and her images was only one priority of the Counter Reformation but it was very significant in Lithuania's religious life. The cultural context of the GDL during this period presented to the Counter Reformation's movement some peculiarities which reflected also on the veneration of the Virgin Mary. This will be provided and discussed in this chapter which is divided in three parts: the first part will present the analysis of the GDL's historical and religious context; the second one will be a discussion of the Marian cult, and the third will analyse the iconography of the Marian images. III.l. The historical and religious context in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries This period represents an active religious life in the GDL. It coincided with the beginning of the Counter Reformation which was caused by the events in the GDL, especially the Union of Lublin 110. It was also a period of transition for the GDL's economic and social development because the state had a possibility to integrate into the economic and cultural life of Western Countries. This certainly initiated closer contacts with Western Europe; therefore, the Counter Reformation from Western Europe reached the GDL as well. However, it came to a very controversial society based on different social groups and their religion. The cult of the Virgin Mary being one priority of the Counter Reformation represented not only the triumph over the Reformation in Lithuania but also the rapprochement of the different social groups of the GDL's society. The inforcement of the Counter Reformation in the GDL is possible to be attributed to the period when the most important protector of Protestants Mikalojus Radvila the Black died in The religious situation started to change particularly after the Lublin Union, because at the same date, in 1569, the bishop of Vilnius Valerijonas Protasevičius (Valerian Protasewicz) invited the Jesuits from Poland where they had been settled in 1564 by bishop Stanislaw Hosius (later cardinal) 112. The initiatives of Jesuits were also supported by King Stefan Bathory ( ), who founded the Vilnius Jesuit college to a university and confirmed its foundation in For the aristocracy, the conversion to Catholicism of the four sons of Radvila the Black had great impact: Albertas (Albrycht), Stanislovas (Stanisław), Mikalojus Kristupas (Našlaitėlis) (Mikołaj Krzysztof "Sierotka" (Little Orphan), and Jurgis (Jerzy) 114. Other noble families followed after them, such as the Sapiega (Sapieha), the Chodkevičiai (Chodkiewicz), and the Tiškevičiai (Tyszkewicz). Even some of the GDL's Orthodox converted to Catholicism as well: Čartoriskiai (Czartoryški), Oginskiai (Oginski), and Krošinskiai (Krasiński) 115. The most important result of the Counter Reformation was the Church Union in the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. This idea of the Church Union was also supported by the king of the Commonwealth, Sigismund III Vasa ( ) and the GDL's chancellor Leonas Sapiega (Leo Sapieha). The Jesuits were also very significant for it because they were the main advisers of the king 118. This union showed the intention of Catholicism to penetrate into the Orthodox territories and subordinate them to the papacy 119. This period also coincided with the activity of the richest noble families,magnates, such as the Pacas (Рас), Sapiegas (Sapieha), and Radvilas (Radziwiłł) 120. Their cultural orientation was to Western countries such as Poland, the Netherlands, and Italy. Particularly Italy started to play an important role among Lithuanian aristocracy already in the sixteenth century; they claimed themselves to have been direct "descent from Roman emigres'^21. Therefore, their wish was to maintain closer contacts with Italy. The universities of Padua and Bologna became popular among them 122. On the other hand, there were branches of the magnate families who oriented to other countries because of their confession: Protestants travelled to the Netherlands, Germany, and England. For example, the Radvilas family originating from Biržai remained Calvinist during the whole seventeenth century 123. Noble families, who supported the Counter Reformation, were the main founders of the Baroque style churches and monasteries

9 However, a high number of the GDL's populace were middle class-boyars 125, whose lifestyle was very different from the cosmopolitan aristocracy. If the nobility was oriented to Western countries, boyars focused on local traditions 126. They were the main conductors of Polish culture in the GDL, which after the Lublin Union, had a great influence on it 127. However, it is important to stress that, although the Lublin Union made close contacts with Polish as well as Western culture, unlike Poland the GDL still remained between the Latin West and Orthodox East, and its cultural processes represented the confluence of Western and Hastern traditions 128. Sarmatism, which originated in Poland, was very soon adopted by the Lithuanian boyars, and its features of traditionalism, conservatism, and exaggerated religiosity with many rituals were characteristic for them. On the other hand, they were also strongly influenced by Slavic traditions because Lithuanian boyars followed the court rules of Ruthenian nobility, so, they liked luxury and many ceremonies 130. This social strata of the seventeenth century still maintained "medieval" lifestyle which was certainly strongly reflected in the veneration of the Virgin Mary and her images. Moreover, paganism was still alive even in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries not only among the peasantry but also among the boyars, especially in Samogitia. This fact was confirmed when the pagan sanctuaries from this period were excavated 131, and by the visitors who wrote their reports about Lithuania to Rome 132. Sometimes, the faith of Lithuanian populace was expressed in syncretic religion: a mixture of paganism and Christianity 133. Such mixture in some places existed even in the middle of the seventeenth century, for example in the small village of Ugioniai in Samogitia, where at the same time a holy spring was venerated, which had miraculous power, and the shrine of the Virgin Mary, built in the middle of the seventeenth century. This place is famous for two miraculous images of the Virgin Mary. One is in the church, another in the wooden chapel near the spring 134. The end of the sixteenth century was also a period when the orders of the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Augustinians and the Discalced Carmelites started to recover, and their activity together with the Uniates was significant for setting the cult of the Virgin Mary during the entire seventeenth century. However, the most active order were the Jesuits, who, together with the Church hierarchy, totally reorganised the cultural and religious life in the GDL. The educational system in Lithuania was in the hands of the Jesuits because of their foundation of colleges and, as already mentioned, they ran the University. This provided Catholicism to influence upon the intellectual development of both the gentry and magnates 135. They developed the art of rhetoric, theatre and various theatrical processions, which were very popular during whole the seventeenth century 13. These elements, which presented an understandable language for the major part of the society, were also used by them for popularising the cult of the Virgin Mary, which was one priority of the Jesuits' activity. However, under their leadership the other orders followed as well, including the Dominicans and the Franciscans. This resulted in a strong development of the Marian cult, particularly in the Lithuanian parts of the GDL. In conclusion, the Marian cult, which certainly was a result of a strong influence of Western culture, was introduced by the monastic orders; however, it reached a basis of multi-layered and syncretic culture of paganism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy. The Church Union derived from Lithuania's situation between the Catholic West and Orthodox East, which also influenced the veneration of the Marian images in Lithuania in this period. On the other hand, the strong cult of the Virgin Mary was a result of the victorious Counter Reformation, and also represents a final christianisation of the country; moreover, the aim of this was also to unify two faiths: Catholicism and Orthodoxy. III. 2. The cult of the Virgin Mary This part of the chapter will present a discussion of the cult of the Virgin Mary, which was mostly promoted by different religious orders, including the Dominicans, the Discalced Carmelites and especially the Jesuits. It was also supported by the Church hierarchy, nobility, and the king. Many ceremonies, processions, pilgrimages, and theatrical events were used for the introduc- 165

