IN THE SHADOW OF THE HIMALAYAS: THE TIBETAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE

Transcription

1 IN THE SHADOW OF THE HIMALAYAS: THE TIBETAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE

2 The Tibetan Government in Exile Dear Delegates, My name is Andrew Gutke, and it is my distinct pleasure to be your director of In the Shadow of the Himalayas: The Tibetan Government in Exile. I am in my fourth and final year at the University of Florida and I will be graduating this year with a degree in Political Science with minors in Asian Studies, International Development, and Teaching English as a Second Language. It is my fourth year in UF Model UN and it has been perhaps the best four years of my life thus far. If I'm not doing MUN or school work, you can almost certainly find me bothering alumni as a student fundraiser for the university, or watching Arsenal games hoping the team gets a win for once. This committee was born out of the desire to tell a story that is often forgotten in today's world. Tibet, in my opinion, is one of the world's unique narratives from its location, to its powerful protagonist, to the beautiful history that makes Tibet what it is. There is no current struggle like that of the Tibetans today. It is my hope that by this committee's conclusion, you will have gained an understanding of the Tibetan struggle, an appreciation for the Tibetan culture, and most importantly, a desire to see justice for all those who call Tibet home. In the Shadow of the Himalayas: The Tibetan Government in Exile is the story of the government recognized by the Tibetan people, but not the puppet government installed by the Chinese as part of their longstanding occupation of Tibet. Out of the grasp of the Chinese government in Dharamshala, India, this board works tirelessly to protect the integrity of the Tibetan people, preserve the traditional Tibetan culture and religion, and in time, free Tibet from the shackles of the Chinese that have been in place since Mindful of preserving the beauty of Tibet's ancient past, the push to modernize Tibet is at the forefront of all Tibetan minds, a process that can only be truly completed if freed from the Chinese. This convention of the Government begins on February, 8th 2018, following the conclusion of Tibet's most holy holiday, Losar, the Tibetan New Year. On the docket for this convention are an array of complex issues including; gaining independence from China, maintaining and growing relations with America, India, and other allies globally. As well as working to integrate ancient Tibetan practices into modern life, this convention must work to solve the problems of the next Dalai Lama, and to unite using the Tibetan Diaspora. Done right, one might see a newly independent Tibetan state backed by foreign superpowers, but done wrong the world may not know Tibet for its downtrodden people, destroyed culture, and outlawed religion. Delegates, I thank you for embarking upon this journey with me, and I look forward to all the lively debate you have to offer. I'll leave you with these parting words from the 14th Dalai Lama as you prepare for this committee: "Tragedy should be utilized as a source of strength. No matter what sort of difficulties, how painful experience is, if we lose our hope, that is our real disaster. If you have any further questions about the committee, please do not hesitate to contact me at flcssecretariat@gmail.com. Welcome to FLCS VIII! Sincerely, Andrew Gutke Director In the Shadows of the Himalayas: The Tibetan Government in Exile 2

3 In the Shadow of the Himalayas Introduction to Tibet Known as "the roof of the world," Tibet is an internationally recognized autonomous region within the People's Republic of China. However, many Tibetans dispute the legitimacy of the Chinese government and claim Tibet as an independent state. As it is currently an Autonomous Region of China, it is in practice, governed by the Chinese Communist Party under the direction of President Xin Jinping. However, there exists a second government of Tibet, the Central Tibetan Administration, the so-called Tibetan Government in Exile. Headquartered in Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh Province, India, the administration has stated that it is "not designed to take power in Tibet"; rather, it is to be dissolved "as soon as freedom is restored in Tibet" in favor of a government formed by Tibetans inside Tibet. Tibet has an internal population of around 2.7 million Tibetans within its borders. An additional 130 thousand Tibetans live abroad, in a so-called diaspora. While the diaspora is only about 4% of the total Tibetan population, it is the single most crucial subsect of Tibetans in the world. The Tibetans in the diaspora are spread throughout the world with the highest concentration of Tibetans by far, living in India and the United States of America. These Tibetans take their heritage as Tibetans very seriously and contribute millions of dollars and working hours annually to Independent Tibet movements. As well as, working towards the preservation of Tibetan culture and religion, and the education of the next generation of Tibetans on their people's proud history. History of Tibet Until 1950 Tibet has existed in some form of a state since the earliest days of the 5th century BCE. It has experienced times of intermittent independence and foreign rule until 1950 when the Chinese government formally integrated Tibet as a region of China, a status that exists to this day. The earliest evidence of civilization in Tibet was on the Chang Tang plateau in the 5th century BCE. The earliest settlement of Tibet was done by the so-called Kingdom of the Zhang Zhung. Archeological evidence and carbon dating of this era reveals a relatively complex society; including stone citadels on hilltops for defense, elaborate cemeteries, religious temples, and a distinctly stratified social structure. This society was very different from any other that would precede it, primarily due to it being formed prior to the establishment of Tibetan Buddhism. The predominant religion of the Zhang Zhung Kingdom is Bön, a religion that closely mirrors the practices and beleifs of Buddhism, at this time. This kingdom faced few real threats from its formation in the 5th century BCE up until the 1st century BCE when a neighboring kingdom in the nearby Yarlung Valley attempted to conquer the Zhang Zhung Kingdom. Little is known about the Zhang Zhung Kingdom; this is primarily due to the lack of a written language within the society from its formation in the 5th century BCE. The creation of the first written script was done in conjunction with the introduction of Buddhism, used as a medium to spread the beliefs and writings of Buddhism within ancient Tibet. 3

