CHAPTER- II DEVELOPMENT OF INDO-ARABIC LITERATURE

Transcription

1 CHAPTER- II DEVELOPMENT OF INDO-ARABIC LITERATURE

2 UNIT-I BACKGROUND HISTORY OF INDO-ARABIC LITERATURE

3 Arabic has a deep rooted association with India from dated back to antiquity speak of such inter-cultural dialogues and exchanges between two age-old civilizations. There are a lot of historical evidences for this time tested cultural tie up. As we find in religious sources, the first human being, Adam is believed to have landed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and reached Arabia via India. Finally, he met Eve in Saudi Arabia. 1 Teaching and learning of Arabic language and literature in India played an important role in the promotion and development of Arabic language and literature in India. A chain of Madrasas have been established throughout India to learn Arabic for religious purposes and later on, it became an integral part of Indian education system particularly for the Muslims. These Madrasas not only provided religious teachings to the Muslims but they had produced a large number of scholars in Qur an, Hadith, Fiqh and other branches of Islamic learning also. These Madrassas have produced many outstanding experts of Arabic language and literature in India. 1. Ekram, Shiekh Md. Aabe Kausar, Feroz Sons Ltd. Pakistan, 1968, p.19

4 India attaches a great importance to Arabic language because it plays an important role in strengthening bilateral relations. For the purpose of maintaining its relations with the Arabs, India had started imparting education of modern Arabic language and literature. These universities and colleges have been playing an important role in strengthening the cultural bonds of age old relations in the contemporary times. Arabic language, literature and Islamic studies flourished in Indian sub-continent subsequently throughout the period. India had produced and still producing well known scholars of Islamic studies and experts of Qur an and Hadith. It had contributed a lot in preserving and promoting Islamic culture and civilization in this region. It has not only produced imminent scholars in different fields of Arab history and Islamic studies but also in Arabic language and literature who had immensely enriched the Arabic literature in both forms of prose and poetry. Muhammad bin al- Qasim, the son- in- law of al-hajjaj, advanced in 710 A.D. at the head of a considerable army of which 6,000 were Syrians, pushed on through Baluchistan and in A.D. reduced Sindh including lower Punjab. 1 Among the cities, captured by al-qasim, were the sea port at Daybul and Multan in southern Punjab. This conquest led to the 1. Yusuf S.M. Studies in Islamic History and Culture, Delhi, p.219

5 permanent occupation of Sindh and southern Punjab but the rest of India was unaffected until the close of tenth Century which the next invasion began under the Ghaznawids. Besides these kinds of Arab people of various professions, some artisans of Arabian soil used to live permanently in India. No sooner than the Arabs came to India and settled down here they began to do something for the development of their own language and literature not only amongst themselves but also among the local inhabitants of India. During the Ghaznawids period, the Arabs had great influence over the subjugated people of India in the field of Arabic language and literature which had been certainly their pride of their culture and amble mastic of their religious what they upheld with impressive self-confidence and even with an atmosphere of superiority, throughout the period of Arab administration in India, Arabic continued as the official language of the government and the unrivalled medium of sacred knowledge of literary activities. Besides Sindh, some other cities like Daybul, Mansura, and Multan were the prominent places where Arabic language and Islamic learning was enthusiastically cultivated. So far as the popular use of Arabic language,

6 both Ibn Haykal and Maqdisi testify the fact the inhabitants of Mansura, Multan and Daybul were bilingual speaking Sindhi and Arabic. 1 The name and fame of Arabic language and literature was carried forward from Lahore to Delhi. The Sultan took keen interest in setting up Madrasa and higher institutions for Islamic learning. These educational institutions had their staff from the eminent scholars of Khurasan and Transoxians, who were foremost scholars of Fiqh, Usul and Arabic linguistic studies. Some of them wrote independent books in Arabic language. The curriculumfollowed in the then Madrasa consisted of courses in religious, linguistic, scholastic and philosophical sciences whose text books were exclusively in Arabic language. 2 There is a long list of Indian scholars who had made a huge contribution in preserving and promoting the Islamic scholarship including Qur an, Hadith, Islamic Jurisprudence and the Arabic language and literature. It is not possible to mention here all the names but a few are as follow: Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Maulana Anwar Shah Kashmiri, Maulana Shah Waliullah al-dehlawi, Maulana Syed Suleiman al-nadwi, Maulana Gulam Ali Azad al-bilgirami, Maulana Nawab Siddiq Hasan 1. Yusuf S.M. Studies in Islamic History and Culture, Delhi p Al- Hasani A.H. Al-Thaqafatul Islamiyyah fil Hind, Damascus, 1958, pp

7 Khan, Maulana Abul Hai Al-Hasani and Maulana Abul Hasan Ali al- Nadwi, Dr. Sayeedur Rahman al-a zmi al-nadwi and many others.