10 tion of the Marian cult among the populace; however, the cult of images played the most significant role in this process, and these images will be the focus of this section. Until the seventeenth century, as mentioned in previous chapters, there were not enough Catholic churches in the country, especially in small towns and villages. Therefore, the "Renaissance of Catholicism" from the very beginning coincided with the foundation of churches and monasteries 137. In the remote countryside many Catholic churches were built for the first time only in the early seventeenth century, for example: the church of the Visitation in Tverai (1614), or the church of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Tytuvėnai (І6І4) 138. Many monasteries were founded near parish churches as well, including for example a Bernardine monastery in Tytuvėnai (1613) 139, a Dominican in Raseiniai (1642), and a Benedictine in Pivašiūnai (1624) 141. From the list of monasteries from this period we can see that the settlement of Dominicans, Jesuits, Bernardines, and Discalced Carmelites was particularly active even by the late sixteenth century, and not only in ethnic Lithuania but in other parts of the GDL as well 142. The settlement of the orders also resulted in the reconstruction of wooden churches to brick as well as in the arrangement of new altars. This change in the churches can be best illustrated by an example of the church of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary in Trakai, because written sources mention that in 1600, a restoration of this church was done as well as of the main altar 143. These new Baroque altars were arranged according to the program of the Counter Reformation - the main altar almost always contained the image of the Virgin Mary and the altar's iconographic program focused on her adoration. Even if a church was dedicated to another saint, the altar of the Virgin was always in the church, and sometimes, there was more than one venerated image. For example, the inventory of the Dominican monastery in Raseiniai describes three venerated Marian images in the monastery church; one was the copy of the Częstochowa image, another one of the Virgin Mary of the Rosary, and a third venerated image in the main altar, which still exists 144. The altars of the Virgin Mary were also arranged by various religious confraternities and societies, many of which were founded by the orders as well as by guilds' 4 '. Such pie congregationeswerc described by bishops in their reports to Rome 1 ' 6. In a report from 1646, Jurgis Tiškevičius (J erzv Tyszkewicz), bishop of Samogitia, mentioned that there was a confraternity of the Virgin Mary of the Rosary, founded by the Dominicans near almost every church within the area 147. This confraternity was the most popular in Lithuania. The first confraternities of the Rosary in the country are known from the end of the sixteenth century for the first time were mentioned in a report by the bishop of Samogitia, Merkelis Giedraitis (Melchior Giedroyc) (l ) 148. Later, in 1626, the Dominicans founded a confraternity of the Immaculata, in Cracow; in Lithuania this confraternity existed as well, but there is no evidence that the Dominicans were responsible for it 149. This religious society in Lithuania was mostly connected with the Uniates who popularised not only the idea of the Church Union and also strengthened the idea of the Immaculata. They even influenced the Russian Orthodoxs, who in the middle of the seventeenth century founded the same confraternity in Polotsk, which was particularly popular among young people 150. The confraternity of the Virgin Mary of Mercy was founded by the Order of Lateran Canons (Ordo Canonicorum)^ in 1624, near the church of St. Peter and Paul in Vilnius. This order also venerated the image with the same title 152. The Mater Dolorosa was initiated by the bishop of Cracow, Szyszkowski, in 1595; later, it spread to some places in Lithuania as well 153. One of the oldest confraternities of the Virgin Mary in the GDL was that of the Annunciation, founded near the parish church in Geranainiai (Gieranony) in the middle of the sixteenth century. In the early seventeenth century the same association also existed in Vilnius near the church of St. John; however, its name was changed to congregutio Lauretana and was especially connected with the cult of the Black Madonna from Loretto, which was particularly venerated during the Counter Reformation 154 In Lithuania, the cult of the Loretto Madonna was promoted by the Jesuits and Franciscans 155. The imago Lauretanawas, first introduced in the early seventeenth century when the wife of Albertas Radvila (Albrycht Radziwiłł), who after converting to Catholicism, founded the church of St Ann in Paširvinčiai (pre- 166

11 sent day Alvitas) in 1617 and also donated the image of the Madonna of Loretto 156. Later in 1647, the statue of the Madonna of Loretto was brought to the church of St. John in Vilnius, by the Jesuits 157. Certainly, the cult of images was closely related not only with orders 158, who intensively promoted their cult, but also with various religious communities and guilds. From all these examples we can see that the image not only gathered people for its veneration but also organised them into confraternities and other religious communities, which were very popular during this period 159. The church was the main institution, which unified all these different religious communities and guilds; and the image of the Virgin without any doubt played a distinctive role. Such organisation of society is very close to medieval lifestyle because as already discussed in the previous section the largest part of the GDL's social strata practised "medieval lifestyle." Therefore, this type of life was acceptable for a large number of people; and the orders, especially the Jesuits, exploited this situation 160. The same strong connection between society and images is reflected in various processions and pilgrimages, which were also mainly organised by the Jesuits. The procession organised in , by the Bishop of Vilnius Benediktas Vaina (Benedykt Wojna) 161 and the Jesuits to the holy image of Trakai, was the first time this place became a pilgrimage site. Later it became so important that even King Vladislas IV Vasa visited it in І The Jesuits used many theatrical elements for these processions, such as clothing, ceremonial rituals, chanting, and preaching. Every pilgrimage was based on special rituals, for example, when the group of people went from one parish to another, the meeting of the two parishes was ritualised 163. The pilgrimage to the venerated places became so popular that even servants were released for several days in order to go to 164. The images of the Virgin Mary were also accompanied by solemn processions when they had to be moved from one church to another. In such processions the people gathered, as well as bishops and the noble families. In one such procession the image of Trakai was carried to Vilnius Cathedra] because it had to be hidden during the Swedish-Russian war in the middle of the seventeenth century. Later it was returned with the same solemn procession to Trakai, where the Jesuits recited panegyrics to the image for its miraculous power 165. All these processions are the best example of the described Sarmatian sense of religion and its rhetorical pomposity. Certain images played a very significant role both among the populace as well as the upper classes. Church documents, especially the acts of visitations contain not only a description of the inventory of the church but also a list of the gifts given to the image. These documents mention precious votive offerings as well as the gifts donated to the image: crowns, rings, and jewellery. Gifts offered to the images is a very old tradition. The offering of gifts to the images is a peculiar veneration of them. One of the most precious gifts that could be donated to an image is the crowning of the image in gold, which expresses the sign of the image's honour, which later became a fixed rite. This tradition in the Eastern Church derived from Greek pagans, where the offering of golden crowns to their idols symbolised a specially worthy gift 166. This tradition also passed to the Roman Church 167. However, the right to crown statues and images of the Virgin developed from the seventeenth century 168 ; and this tradition was also accepted in the Commonwealth from the early eighteenth century 169, where it also became a custom. The highest point in the cult of the Virgin Mary was reached when the King of the Commonwealth, Wladislas IV Vasa, had the intention in 1637 to found the Order of Knights devoted to the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. The members of this order were to wear a special badge with the symbols of the Immaculata 170. However, this plan was not realised 171. Another important factor for the strength of the Virgin's cult in the Commonwealth was King Casimir's vow to the Virgin. In 1656, during a very difficult period for the Republic of two states 172, the King Casimir, commended the Kingdom of Poland and the GDL to the Virgin's protection 173. At the same time the Virgin's patronage over the state already existed in France, Portugal, and Austria 174. The tradition of the Virgin's patronage over the country was formed in Byzantium and was expressed in the poem Akathisto^. In Western Europe the idea of the Virgin's patronage was spread by monks from the twelfth century. From the thirteenth century this idea developed into offering oneself, as a servant or slave, to 167