4 The Tibetan Government in Exile The transition of Tibet from the ancient Zhang Zhung Kingdom to a modern society were accomplished with the conquering of the Zhang Zhung Kingdom. The reign of this kingdom ended with an invasion by the Yarlung Kingdom, an ancient tribal empire, from the lower-lying Central Tibetan region. This transition was catalyzed by the actions of Songtsen Gampo. Songtsen Gampo was instrumental in the formation of Tibet as a political entity and as a distinct culture. His major contribution was that he was one of the first individuals to bring Buddhism to the Tibetan people as one of the first three Dharma Kings. He is typically credited for doing this alongside Trisong Detsen and Ralpacan, who were the most integral figures in establishing Buddhism as a dominant religion in Tibet. Although the exact leader of the Yarlung Kingdom when it conquered the Zhang Zhung Kingdom is unknown, many traditional sources, such as the Old Book of Tang, attribute this conquest to the leadership of Songtsen Gampo. Under his rule in 634 AD, the plateau inhabited by the Zhang Zhung Kingdom was conquered and the first semblance of modern Tibetan boundaries were formed. This conquest was followed swiftly by the conquering of the Qiang people, the Tuyuhun, the Tangut, the Bailang, and an attempt to conquer Songzhou during Tang-era China. This failed conquest of China was the only failed conquest of Songtsen Gampo's kingship, which ended with a mutual peace between the Yarlung Kingdom and the Tang Dynasty. Songtsen Gampo died in 650 AD. Immediately after, the Chinese invaded and took control of Lhasa, the capital of the Yarlung Kingdom. Following the death of Songtsen Gampo, the next major event in the era of the Yarlung Kingdom was under Trisong Detsen in the year 763 CE. In 763, Tibet was in a dominant position in Central Asia, especially when compared to China at the time. Beginning in 755 CE, China was undermined for eight years by the great An Shi Rebellion, a rebellion by General An Lushan against the Tang dynasty. Recognizing this, Trisong Detsen expanded the territory of the Yarlung Kingdom all the way to the Chinese capital of Chang'an. This was the largest that any kingdom originating in Tibet grew to. The Yarlung Kingdom was at its largest area (as seen in the map of the Yarlung Kingdom in 790 below) until 794 CE when the Chinese were able to overthrow their Tibetan conquerors. In 842 CE, the last leader of the Yarlung Empire, Langdarma, was assassinated. The assassination of Langdarma was the catalyst that eventually led to the fall of the Yarlung Empire. In the wake of his death, a civil war erupted between the people under the leadership of Yumtan and Osung, the two heirs of Langdarma. Both were vying for the right to be Langdarma's successor. This civil war was the start of the so-called Era of Fragmentation that continued into the 10th century AD. The result of this civil war was disastrous for Tibet as it resulted in the dissolution of a centralized government and fracturing into regional governments that had frequent rebellions against the governments by their own people. These rebellions led to many independent small kingdoms ruled by local Tibetan warlords. Warlords and small local kingdoms were the dominant political authority from 842 CE to 1247 CE. The Mongol conquest of Tibet ended this period of no single dominant political entity in Tibet. 4