8 UNIT-II CENTERS OF INDO-ARABIC LITERATURE

9 India became more famous because of the unstable condition prevailing in most of the Islamic countries. There was one-way traffic to India from the north-west; in a short span of time, there was a sizeable population of Muslims in the remotest corner of India who imparted education to the younger generation of the Muslims. The first institution of Islamic learning was to be found in cities like Daibal, Mansura and Multan, where the Quran and the Hadith were thought in mosques. Muhammad Gouri was one of the most important rulers who played a vital role in the development of Arabic learning and Islamic studies in India. Qutubuddin Aibak, the founder of the slave dynasty, a lover of learned people, established Masque Schools in his provinces where religious education was imparted to the masses. The centers of learning were established during the Muslim rule across the country and Islamic law gradually spread with the expansion of Muslim empire. The Khiljis gave a new system in modern education. The Khilji period was highly favorable to the cultivation of literary knowledge in India. It was, in fact, during this period the seeds of scholarship were properly nurtured and rich harvest was reaped. The Tughloq Dynasty also

10 encouraged education and scholarship. Mohammad bin Tughloq patronized at home in almost all the subject of arts and science. It is on account of all this that, besides the traditional centers of Islamic learning, government of India has always remained keen to the development of Arabic language and literature. Indo-Arab Literature keeps the norms of higher studies and research, since the very independence of the country. As a result, besides the teaching of Arabic language and literature, a good number of the Indian universities and research institutes are providing research facilities in Arabic language and literature, the Arab Sciences and Culture as well as Indo-Arab literature. It must be emphasized here that besides job-oriented language study, the importance of preservation and conservation of old cultural legacy cannot be undermined, as it is no less important than the study of any branch of modern Arabic literature. In addition to the above discussion, we may say that after the advent of the Muslims in India they tried their level best to develop Arabic Language and Literature in respect of education, advice, and suggestion. After the British occupation on Indian soil, the Indian Muslims established many centers for the development of Arabic language and literature as well as Islamic education in India. Among the outstanding centers, we may

11 mention here the name of Darul Uloom Deoband, Nadwatul Ulama, Lucknow; Jamia Nizamia, Hyderabad, Dar al-salam, Omarabad, Alia Madrassa, Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi University, Banaras Hindu University, Osmania University, Madras University, Calcutta University, Patna University, Lucknow University, Gauhati University etc. Now, I want to discuss few of them. 1. Darul Uloom Deoband: The Darul Uloom Deoband is a center of Islamic studies in India. It is also one of prolific centers of Arabic language and literature. This center is located at Deoband, a town in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It was founded in 1866 by several prominent Islamic scholars, headed by Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanatuvi. The other prominent founding scholars were Maulana Rasheed Ahmed Gangohi and al-hajj Syed Abid Hussain. In 1857, the East India Company put down with a heavy hand. The independence movement begun by disparate north Indian forces, conducted in the name of powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar. Emperor Zafar became the last Mughal Emperor, as he was deposed the following year and exiled to Burma, with many of his sons put to death. This marked a seminal moment

12 for Islamic consciousness, specifically for the established Muslim elites of north India, who tended to view the defeat of 1857 as the end of their political pre-eminence and the beginning of a dark period of Muslim history in India. In this situation, a group of learned theologians, led by Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanatuvi, established the Darul Uloom Seminary in Deoband, in order to preserve the Islamic culture and train the children and youth in Islamic knowledge. The foundation of Darul Uloom Deoband was laid down in 30 th May, under a pomegranate tree. Nanatuvi stated that he had been inspired to do so by a dream in which Muhammad (PBUH) spoke to him. The pedagogical philosophy of Deoband focused on teaching revealed Islamic sciences, known as Manqulat, to the Muslim population, according to the Hanafi School of Islamic jurisprudence. In this seminary, Nanatuvi instituted modern methods of learning: teaching in classrooms, a fixed and carefully selected curriculum, lectures by different faculties recognized as leaders in their fields, examination periods, merit prizes, a publishing press and so on. The faculty instructed its students primarily in Urdu, the lingua franca of the Muslims of the region, and 1. Khan, Dr. Ghazanfar Ali. History of Islamic Education in India and Nadwatul Ulama, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 2004, p. 86