12 the Virgin 17. The best illustration of this custom are the Teutonic Knights who considered themselves to be "Mary's Dieners" 177. Another example of this is Hungary, where the Virgin Mary had also been the patroness of the country from the Middle Ages 178. On the other hand, in Ruthenia there were also famous icons of the Virgin which played the role of the country's palladia, for example, in the Rus' territory the icon Vladimir skuja was patroness of Ruthenia and Kiev, and later Moscow 179. Generally, the roots of the Virgin's protection over a country lie in the defence of the Catholic faith in the religious wars of the fifteenth-seventeenth centuries. Her cult was a distinct element of Catholic identity which helped the consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church 180. In conclusion, from this analysis of the Virgin's cult, the main cult object was certainly the image of the Virgin, in contrast to Western countries where sculptures were used as well 181. The strong role of images derives from the close contacts of the GDL with the Orthodox culture over many centuries. The peculiar veneration itself was determined by the Sarmatian sense of religion and lifestyle. On the other hand, the strong relation to the Virgin, which developed in Western Europe from the Middle Ages, shows a strong Western influence on the GDL. Here, the Virgin's cult also became the lead to Catholic identity as well as to the consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church. III. 3. The images of the Virgin Mary This section will analyse the images themselves: their iconography and provenance, which will be done based on the catalogue appended to this work, where every image has a very detailed description of the iconographic type, its analysis, provenance, and location. The research of these images is difficult because their parts are covered with silver and in red material; it is possible to see only overpainted faces, hands, and the Child's feet. Some images have no church documentation and have never been restored; therefore, there are certain difficulties in dating them. However, some general historical, religious, and artistic context is very helpful. Several of these images were researched, and their analysis is also helpful for understanding the process of altar painting. The silver coverings and crowns are part of the Marian iconography and this will be discussed as well in this part of the chapter. In the early seventeenth century, the synods of the bishops instructed artists to use the Byzantine style in altar paintings. As already discussed in previous chapters, this was a result of the Counter Reformation 183. These changes in the iconography can be best illustrated by the image of the Madonna of Trakai, which was not only overpainted, changing the iconography closer to Byzantine style, but the painting was cut to make it smaller and similar to an icon. Generally, special iconographic details such as a rosary, sceptre, and crown were added to paintings of the Madonna for the expression of the Virgin's Heavenly power, which was characteristic of Counter Reformation iconography. These slight modifications can be seen in the images of the Madonna of Troškūnai (Fig. 5), Merkinė (Fig. 3), and the Madonna of the Old Trakai (Fig. 1). All these images, described in the catalogue, belong to a common Western European type of the Virgin Mary called Gnadenbilder miraculous images or pilgrimage images, which were particularly widespread during the Counter Reformation. This Marian iconography, as already mentioned, was based on the most venerated Byzantine icon prototypes. These images were adorned with crowns and jewellery 185. Pilgrimage images had already appeared in Western Europe in the fifteenth century but they became widespread during the Counter Reformation 186. The origin of pilgrimage images is always surrounded by many legends one group of them forms the acheiropoietic images 187. They appeared ex nihilo. Another different group of images was believed to "have been painted - or even carved by Saint Luke" 188. The Lithuanian miraculous images follow the same tradition. From this thesis catalogue one can see that each image has its legend of provenance. The ex nihilo provenance of Lithuanian images is almost always connected with a legend that the image was found somewhere, either in the forest, for example, the image of Šiluva, or in the ruins of an old church, like the Madonna of the Sapiega family 189. Another group of legends tells that certain images were brought by somebody (usually noblemen) from a very distant country 190. The most attractive stories are about noblemen, who after converting to Catholicism, 168