5 In the Shadow of the Himalayas As Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire expanded towards Europe in the West and China in the East throughout the 13th Century, Tibetan leaders of the influential Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism reached an agreement with the Mongol rulers to avoid the conquest of Tibet. Tibetologists debate the terms of this agreement and why the Mongols later invaded the Tibetans. The Tibetan Lama, the highest religious authority in the land, promised political loyalty and his religious blessings and teachings to the Mongol Khan in exchange for patronage and protection from the Mongols. The most commonly accepted account of the Mongol invasion of Tibet begins with the Tibetans stopping the tradition of paying tribute; leading to Prince Koden of the Mongols to send an army under Doorda Darkhan to march to central Tibet and destroy the region s most notable monastery. The Mongols withdrew the next year, and yet another agreement was reached between the two kingdoms. This lasted until 1251 CE when Prince Koden died and the Tibetans subsequently stopped their tribute payments. In 1252 CE, the Mongols invaded again. Tibet was subdued to the Mongol Empire under Mongolian administrative rule, but Tibet did have some degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan would later include Tibet into his Yuan dynasty, and the region remained administratively separate from the rest of the Mongol empire. As the Mongol dominance of China waned, known as the Yuan dynasty, the Tibetans gained their independence, a status that they held from the 14th to the 18th century. It was during this period that the importance of the Dalai Lama as a cultural leader in Tibet was established. Six Dalai Lamas served before the end of the era of Tibetan independence. Between these six individuals, several critical Buddhist practices and schools were established. This includes: the creation of the title Dalai, the building of the Dalai Lama's official palace, unification of Tibet into the Khoshut Khanate, and a rise in prominence of the 5

6 The Tibetan Government in Exile Gelugpa school of Buddhism. Other than advancements in Buddhism previously mentioned, there was little of interest that occurred in the four centuries of Tibetan independence. The Tibetans once again lost their independence, to the Qing Dynasty from China. This ethnically Manchu Empire defeated the dominant Tibetan powers in 1720 and Tibet was under the rule of the Qing Empire from when it was conquered until the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil of It was in this era of Qing dominance that Tibet was first exposed to the outside world, previously only having relations with the Mongols, China, and sporadic interaction with Central Asian powers throughout history. Beginning in the late 1880's, the British began to express serious interest in Tibet. Treaties were reached between the governments of China and Britain in 1886, 1890, and 1893 about trade and relations between Britain and Tibet. The Tibetan people refuted all three as being illegitimate. The Tibetan government went as far as to ban all British envoys and civilians from entering the country. A few decades later, the so-called "Great Game" was being played between the British and Russian Empires, both competing for dominance in Central Asia. This so called game was no laughing matter, and in fact was a prolonged period of confrontation and conflict between the British and the Russians regarding various Central Asian territories. It was during this race for Central Asia that the doors to Tibet were forced open, as the British forced a trade agreement with Tibet in In response to the creation of this treaty, the Chinese made their first modern claim of having sovereignty over Tibet. The Tibetans unsurprisingly rejected this claim, but international powers did not. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1907, Britain and Russia agreed "not to enter into negotiations with Tibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government," effectively taking away the Tibetans ability to decide their own international relations policy. The Chinese dominance ended in 1912 at the end of the Xinhai Lhasa Turmoil, which was a racially charged conflict between Tibetans and Chinese. As a result, the Chinese were expelled and Tibet gained independence for one last time. With the fall of the Qing Empire, the Dalai Lama was allowed to return to Tibet from Peking, the capital of the Qing Empire. For the next thirty-six years, Tibet enjoyed de facto independence while China endured its Warlord era, national civil war, and the Japanese invasion during World War II. It was during this period of de facto independence that Tenzin Gyatso the 14th, and current Dalai Lama was born. History from 1950 Until Now In 1949, The People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded by the Communists under their charismatic leader Mao Zedong. After defeating the Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War the PRC was formally established. Having dealt with the KMT, Mao Zedong wasted no time trying to consolidate the power and territory of the PRC. In 1950 he sent the People's Liberation Army (PLA) into the Chamdo area of Tibet and defeated the small sporadic resistance from Tibetan military forces. By October of 1950, the People's Liberation Army had penetrated Tibet as far as Chamdo, the capital of Kham province and headquarters of the Tibetan Army's Eastern Command. In response, the then 15-year-old Dalai Lama and important government officials fled Tibet and established the first provisional administration in exile, which only lasted until July 1951 when the party returned to Lhasa. On September 9th, 1951, 3,000 Chinese soldiers from a so-called "liberation force" marched into the capital claiming that they had successfully liberated the Tibetans from imperialism and were bringing 6