13 went for pilgrimage to Rome and met the Pope who donated the image to them. Such stories can be found in the descriptions of the images in Gumppenberg's Atlas Marianus, for example, the story of the Alvitas image, which was donated by the Pope to Ona Radvilienė (Anna Radziwiłł) 191, or the image of Kazokiškės brought from Rome by the Dominican friar Liudvikas Skinckis (Ludwik Skinski), who studied there 192. The explanation of such legends related to Italy may be seen as an expression of the wish to connect the image with the Holy See. 193 In these stories the authority of the Pope played a significant role in the popularity of the image. The image became a mediator between people and the Holy See, and especially, the Holy Father. The Madonna of Old Trakai (Fig. 1) and the Madonna of Trakai (Fig. 8) are parts of legends which link them to the Grand Duke Vytautas. The authority of grand ducal probably had similar function. As already mentioned in the second chapter, in the early period the cult of the Virgin Mary was particularly linked to his name. Therefore, his authority was important in popularising the Catholic faith with the help of certain images. However, in spite of the images' provenance, there are always certain details in the paintings which without any doubt reveal the local school, for example, the type of crowns on the heads of the Virgins from Troškūnai and Merkinė; the specific modelling of the Virgin and Child faces. Their type of faces were particularly characteristic of the type of Madonna faces painted in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. For example, Žymante Kasparavičienė in the article The Madonna of Trakai states that the facial expression of the Madonna of Trakai is very similar to that of Polish Madonnas 194. Generally, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth a specific representation of the Virgin based on the Byzantine prototypes was established. The Polish scholar Mariusz Karpowicz named this process "Neobyzantism," and the Madonnas painted according to this style form a very peculiar group in the iconography of the Virgin Mary, which "has no analogues" in Europe 195. The most popular representation of the Virgin is as Hodegetria, which was modified with various elements such as a rosary added to the hands of the Virgin, for example in the Madonna of Troškūnai (Fig. 5). This type was very popular in the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth century in the GDL 197. Lithuanian Hodegetria's are characterised by the idealised style of the faces and generalisation of the painting 198. The Child is dissimilar to those in Byzantine icons: small in size but with the face of an adult, symbolising the "pre-eternal God" 199. He is not the "Renaissance baby" either. He is an older child in face but not an infant, for example, the Child of the Madonna of Trakai (Fig. 8), Raseiniai (Fig. 12), and Krekenava (Fig. 11). The Child of the Madonna of Pivašiūnai (Fig. 13) and Troškūnai (Fig. 5) are closer to Byzantine Child representation. Modifications also take place in the Byzantine stars on the Madonna's maphorion, which maintain a symbolic meaning, when one see but they are different from the Byzantine representation, for example, the Madonna of Trakai. The Madonna of Troškūnai (Fig. 5) is the best example of the mixture of Byzantine and Latin West elements: the star on her right shoulder and the crown on her head 200. The faces of the Virgin and Child painted chiaroscuro, the dark material in the background, and the silver covering on the body of the Virgin, give the impression that the image is an old painting and it is similar to an icon. The pilgrimage or miraculous image has to be at least "archaic", if it is not painted by Saint Luke 201. The dark painting certainly resembles old icon painting 202. The same characteristics maintain the images of Troškūnai (Fig. 5), Merkinė (Fig. 3), Pivašiūnai (Fig. 13), and the Aušra Gate (Fig. 16). The Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of Mercy (Fig. 16) has nothing to do with the Byzantine venerated prototypes. This image is without any doubt a representative of Western Marian iconography in its type and size. It is a large size altar painting, which was one of the first in the GDL 203. However, this image was introduced into the context of Gnadenbilder. The Virgin of Aušra Gate has been identified for a long time with an old icon from Holy Trinity church in Vilnius. First of all, this resulted in the popularity of this image not only among the Catholic, but also the Orthodox. Moreover, this was also the result of many polemics between the Orthodox and the Catholic. Orthodox authors such as Kazlovski and Sokolov strongly defended the existence of such a legend which linked the origin of this image to the famous icon 204. The importance of the cult of this 169

14 image is that being of Western provenance it became venerated, miraculous image which unified both faiths: the Catholic and Orthodox 205. All these venerated images are covered with silver. The tradition to cover the altar paintings of saints, martyrs, and the Virgin Mary started in the first half of the seventeenth century 206. The tradition of the adoration of the venerated image with precious metals is an old custom in the Eastern Church and has a sacred meaning 207. Veneration of icons in the Eastern Church is based on the theology that explains the incarnation of the idea - 'Incarnation of God' (Ru, Bogovoploščenije), According to this theology the icon is sacred 208. This theological dogma allows the covering of the figure, face, and hands, because through them the believer has contact with God 209. The icon of Tverai (Fig. 6) follows the same pattern. However, this icon's casing 210 has few slight modifications. The second meaning of the silver adornment on the Virgin's image is that of votum, the offering to the Virgin for her graces as well as a peculiar veneration of the image itself 211. The tradition of donating of gifts and precious votive offerings, such as jewellery, to the miraculous icons originated in Byzantium and, later, passed to Russia. There this tradition was adopted but through the centuries it was modified as well 212. In the seventeenth century a new type of the silver coverings, which originated in Russia, covers the whole icon, except for the faces. This was a result of the changes in the Orthodox Church and also the influence of the Catholic Church as well. The adoration of the icon also changed. Instead of religious and spiritual meaning, it became important to show ones' wealth 213. These new silver coverings were called "riza ikony' 2. The same term "riza" is used in the inventories of churches to describe the silver coverings of Lithuanian images. The covering of the Madonna of Šiluva most closely resembles the Russian "riza' (Fig. 15). In Lithuania it was not characteristic to cover the background with silver but in red material. It may have had a decorative meaning because silver or silver gilded covering on the red tissue gives the impression of splendour and richness which were its main function, deriving from Sarmatian desire for gold and luxury. The red material in the background may have covered also the damaged paintings which were sometimes used for this type of images, for example, the Madonna of the Sapiega family was totally overpainted because the earlier painting was completely damaged 215. Certainly, there were many of such ravaged paintings. Another important fact to notice is that many of these images are not restored. This can be seen from the image catalogue. We do not know about the painting under the material and silver covering. There is also a possibility that the painting is incomplete the same as Russian icons of the seventeenth century. However, this can be testified only by the restoration work. The silver covering of the image of Trakai (Fig. 10) also resembles the riza; however, it is modified with a decoration of very rich floral ornamentation characteristic of Baroque style 216. The other silver coverings, which spread in Lithuania, were modified. They do not repeat the lines of the Virgin's figure and the design of her dress. They were all decorated with Baroque style ornamentation. These features one can notice from the catalogue of the images. There are also additional silver elements to these paintings such as stars around the Virgin's head, the silver gilded halo with long beams, and a silver moon at the bottom of the image 217. Sometimes, there is a silver dove symbolising the Holy Ghost 218 above the Virgin's head, or the Virgin has a silver sceptre. All these elements we see in the image of Pivašiūnai (Fig. 13). They certainly derived from Western Marian iconography and were added to the silver coverings. However, the use of silver coverings in the GDL originated from the Eastern parts of the countries because of the close contacts with the Ruthenian lands and in general Byzantine culture 219. The Polish art historian Mariusz Karpowicz analysed the origin of silver coverings in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and refered to the Western European tradition to "dress" the image. He compares the Polish coverings with "the well known Spanish custom of textile "costumes" for cult sculptures" 220. However, the Lithuanian scholar Rūta Vitkauskienė disagrees. She argues that Karpowicz had not noticed the difference in the cultural traditions in Poland and the GDL of this period. The GDL was always strongly influenced by Orthodox culture. Therefore, the origin of the silver coverings is without doubt the result of this Orthodox influ- 170