7 In the Shadow of the Himalayas modern development to the region. In 1951, Tibetan government officials traveled to Beijing for a meeting with the Chinese government. This meeting resulted in the Seventeen Point Agreement which formalized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, a fact that the current Tibetan Government in Exile disputes. Some of the agreed upon points include: not changing the existing political system of Tibet, that the Tibetan people have the right to exercise national and regional autonomy, continuing the authority of the Dalai Lama, and that the Chinese national government would not force reforms upon Tibet. The Chinese actually followed this agreement and refrained from enacting social reform from 1951 to Tibet and its society were able to continue without interruption, including the continuation of the pseudo-feudal system of lords and lordships. One of the immediate changes of the new Chinese Tibet was its borders, as some of the outlying regions of Tibet were integrated into other Chinese provinces. Sichuan Province in China grew to include the Eastern Kham region of Tibet, and the Western Kham region put under the governance of a military leadership hierarchy. This is where the first sign of troubles between Tibet and the Chinese originated. In the East and West Kham, the Chinese government began to implement land reform consistent with the land reform in mainland China, including the identification and extermination of so-called "landlords." This spurred protests within the Kham regions and Tibet as a whole. In response to this and the desire by China to exert increased control of the region, tens of thousands of troops from the PLA were sent into Tibet. This caused an increase in population so significant that it exceeded the production capacity of Tibet's agricultural system and subsequently plunged the region into a great famine. The situation would continue to devolve in the following years, from protests by the Mimang Tsongdu civil society organization, to the killing of PLA soldiers, and active rebellion. In 1956 the PLA responded in kind and with more force. Beginning with the bombing and pillaging monasteries in Eastern Tibet, the PLA began arresting, publicly torturing, and executing senior nobles, monks, and administrative officials to discourage further resistance from the Tibetan people. This swift and brutal action on behalf of the Chinese government quelled the problem but only until 1959, when the situation reached a boiling point. It started rather innocuous in early March as the Dalai Lama was invited to a theatrical performance by the Chinese in honor of tradition. This was a very standard request, one that the Dalai Lama eventually complied with. However, as the performance drew closer, he was explicitly told that he was to view the performance in complete secrecy and devoid of the presence of armed Tibetan bodyguards. This was a ploy that the senior Tibetan advisors near the Dalai Lama recognized was likely an attempt to kidnap or kill the Dalai Lama. The fear and information were made public knowledge to those inhabiting Lhasa. On the 10th of March, thirty thousand Tibetans gathered around the Dalai Lama's residence, the Norbulingka. Protesters gathered to block his removal from the compound in an attempt to prevent him from being kidnapped as rumor suggested. Two days later, these same protesters began making claims calling for an independent Tibet, setting up barricades throughout the city. The Chinese responded by rolling out their artillery and flying more soldiers into the region. In response, evacuation preparation began to ensure the Dalai Lama would be able to escape the clutches of the Chinese. At 4:00 pm on March 17, 1959, the Chinese fired two mortar shells at the Norbulingka, the summer home of the Dalai Lama. They landed short of the palace walls, in a marsh near the palace. It was this 7

8 The Tibetan Government in Exile bombing that triggered the Dalai Lama's evacuation protocol, which was devised to help the Dalai Lama escape safely from Tibet into India. On March 19, fighting broke out in Lhasa late that night, and the Chinese started shelling Norbulingka for the next two days. This was the beginning of an all-out Chinese assault on Lhasa and its people. These bombings killed thousands of the unarmed protesters gathered around the Norbulingka, and bodyguards loyal to the Dalai Lama were publicly executed. Lhasa's three major monasteries, Gaden, Sera, and Drepung, were bombed with only Gaden being able to be repaired. In these monasteries, there were housed monastic treasures and invaluable scriptures that were destroyed along with the monasteries. Monks who had called these monasteries home were killed or forced into slave labor, while ordinary civilians were subject to home inspections. Those who were found to be in possession of guns were killed on site. It is estimated that in these events, there were over 86,000 Tibetan casualties at the hand of the Chinese. On March 28, 1959, the Chinese Communist Party announced the creation of the Tibet Autonomous Region and dissolved the old Tibetan government. China abolished the autonomous Tibetan government and the Dalai Lama along with his tens of thousands of his followers were chased into exile. While all this was going on in Lhasa, the Dalai Lama was well into his 20-day daring escape from Lhasa to India, where the Indian Parliament and President Nehru promptly gave him asylum. On March 31, 1959, he began a permanent exile in India, settling at Dharamshala in Northern India where he established a democratically-based shadow government for Tibet. With their revered leader hidden away in another country and tens of thousands of their fellow Tibetans dead, the Tibetan people and their spirit were crushed, and it would only get worse. From 1960 to 1962, China made economic reforms that crippled Tibet's ability to produce food consistently at prices affordable to the average Tibetan, and as a result, Tibet was yet again plunged into famine until it ended with approximately 340,000 dead. What followed after was a string of awful events, including protests, killings, and the institution of martial law. The events that took place between Tibet and China were almost cyclical; with a repeating cycle of Chinese action and oppression that resulted in relative peace, followed by unrest in the Tibetan population, until another set of crackdowns were introduced. It began first of all with an attempt to improve the standing relationship between Tibet and China. Between 1982 and 1984, there were two rounds of talks where representatives of the Tibetan Government in Exile traveled to Beijing in an attempt to remedy the situation. These talks, along with an invitation for the Dalai Lama to visit the Chinese capital city of Beijing, were utterly unsuccessful. On October 1, 1986, 500 Tibetans were arrested, and six were killed in the Tibetan capital; their crime being peaceful protest. Three years went by before the next major incident occurred. On March 8, 1989, the PRC imposed martial law in Tibet and deployed 2,000 troops in Lhasa following several days of clashes between Tibetan citizens and Chinese governmental police. The Tibetans 8