15 ence, even if these silver coverings were modified by the Baroque ornamentation 221. The discussed silver covering of Tverai shows that the goldsmiths in the GDL were familiar with the Byzantine tradition as well; however, the Counter Reformation's different conception of the sacrality introduced the modifications in the silver coverings 222. From the catalogue of images we can see that various influences existed. There is little evidence about the earlier altar paintings from the period of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries in the GDL. Certainly, they were more numerous but only few of them from this period have survived until the present day. One reason for this is that until the seventeenth century churches were mostly wooden and were destroyed many times by fire. Another factor which affected the survival of altar paintings in the Lithuanian part of the GDL was the Counter Reformation which introduced changes in the altar arrangements. Very few sculptures of the Virgin, already mentioned in the second chapter, testify to the important influence of Germany. Another example of Western influence is the original painting technique of the sixteenth century Madonna of Trakai which links it to Bohemia. This fact can be easily supported by historical evidence because the GDL had very close cultural contacts with Bohemia, especially during the period of the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries 223. On the other hand, the icon of Tverai is a reminder of Lithuania's contacts with Orthodox countries. Summarising the Marian iconography of this period, it is possible to determine that the most popular type were pilgrimage images. This was certainly the result of the Counter Reformation which presented a very intensive change in iconography, especially from the early seventeenth century. However, the influence of Orthodox culture existed as well, especially in image veneration itself, its importance in society, and its adoration with precious metals. IV. CONCLUSIONS The Marian cult in Lithuania can be divided into two main periods: the first from the christianisation of the country until the Reformation, the second the Counter Reformation. The religious and cultural processes in the GDL during the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries are very important for the later development of the Marian cult because the roots of the strong cult of the Virgin in the seventeenth century were founded in this earlier period. Despite the controversy in the religious situation, as well as very few iconographic sources representing the cult of the Virgin from this period. The evidence of the first period can be summarised in the following way. 1. The beginning of the Marian cult in Lithuania started with the christianisation of the country. 2. Its development and formation from the very beginning was under the influence of the Latin West and the Orthodox East. These two cultures were present from the beginning of the state's foundation, and the prevalence of one over the other depended on the GDL's political orientation. 3. In spite of very few iconographic sources, historical evidence shows the strong influence of Germany, Poland, and Bohemia because of the close contacts maintained by the GDL with these countries between the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. 4. The GDL's expansion to the Ruthenian territories, which had an Orthodox culture, is reflected in the influence of Byzantine culture on Lithuania, and which certainly had an impact on the Virgin's veneration. 5. The strong Reformation, which derived from Western Europe, in the middle of the sixteenth century, had political, social, and religious causes; however, it did not disrupt the development of the Marian cult. The second period, which is the Counter Reformation, is the most important for the development of the cult of the Virgin and represented the consolidation of the Catholic faith in Lithuania. The following factors in the development of the Marian cult and iconography, which occurred during the period from the christianisation of Lithuania up to the seventeenth century, are the most informative and relevant for this thesis; therefore, they should be summarised. 6. The strong Counter Reformation movement in the GDL was strongly connected to the cult of the Virgin, which was mainly propagated by the Jesuits. 7. The Marian cult, being the priority of the Counter Reformation, was the main implement, not only 171

16 against the Protestant aristocracy, but her cult had the aim of finally christianising the peasantry, whose religion was paganism or religious syncretism based on a mixture of paganism and Catholicism. 8. The images of the Virgin played the most significant role in her cult. This was a result of close contacts with the Orthodox culture. 9. Solemn processions, theatrical oratories, and luxury in the adoration of the Marian images derived from the Sarmatian lifestyle, which originated in Poland, and which also became very popular among Lithuanian boyars. 10. The characteristic feature of Lithuanian Marian iconography of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is that the images were pilgrimage images. The most popular Byzantine prototype used in the GDL was the Hodegetria; however, not only Byzantine prototypes, but also Western iconographic types such as Annunziata, were venerated. 11. The representation of the Virgin is close to the iconography of Polish Madonnas in the modelling of the faces of the Virgin and the Child's representation. 12. The Byzantine prototypes were modified with additional elements such as a rosary, crowns, and sceptre. 13. The adoration of the image in silver, which derived from Byzantine tradition, became very popular in the Commonwealth from the early seventeenth century. 14. The silver coverings, called "riza," originated in Russia in the seventeenth century. Their use on the images first spread in the Eastern part of the GDL; however, in Lithuania the rizas were modified with Baroque ornaments, and additional silver elements, such as crowns, stars, a moon at the bottom of the image, and silver doves. 15. The silver coverings and crowns are the most distinctive details related to the pilgrimage images in Lithuania in the seventeenth century; they represent the confluence of Western and Eastern traditions. Reviewing this evidence, we can see that the cult of the Virgin and her images in this period were certainly the result of the Counter Reformation; however, the peculiar veneration of images themselves, their distinctive role in the society of the seventeenth century, lie in Lithuania's relationship with the Orthodox culture. Moreover, Orthodox territories were a very significant part of the GDL, and this certainly had an impact on Lithuania's cultural development. Therefore, these images and their cult represent the confluence of both cultures: Western and Eastern. CATALOGUE OF THE MOST VENERATED IMAGES OF THE VIRGIN MARY IN LITHUANIA 1 I. VIRGIN AND CHILD OR MADONNA OF OLD TRAKAI. Panel, gilding. 39x29,5 cm. Original painting: 15 th century. Overpainted: 17 th century. Local school. Vilnius, Cathedral-Basilica of St. Stanislas and Vladislas 2 (Fig. 1). 1. The Queen of Heaven or Maria Regina also means Ecclesia Regina. It is a theme in literature and iconography, which developed from the iconographic type of Maria Regina popular in Western iconography. This type was identified first in Byzantine frescoes (Durazze, 6c.) in Rome. The Maria Regina type rose in Rome and it was particularly strong there because of political and ideological problems. The authority of the Pope had to oppose the Byzantine Empire, therefore, Maria Regina represented Ecclesia Reginazs well. The oldest representation of the Virgin Mary as the Queen of Heaven is in the apside of the baldachin of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome. In that fresco, Maria is represented wearing a diadem on her head as thefeminae clarissime, the noble women in ancient times. 3 Later in the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries in the iconography of the Mother of God, she is represented in frontal position and sitting on a throne, with a crown on her head. In one hand she has a sceptre, in another the orb. More often she is represented with the Child on her right side, and in the left hand she holds a sceptre. The Infant has the orb in the left hand, and with the right hand he blesses. The position of the Child is frontal as well. Such representation of the Virgin symbolises the Queen of heaven with the Saviour of the World. The specific iconographic type spread rapidly in the iconography of the Counter -Reformation

17 (Fig. 2). It is written that this image was a gift for Duke Vytautas, on the occasion of his Baptism, received from the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Paleologus ( ) which the Duke later donated to the monastery of the Benedictines of Old Trakai. 6 The Benedictines had kept this image until the monastery was closed in Čechavičius (Czechowicz), the last abbot of the monastery, took it. Later around 1849 he gave it to the suffragan of Lutsk, Fijalkovski (Fijałkowski), Together with the written story about this image. Then Fijalkovski gave it to the Chapter of Vilnius on condition that it had to be located in the chapel of Vytautas. However, such a chapel never existed; therefore, it was located near the memorial desk of Vytautas in the Cathedral of St. Stanislas and Vladislas, where it has been until the present time. 7 Fig. l. Virgin and Child or Madonna of Old Trakai. Archives of Gudynas. Neg. inv. no The figures of the Virgin and Child have been overpainted, which can be seen clearly from the Virgin and Child's clothes. The restoration of the Madonna of Old Frakai, done in 1985, showed that the image originally was painted in the fifteenth century. Ultraviolet luminescence analysis reveals that the image was restored, but who and when it was done is not known. The radiographic analysis shows that the painting's composition was not changed. 5 The face of the Virgin may have been overpainted at the end of the seventeenth or early eighteenth century because the model of the facial expression, especially her mysterious smile, is very similar to the faces of noble women in the portraits of this period. 3. The origin of this image is not clear. However, the legend of the Madonna of Old Trakai is traditionally connected to Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold). On the back of the image there is an inscription, written in Polish, which describes the whole story of the image 173

18 II. VIRGIN AND CHILD. Panel. Gilding. 84,5x57,5cm. Original painting: early 16 th century. Overpainted: early 17 th century. Local school. Merkinė, Church of the Assumption of the Virgin. 4. This image is overpainted. This is possible to notice from the painting of the Virgin's clothes and the Child. The Virgin and Child wear very typical crowns (Fig. 3), which were added to the painting later. The Madonna of Troškūnai has a similar crown (Fig. 5). This type of crown is characteristic of the early seventeenth century and is associated with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, so, this image is certainly a representative of a local school of art. 8 The other detail added to the image is an adornment decorated with dark precious stones, the same as on the crown. This adornment is around the Virgin's neck and cover her shoulders, and over the maphorion. This particular detail gives the idea that it is made from metal, and was probably painted later over the maphorion because its position is very unnatural. Such metal detail in the Virgin's dress could be taken from the clothes of the Polish-Lithuanian army used from the late sixteenth to the eighteenth century. This metal detail came from the armour and was called the gorget, which was worn to protect the throat (Fig. 4). It developed from the hussar officers' armors used in the sixteenthseventeenth century in the Polish-Lithuanian army, which had been influenced by the armor worn in the West, especially in Hungary. 9 The gorgets were decorated with the family crest or the image of the Virgin (Fig. 4).' From the eighteenth century this detail became separated from the armor, then lost its previous significance and became a simple adornment for an officer's dress. 11 The gorget on the Merkinė Madonna's maphorion may symbolically represent the Virgin as the Protector of the faithful the same as the crown, which has the symbolical meaning of the Queen of Heaven. The gorget may have been painted on the maphorion at the same time as the crown in the early seventeenth century; or it was added to the painting even later, in the middle of the eighteenth century. big. 3. Virgin and Child, Merkinė. Archives ot the Institute ot Fine Arts Heritage Fig. 4. Gorget with the image of the Częstochowa Madonna, 18' 1 ' century, Military Museum in Warsaw (From O. Mažeikienė. XIV- XIX ginklü. Katalogas. Vilnius LTSR istorijos-etnografijos muziejus, 1987, No 34, p. 67.) 174

19 III. VIRGIN AND CHILD, QUEEN OF THE ROSARY. Canvas, oil. 175x123 cm. Original painting: ca Overpainted: early 17 th century. Local school. Troškūnai, Church of Holy Trinity. 5. The seventeenth century painting of the Madonna of Troškūnai consists of two iconographic types: the Hodegetria and the Virgin Mary of the Rosary (Fig. 5). The Child sits on the Virgin's left hand, blesses with his right hand and has a book in his left. 12 On the right shoulder of the Virgin there is a star. It derived from Byzantine icons where three stars, two on the Virgin's shoulders and one on her forehead symbolise her virginity before, during, and after the confinement. 13 A rosary was added to the Hodegetria type and is in the hands of the Virgin. The Virgin with Child is surrounded by small round pictures (Fig. 5) that depict mysteries of the Rosary, which are divided into three parts: Joyful, Sorrowful, and Glorious... At the corners of the image are the four Evangelists with their attributes: Luke with the ox, Mark with the lion, Matthew with the angel, and John with the eagle. The representation of the Virgin surrounded by small images derives from Byzantine icons. These are miniatures usually of quadratic form, and they show scenes from the life of Christ. Some icons are surrounded by the apostles. 14 The earliest representation of the Virgin surrounded by the Rosary is from the fifteenth century. The Rosary was an attribute of St. Dominic, Catherine of Siena and the Virgin. The origin of the Rosary has been linked by legend to St. Dominic. The Dominicans have had a major role in the apostolate of the Rosary. Therefore, the representation of the 'Virgin of the Rosary' was especially used in the churches and monasteries of the Dominican order. This type of images became particularly widespread during the Counter Reformation The composition of the original painting was slightly modified. There are some remains from the previous pictorial layer: the nimbus of the Madonna and Child, and the beads on the neck of the Virgin. Of the original painting the clothes of the Child and the Rosary mysteries around the Virgin remained. 16 Fig. 5. Virgin and Child, Queen of the Rosary, Troškūnai (The photo received from restorer of the image Tauras Jurkūnas, Kultūros paminklo restauravimo pasas, No. 84) 7. The changes to the painting may have been done in the early seventeenth century. The Virgin and Child wear very typical crowns, which were added to the painting in this period. The Madonna of Merkinė has a similar crown (Fig. 3). This was characteristic of the early seventeenth century and is associated with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, so this image is certainly a representative of the local school of art. 17 The Rosary was added and placed in the hands of the Madonna of Troškūnai 18 and an inscription Monstra TeesseMatrem (Show Yourself as Mother) was added to the image at the bottom at the same time