9 In the Shadow of the Himalayas demonstrated against the PRC in Lhasa later that year as a sign of their continued unrest and displeasure at the institution of martial law in the region. This protest was successful to an extent as martial law was lifted in early 1990 s. Many years went by without major incident, but yet again in 1996 the PRC killed another group of peaceful protestors, and this time, the world was paying attention. As a result of the killing of innocent civilians, the PRC was condemned officially by Amnesty International and the Parliament of the EU for human rights violations. While these were welcomed gestures, in reality, this did nothing to help the situation. However, once again, Tibet endured 12 years without an international incident. That is not to say that the situation in Tibet had improved. Over these 12 years, an estimated 128,000 Tibetans fled their homeland either to India or Nepal as refugees from a government that had little to no respect for their human rights. In the meantime, China tried to make it appear as if they were attempting to improve the livelihoods of Tibetans domestically and abroad as five rounds of talks were conducted between PRC officials and representatives of the Dalai Lama. The last of the major international incidents between China and Tibet occurred from March 14-16, 2008, when Tibetans were rioting against continued Chinese rule over Lhasa. The Chinese police responded by killing a handful of protestors. In October 2009, two Tibetans were executed by the Chinese government for their role in the protests. The Central Tibetan Administration The Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) is the governmental organization made up of Tibetans that claim to be the legitimate government of Tibet. Due to concerns of Chinese intervention, the CTA is still located in Dharamshala, India where it was founded upon the Dalai Lama's arrival at the beginning of his self-imposed exile. The CTA is more commonly referred to as the Tibetan Government in Exile, meaning a government which has never been recognized by China or any other national governments. The CTA operates with the stated purpose in its constitutions ; "Efforts shall be made to transform a future Tibet into a Federal Democratic Self-Governing Republic and a zone of peace throughout her three regions, Whereas in particular, efforts shall be made in promoting the achievement of Tibet's common goal as well as to strengthen the solidarity of Tibetans, both within and outside of Tibet, and to firmly establish a democratic system suitable to the temporary ideals of the Tibetan people." In 1991, the CTA became a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO), alongside the likes of Iraq, Kurdistan, and Taiwan. The UNPO is composed of nations and peoples not formally recognized by the UN or the majority of sovereign nations, but they advocate on behalf of self-determination, democracy, and human rights. Given that the CTA has no authority or ability to tax their people, the organization is reliant upon finding funding. The primary sources of funding of the CTA come from private donations collected by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), like the Tibet Fund, profit from the sale of Green books, documents sold by the CTA that also serve as a sort of passport for Tibetans in exile, and financial aid from foreign governments, such as India and the USA. It is estimated that the revenue from these sources totals in the tens of millions of US dollars annually. However, the CTA's total account balance is heavily subsidized by private donations. Although, how much is subsidized is unknown as the CTA refuses to disclose private donors and their contributions. The two most significant expenditures that the CTA utilizes their budget is in political activism and administration costs. One of the most substantial infusions of cash to the CTA was 9