20 ~ IV. VIRGIN AND CHILD. Panel. 19xl4cm. (25x19,5 cm with frame). 16 th century. Russian school. Tverai, Church of the Visitation of the Virgin. 8. This icon contains all the features of the Byzantine icon tradition. It is a half- length Hodegetria. The Child sits on the Virgin's left arm. The Child blesses with his right hand and in his left he holds a book. 20 It is a high quality painting because of the fine gilding on the clothes. This method of icon painting is called "assiste"- done with liquid gold which demanded highly skilled work. Such a technique is characteristic of sixteenth century painting (Fig. 6). 21 The origin of this icon might be from Russia because it corresponds to all the features of the icon of Tichvine Mother of God icon (Fig. 7). The name of this type of icon derives from the town of Tichvine in Northern Russia. This type has been venerated in Russia since The Tichvine Mother of God is also an old Byzantine half-length Hodegetria type. However, it has certain modifications: the representation of Child is no longer straight before the spectator, and the Child's face, which is three quarters shown, is turned fully towards the right shoulder of his Mother. The Child still holds himself very upright, seated on his Mother's left arm, but his attitude is less severe: his right leg, folded under the himation, allows one to see the sole of the foot, emerging from under the left leg which is stretched forward. Also, the gesture of benediction is less solemn: instead of stretching out his arm majestically, the Infant raises the right hand simply in benediction. The body of the Mother of God is slightly turned towards the right side of the icon. Without losing the solemn expression, detached from all human affection, the Virgin of Tichvine inclines her head towards the Infant; however she does not turn her look towards the Child but to the spectator. Her whole attitude and above all the expression of the pensive and saddened face, show us a merciful Hodegetria who intercedes before her Son praying for the fallen world. Therefore, she most closely resembles the Byzantine type of the Hodegetria Eleousa - the Merciful. 22 The icon of the Tichvine Mother of God has a very important place along with other b'ig. 6. Virgin and Child, Tverai. Photo Klaudijus Driskius Fig. 7. The Tichvine Mother of God, Russian school, first hal of the 17' 1 ' century (From L. Ouspenski and V. l.ossky. The Meaning of Icons. Trans!. G. F,. H. Palmer F.. Kadloubovsky. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's seminary Press, 1989, p. 86.) 176

21 miraculous icons of the Virgin Mary such as those of Smolensk and Kazan. 9. The form of the casing of the Tverai icon is also traditional Byzantine: the frame and the background of the icon are covered with silver; however, the painted figures of the Virgin and Child are not (Fig. 7). Nevertheless the workmanship and the decoration is not Byzantine. The silver plate is bordered in relief by the frame of the icon. The plain surface of the frame is engraved with the vine scroll as an Eucharistic symbol. This ornamentation is similar to that of German Renaissance engravings of the beginning and middle of the sixteenth century, particularly to the work of Heinrich AJdegrever ( ) of the Nürnberg school. 24 On the frame there are symmetrically spread flowers. In the background two small silver angels hold the Virgin's crown, expressing the idea of the Queen of Heaven. The Angels are probably the figures of the Archangels Gabriel and Michael. The representation of them near the Virgin is characteristic of the Hodegetria icons. 10. The origin of the icon is not clear, there are only legends. One of them is that this image belonged to the founder of the church, Elijas Ilgovskis (Ilgowski). He appreciated this icon very much and he was very devoted to it. He had never been separated from the icon, even when he had to go to war. When he was taken prisoner by the Tartars, he often prayed to this icon. One day when he was praying he suddenly saw the icon surrounded by light, at that moment he took a vow that if he returned home, he would build a church to the Virgin Mary; he kept his promise and donated this icon to the new church. However, there is another story; Bishop Valavičius mentioned that this image was brought by the headman of Tverai, Potockis (Potocki) who ruled Tverai some time after Elias Ilgovskis, on his return from captivity by the Tartars around He left this icon in the estate of Tverai where people began to see it surrounded by light. The bishop was invited to investigate this miracle and then this icon was located in the main altar of the church. Most people believe the former legend that this icon was donated by the founder of the church of Tverai, Elijas Ilgovskis. 25 V. OUR LADY OF TRAKAI, PATRONESS OF LITHUANIA. Panel, gilding. 127x110cm. Original painting: sixteenth century. Overpainted: early 17 century. Silver covering: early 18 th century. Local school. Trakai, Church of the Visitation of the Virgin, St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. 11. This image is a modified seated Hodegetria type. The Virgin is shown directly facing the viewer. The Child, sitting on her right knee, holds a book in his right hand and his left is stretched towards the flower offered by the Virgin. 2 The maphorion and the mantle of the Virgin are blue. The edge of the mantle is decorated with a fine, golden ornamental band. The Virgin's dress is red tied under her breast, and the pleats are close to Gothic style. 27 On the maphorion of the Virgin's forehead there is a cross and on her left shoulder a star. The representation of stars on the maphorion derived from Byzantine icons where they symbolise the Virgin's virginity, before, during, and after her confinement. 28 However, there is one modification of the Byzantine style in that the star on the Virgin's forehead was changed into a cross (Fig. 8). 12. This image has an unusual composition in that it finishes at the knees of the Virgin. M.Baliński in Starożytna Polska wrote that in 1600, during the restoration of the church, the image was cut before it had been a full figure. 29 The fact, that the image was changed, has also been confirmed by the restoration analysis. In 1994 the image was restored. From the restoration analysis it is clear that the Madonna of Trakai is a painting from the sixteenth century. 30 The painting technique is similar to that of fifteenth and sixteenth century ones found in Bohemia and the Netherlands. In the seventeenth century it was overpainted and its previous image was changed. In the original painting the head of the Virgin is without maphorion. In the painting of the sixteenth century the Virgin wears a transparent or white veil and a diadem on her head. It is difficult to say if the facial expression was changed as well. The Virgin was represented sitting, and her clothes from the previous layer of the painting make her figure a little bit narrower. The golden edge of the Virgin's dress was broader. From Xray it is evident that the Child has moved, although it 177