10 The Tibetan Government in Exile in 2016 when U.S.A.I.D. awarded a grant of 23 million USD to the CTA to strengthen self-reliance and resilience of Tibetan communities. The future of continued American backing of the CTA is in doubt as current U.S. President Donald Trump proposed to end American aid to the CTA in However, Congress actively defied this proposal and sent 17 million in aid to the CTA cause. Administratively, the CTA operates under the Charter of the Tibetans-In-Exile, a pseudoconstitution that was adopted in The charter was drafted by the Constitution Re-drafting Committee and referred to the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile for approval. It was subsequently approved on the 14 th of June, The most fundamental principles of the Charter are based on the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Thus, it guaranteed Tibetans equality before the law and unalienable rights without fear of discrimination because of their sex, religion, race, language, or social status. Furthermore, under this charter, the CTA is divided into three distinct and independent branches of government modeled after the American governmental system: the executive, the judiciary, and the legislative. The highest executive office of the Central Tibetan Administration is the Kashag or cabinet. The Kashag is composed of seven members and led by the Sikyong, a political leader, a role akin to that of a president. The Sikyong is an elected position, with the electorate consisting of both the exiled Tibetan population and Tibetans residing in Tibet. After the election, the Sikyong nominates his seven Kalons or cabinet members who must be verified by the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile. This Kashag serves a term of five years upon election. Lobsang Sangay currently holds the office of Sikyong. He was elected in 2011 and was re-elected for a second term in Legislative power in the CTA is held by the unicameral Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration. The establishment of the CTA s Parliament was one of the major changes that the Dalai Lama introduced in his effort to democratize the CTA. At present, the Parliament has a total of forty-five representative members. The breakup of representation in the Parliament is as follows: ten members each from U-Tsang, Do-tod and Do-med (the three traditional provinces of Tibet), two members each from the Bön faith and the four schools of Tibetan Buddhism; and four members, two from Europe, two from the U.S., are elected by Tibetans in the West. The leaders of the Parliament are the Speaker and Deputy Speaker who are chosen by the members of parliament. The CTA s judiciary branch is responsible for resolving issues that occur during the executive s implementation of any rules and regulations. The Tibetan judiciary interprets or makes decisions based on the executive s implementation; thus protecting the rule of law by guaranteeing justice to all. The judiciary of Tibet is broken into three levels. The highest court is the Tibetan Supreme Justice Commission, followed by the Tibetan Circuit Justice Commission, and finally the Tibetan Local Justice Commission. The Supreme Justice Commission is the final court when determining disputed matters within the CTA. It does so on the basis of custom and the charter as mentioned earlier. It is important to note that the judiciary branch of the CTA has no authority to make decisions about criminal cases. 10

11 In the Shadow of the Himalayas Religion in Tibet Tibetan society is one of the world's most traditionally religious societies. There are two predominant religions that Tibetans practice: Buddhism and Bon. Buddhism is one of the world's five most prominent religions, but Buddhism in Tibet is unique from the type of Buddhism that is practiced elsewhere in the world - with important deviations including the presence of the Dalai Lama. There are four main unique traditions of Tibetan Buddhism: Gelugpa, Kagyupa, Nyingmapa, Sakyapa. The religious breakup of Tibet is approximately 78% Tibetan Buddhist, 12.5% Bon, 8.5% Chinese religions, 0.4% Muslim, and 0.05% Christianity. Religion has played a vital part in Tibet's culture and politics throughout its history and continues to be central to the lives of Tibetans today. As the numbers show, the vast majority of Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism and maintain a deep love for their leader, the Dalai Lama. To the Chinese, this undying reverence for a non-governmental figure is a threat to their authority and national security as it takes away power from the Communist Party and provides Tibetans a figure to rally behind. For China, this means religious authorities and institutions are rivals to its authority and therefore pose a threat. As such, religion under the control of the Chinese in Tibet is highly regulated and often banned, and religious authorities are regularly attacked and arbitrarily detained. However, this does not deter the monks and nuns from being on the forefront of the Tibetan resistance and being some of the most staunch opponents of the Chinese occupation. The four orders of Tibetan Buddhism, are simply put; "institutions containers that house diverse scriptural transmissions and lineages of meditation techniques." They believe in the same processes and phenomena as in traditional Buddhism. The variation between the four orders of Tibetan Buddhism is minute, as they all share a primary text from which each order draws their insights, and the various physical exercises practitioners undertake to complete the path to enlightenment. It is important to note that the single most famous Tibetan Buddhist, the Dalai Lama, while recognized as the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism is in fact traditionally the incarnate lama for the Gelugpa order, with the other three orders having clear titles for their particular lama or head religious figure. The tradition of Buddhism in Tibet is distinct from the tradition of Buddhism anywhere else in the world. Even within Tibetan Buddhism, there are variations. This leads to the religion being broken up into four orders; the Gelugpa, the Kagyu, the Nyingma, and the Sakya. There are three primary sources from which spiritual practices are taken in Tibetan Buddhism: the Foundational Vehicle, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Within Tibetan Buddhism customary practices, traveling the path to enlightenment, reincarnation, and meditation are religiously followed. However, the methods to reach these states, and the perception of these states, differ. For instance, to reach enlightenment in traditional Buddhism one must 11