22 is unclear if he was in the centre or on the left. The position of the Virgin's arms were changed; they may have been together in prayer, or for holding the Child. 31 The gilded background was changed as well. Before the seventeenth century ornamentation was smaller, and it was similar to the ornamentation found on textiles. In the seventeenth century it became similar to the metal work of the time. 32 I was told by art historians 33 that they believe that before the seventeenth century there was a Gothic altar, and the Virgin of Trakai was perhaps from the iconographic scene of the Sacra Conversazione. It is difficult to describe the previous altar because there are no sources to confirm such a hypothesis. It is clear that in the seventeenth century was the intention to change the painting and make it closer to Byzantine style. This was done by cutting the image and adding the maphorion which shapes the figure of the Virgin into a triangle. 13. Traditionally, this image is linked to Grand Duke Vytautas. On the back of the painting of the Madonna of Trakai there is an inscription which explains that this image was a gift to the Duke on his baptism from the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Paleologus ( ) 34 : Imago haec E.V. Mariae miraculis in Lituania in civitate Trod Celebris ab Emanuale U Imperatore Orientalis Alexandra Witolda Magno Dud Lituaniae nuper ad Sanctam Fidem Catholicam converso donata est. Ferunt hanc esse ipsam imaginėm cuius ope Joannes Comnenus Imperator Orientalis hunnos et persus vicit, obbentisque hisce victoris vehiculo argentes tracto a quator equis albi Constantinopolim solemniter invexit in propriusque locoposuit (Fig. 9). 35 Historically this is possible because Grand Duke Vytautas communicated with Emperor Manuel II, however, iconographically, as discussed before it is impossible because the image is from the sixteenth century. 14. The Madonna of Trakai was the first image crowned in gold by permission of the Pope and the ceremony guidelines of the Chapter of the Vatican Basilica. It was crowned on September 8, 1718 by the Bishop of Vilnius, Konstantinas Bžostovskis (Brzostowski), and he conferred upon it the name of the Mother of God, Patroness of Lithuania.^ The whole procedure for the Coronation of the Virgin was described in the book Solemnitas coronationis B. V.Mariae in antiquissima sua Fig. 8. Our Lady of Trakai, Patroness of Lithuania, Trakai. Archives of Gudynas. Neg. inv. no (13a) "'III IllfflljIПИП. >' ОІ'ч n tu jtiiitn t/ti/tuį Fig. 9. Inscription written on the back of the image. Archives of Gudynas. Neg. inv. no

23 ad praepositalem Palatino Trocensis civitatis basilicam, published 1719 in Vilnius. 37 This image had already received other crowns before. One was donated by the chancellor of Lithuania, Leonas Sapiega (Leo Sapieha), to the Virgin and one by the vice-chancellor Alleksandras Naruševičius (Aleksander Naruszewicz) to the Child The Papal Nuntius wrote on July 16, 1639 a report to Rome about the pilgrimage of King Vladislas IV Vasa to the Madonna of Trakai on July 10, 1639, testifying the popularity of this image. 39 The veneration of the image was particularly strong during the seventeenth century. Later, however, when in the eighteenth century the cult of the Blessed Virgin of Aušra Gate (Ostrabrama) developed, the Madonna of Trakai came under her shadow. VI. VIRGIN AND CHILD. Panel. 172x112cm. Early 17 th century. Silver covering: early 18 th century. Local school. Krekenava, Church of the Assumption of the Virgin. 16. The origin of this image is unknown. There is only a legend explaining the provenance of the Virgin of Krekenava. It is told that it was brought from Cracow by a very devoted knight, Šilingas, and presented to the missionary Albert. In the beginning this image was in a small chapel, and later it was transferred to the church of Krekenava (Fig. 11). Fig. 10. The silver covering of Our Lady of Trakai, ordered by Bishop ol Vilnius Mikalojus Steponas Pacas Archives of KPC. (From the article of B. R. Vitkauskienė. 'Frakų Marijos paveikslo aptaisai // Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės barokas: formos, įtakos, kryptys. Vilniaus dailės akademijos darbai / Actą acadcmiae artium Vilnensis 21. Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla, 2001, p. l 57.) Fig. 11. Virgin and Child, Krekenava. Photo Klaudijus Driskius 179

24 17. This image can be found in the main altar of the church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Raseiniai (Fig. 12). 41 It is believed that the first church was founded by Duke Vytautas the Great in In 1642 the bishop of Samogitia permitted the clerk of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Mikalojus Slanka Bilevicius (Mikołaj Stanka Bilewicz) and his brother Adomas (Adam) to settle the Dominicans in Raseiniai. 43 The Dominicans first settled in 1642, near the parish church. Later, around 1663, the Dominicans founded a brick-church and monastery. In 1889 the Russian government closed the Dominican monastery in Raseiniai, and the church was given to the parish. In 1932 the Dominicans resettled in Raseiniai. 44 Various sources mention that in the chapel of the first Dominican church there was a copy of the image of Częstochowa that had a silver-gilded covering and crown. Another miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, reportedly from the monastery's chapter house, is covered with silver, and the heads of the Virgin and Child are adorned with crowns. It is thought that the image from the chapter house is the present image of the Virgin and Child, which is still in the main altar of the church. 4 '' VIII. OUR LADY OF PIVAŠIŪNAI, CONSOLATION OF SORROWFUL. Canvas, oil. 195xl40cm. Early 17 th century. Silver covering: ca І750. Local school. Pivašiūnai, Church of the Assumption of the Virgin. Fig. 12. Virgin and Child, Raseiniai. Archives of KPC. Neg. inv. No D The origin of the Pivašiūnai image is unknown but there is a legend that somebody brought it from VII. VIRGIN AND CHILD. Canvas, oil. 144x112cm. Early 17 th century. Silver covering: early 18 th century. Local school. Raseiniai, Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Turkey. However, there are no documents that can conį Fig. 13. Our Lady of Pivašiūnai, Consolation of Sorrowful, Pivašiūnai. Archives of KPC. Neg. inv. no D

25 firm this fact, nor of the miracles of the Madonna of Pivašiūnai. They could have been destroyed in one of the fires, which also destroyed the church. However, the image was always called "the miraculous" in the writings of the diocesis This is the fifth image in Lithuania to be crowned according to the ceremony guidelines of the Chapter of the Vatican Basilica. It was crowned on the 15 th August of 1988 by Cardinal Vincentas Sladkevičius with a crown given Pope John Paul II. The name Virgin Mary the Consolation of the Sorrowful, was conferred upon it (Fig. 13). 47 IX. VIRGIN AND CHILD. Canvas, oil. 200x122cm. Early 17 th century. Silver covering: early 18 th century. Local school. Tytuvėnai, Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. (Fig. 14). Pig Our Lady of Šiluva, Health of Patients. Archives of KPC. Neg. inv. no D 4132 X. OUR LADY OF ŠILUVA, HEALTH OF PATIENTS. Canvas, oil. 232x140cm. Early 17 th century. Local school. Silver Covering: 1674 by Laurent Hoffman (Prussia). Šiluva, Basilica of the Nativity of the Virgin. (Fig. 15). Fig. 14. Virgin and Child, Tytuvėnai. Archives of KPC. Neg. inv. no D The story of the image's provenance explains that it was found in the forest. It might refer to the time when Catholics hid the property from the first Catholic church in the nearby forest. It is not know, if it is the same image from the earlier church or that of a later one. Another possible version regarding the origin of the image of Šiluva is that it was brought directly from Rome by the founder of the first church, Petras Gedgaudas (Piotr Gedgowd). This is historically possible because Petras Gedgaudas was in Rome with other mem- 181