12 The Tibetan Government in Exile renounce all worldly and sensory pleasure. But in Tibetan Buddhism, sensory pleasure is embraced as a key component of reaching enlightenment and is often referred to as tantric pleasure. The other main identifier of Tibetan Buddhism is the institution of the tulku or the incarnate lama. Tibetan Buddhists believe that the tulku are compassionate teachers who are rebirthed upon their death as a young child to continue the work of their previous worldly bodies. Bön is the indigenous religion of Tibet, a religion that had a thriving tradition before the arrival of Buddhism in Tibet around 600 A.D. Today, as with most elements of culture, Bön has influenced Tibetan Buddhism and visa versa. Bön has significantly evolved over the centuries. In its original state it was an animistic and shamanistic, believing in the spirit and soul of nature, and the power of mysticism. The exact nature and belief system of the earliest Bön is almost impossible to determine as all written records about the original Bön are written by Buddhists who likely distorted the historical records of the earliest Bön. From the earliest days of the Bön, the religion evolved into one similar to Daoism. Now the Bön religion is more or less the fifth form of Tibetan Buddhism, a tradition that began in the 14 th century. When monks from India traveled into Tibet, bringing their traditions of Mahayana Buddhism, the traditions of Bön were drastically influenced in a way that has brought together the Buddhist and Bön religions forever and the principles of Buddhism were integrated into Bon. Today, Bön is most commonly found in the more isolated parts of northern and western Tibet, as well as in Himachal Pradesh, India. The current leader of the Bön religion is His Holiness Lungtok Tenpai Nyima, a position similar to that of the role the Dalai Lama serves for Tibetan Buddhism. Some of the most basic core beliefs of the Bön are: iconography of good and evil deities (as in Tibetan Buddhism), meditation, and the search for enlightenment through rituals, astrology, and introspection. China, India, and Tibet The single most important political relationship that Tibet has with an independent nation is with India. This relationship began sixty years ago when China took control of Tibet in March of 1995, and the Dalai Lama and his entourage fled Tibet, landing in Dharamshala, India. For the most part, the relationship between the Central Tibetan Administration and the Indian National Government has been a pleasant and stable relationship. Although recently, some signs have pointed to hesitancy on India's part when handling Chinese threats regarding the CTA. Despite this, the CTA would not exist without the help and acceptance of the Indian government and from individuals such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Narendra Modi, two prime ministers of India. In recent months and years, there has been growing pressure along the border between India and 12

13 In the Shadow of the Himalayas China. As the relationship between China and India has become increasingly more important to the burgeoning Indian economy, the Chinese have begun to apply pressure to the Indian government in hopes of forcing them to turn their backs on, or even betray, the Tibetans. One of the most recent showings of India backing Tibet came in The Dalai Lama traveled to Tawang, in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, a visit that the Chinese were not particularly happy about. Tawang is one of the hotspots of the border conflict between India and China as both nations believe that the land and the people are under their governance. However, India currently governs the land, and China disputes this fact. The Chinese interpreted the visit of the Dalai Lama to Tawang as a provocation in the Sino-Indian dispute, a claim that the Indian government rejected outright, sticking by their belief that the Dalai Lama is, "...a revered religious leader, who is deeply respected as such by the Indian people." Months later, the signs of a slight Indian departure from previous statements on the Dalai Lama came. It may seem innocuous, but many were taken aback when the Indian government rejected the relatively mundane request by the CTA to hold a multi-faith prayer and a Thank You India ceremony. This was quickly followed by a stern memo from India's foreign secretary that senior government officials and leaders cannot participate in any events held by the CTA or Pro-Tibet organizations out of fear of further deterioration of Sino-Indian relations. It is important to note that many believe this may have just been a momentary stance, as Prime Minister Modi was scheduled to meet with Chinese President Xi Jin Ping and they did not want to threaten these talks. Others disagree; there are those who do see this as just the beginning of a shift in the dialogue between India and China about Tibet. At present, China is continuing to build up its military strength in Doklam. So far, India has been unable to prevent the Chinese from building roads in that sensitive region, a project that is infringing on their national border. As a result, foreign policy experts worry that Prime Minister Modi may sacrifice the cause of Tibet in return for better relations with China. In the face of this encroachment, it is vital that any and all diplomatic conversation between representatives of the Chinese and Indian government occur without distraction from smaller side issues. The Tibetan Diaspora The Tibetan diaspora is a the official term for the population of ethnically Tibetan people that live outside the formal borders of Tibet. The beginning of the present day Tibetan diaspora began on the same day that the Dalai Lama fled Tibet and arrived in India to the welcoming arms of then President Nehru. The Dalai Lama was welcomed with approximately 50,000 other Tibetans that all immediately became refugees in India. These 50,000 are the seed that grew into the Tibetan diaspora. While the Tibetan diaspora spans all six inhabited continents, the largest number of Tibetans abroad reside in nations bordering Tibet, with 150,000 Tibetan refugees now calling India, Nepal and Bhutan home. This modern population of Tibetans 13

14 The Tibetan Government in Exile in Southern Asia came in three waves of migration: the first wave beginning with the Dalai Lama s escape to India; the second wave lasting from the mid-1980 s to mid-1990 s as there was increased liberalization of the Chinese, allowing increased travel; and the third and final wave is ongoing, most notable for being disproportionately made up of monks and nuns as China cracks down on religion in the region. The majority of the Tibetans who do not live in Bhutan, India, and Nepal reside either in Europe, Canada, or the United States. The vast majority of the Tibetans who live outside of South and Central Asia originally migrated from Tibet to South Asia before migrating later to Europe and the Americas. This process of dispersion to the West began in the early 1960s when the International Red Cross settled fifteen hundred Tibetans into Switzerland. Many Tibetans who left for Europe and the Americas are now much better off than their counterparts in Asia and Tibet. This increased economic prosperity that those in Europe and the Americas experienced was due to the higher levels of education that they attained in their new homes. The European Tibetan population includes around 2000 in Switzerland, 650 in the U.K. and 750 in the remaining European countries combined. Around the 1970s, Tibetans began moving to North America after the initial migration of Tibetans to Europe, and after, the Dalai Lama asked the Canadian and American governments to take in Tibetan refugees. Initially, only Canada responded, and 230 Tibetans were brought into Tibet. Although individual Tibetans and Tibetan families immigrated to the United States in these same years, the first mass government-initiated migration took place in the early 1990s with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1990 by the U.S. Congress, which offered 1,000 immigrant visas to displaced Tibetans. The CTA organized a lottery to determine which refugees would receive these visas, and by 1998, 5,500 Tibetans were living in the USA, and according to the Office of Tibet, there were 9,000 Tibetans in the U.S. although experts tend to agree that the number is likely much higher. The Tibetan diaspora serves an essential purpose for the CTA, Tibetan Buddhism, and Tibetan culture. The Tibetan diaspora provides two things in terms of the CTA: legitimacy and funding. While the CTA has little international recognition as the official government of Tibet, that is not to say that the CTA lacks legitimacy. It garners legitimacy via the Tibetans that live outside of Tibet. As previously mentioned, when selecting the Kashag and Sikyong the voting bases are all Tibetans who are eighteen and older from Nepal to Canada and every other country a Tibetan inhabits. It is this democratic election process that gives the CTA legitimacy, in so far as that they are the voice of Tibetans abroad, a voice that was chosen by and for the people. The much more tangible purpose that the Tibetan diaspora serves to the CTA is as a financier. While money used by the CTA comes from numerous sources, the Tibetan diaspora is typically one of the more substantial contributors and certainly the most consistent. The Tibetan diaspora, like many diasporas 14

15 In the Shadow of the Himalayas throughout the last few centuries, has done a remarkable job of preserving and advocating for their religion and culture. In the face of religious and cultural suppression, Tibetans abroad, working in conjunction with the CTA, help to preserve traditional practices, beliefs, and skills. The Tibetan diaspora works tirelessly to educate both their young and non-tibetans alike about their historic land. For Tibetan children, this means having religious belief systems passed down to them or learning the Tibetan languages, two practices that the Chinese are trying to crush. For non-tibetans, the diaspora serves as an educational experience as they hold many rallies to inform people of the situation in Tibet, festivals to showcase the beauty of Tibetan culture, and as a catalyst hoping to ignite a passion for a Free Tibet even in those who have no spiritual or ancestral connection to the land. The Tibetan people led by the CTA and The Chinese government are still locked in a battle with neither side willing to budge. The Chinese government still claim complete and total control over the lands and peoples of Tibet, and the CTA still categorically deny this claim. The CTA is still dead set on gaining autonomy for the Tibetan people, and are continuing their fight for an independent Tibet. References