13 supplemented it with study of Arabic and Persian. In due course, it also unwittingly cemented the growing association of the Urdu language with the Indian Muslim community. The founders consciously decided to separate the seminary from political or governmental participation. Instead, it was to run as an autonomous institution, supported by voluntary financial contributions from the Muslims at large. 1 Its over 15,000 graduates have gone on to found many similar Madrassas across South Asia and further afield. The followers of this school of theology are often described as followers of the Deobandi school of thought. It is known to be the largest Islamic Seminary to attract students from all over the world. Aim and objectives of Darul Uloom Deoband: The aim and objectives of Darul Uloom Deoband are as follows: 1. To teach the holy Qur an, the Quranic exegesis, the Hadith, the Islamic beliefs and their traditionally accepted interpretation and all 1. Ibid Khan, p. 91

14 the necessary and useful allied subjects; to provide complete Islamic information to the Muslims; and to render service to Islam through spiritual instruction, guidance and preaching. 2. To give training in Islamic actions and morals and to infuse the Islamic spirit in the lives of the students 3. To preach and disseminate Islam and to preserve and defend the religion; to propagate Islam through writing and speech; and to cultivate in the Muslims through education and preaching the morals, actions and sentiments as those of the best of decades and the pious ancestors. 4. To keep off and avoid the influences of the government and to maintain the freedom of thought and knowledge. 5. To establish Arabic schools at different places for the dissemination of the religious sciences and to affiliate them to Darul Uloom Deoband. 1 Impact of Darul Uloom Deoband: Many Islamic schools in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan and more recently in Afghanistan, the United Kingdom, the United States, South Africa and other parts of the world are affiliated with or theologically 1. Ibid, pp

15 linked to Darul Uloom Deoband. Seminaries have been established by its graduates such Darul Uloom Sabil al-salam in Hyderabad, India; Madrassa Inamiyya Camper down, near Durban in South Africa, and three seminaries in Pakistan, viz. Darul Uloom Karachi, Jamiya Ashrafiya Lahore, and Jamiya Ziyaul-Qur an (Al-Ma ruf Bagh-Wali Masjid), Faisalabad. 2. Aligarh Muslim University: Aligarh Muslim University grew out of the work of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, the great Muslim reformer and statesman, who in the aftermath of the Indian War of Independence of 1857, felt that it was important for the Muslims to gain education and become involved in the public life and government services in India. Raja Jai Kishan helped Sir Syed in establishing the university. The British decision to replace the use of Persian in 1842 for government employment and as the language of Courts of Law caused deep anxiety among Muslims of the sub-continent. Sir Syed saw a need for Muslims to acquire proficiency in the English language and Western sciences if the community were to maintain its social and political clout, particularly in Northern India. He began to prepare foundation for the formation of a Muslim University by starting schools at Moradabad (1858) and Ghazipur (1863). His purpose for the establishment of the Scientific

16 Society in 1864, in Aligarh was to translate Western works into Indian languages as a prelude to prepare the community to accept Western education and to inculcate scientific temperament among the Muslims. The intense desire to ameliorate the social conditions of Indian Muslims led Sir Syed to publish the periodical, Tahzibul Akhlaq in In 1877, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College in Aligarh and patterned the college after Oxford and Cambridge universities that he had visited on a trip to England. His objective was to build a college in tune with the British education system but without compromising its Islamic values. Sir Syed s son, Syed Mahmud, who was an alumnus of Cambridge University, prepared a proposal for an independent university to the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College Fund Committee upon his return from England in This proposal was adopted and subsequently modified. Syed Mahmud continued to work along with his father in founding the college. 1 It was one of the first purely residential educational institutions set up either by the government or the public in India. Over the years it gave rise to a new educated class of Indian Muslims who were active in the 1. Ibid

17 political system of the British Raj. When viceroy to India Lord Curzon visited the college in 1901, he praised the work which was carried on and called it of sovereign importance. The college was originally affiliated with the University of Calcutta and subsequently got affiliated with the University of Allahabad in Near the turn of the century, the college began publishing its own magazine, The Aligarhian, and established a Law School. It was also around this time that a movement began to develop into a university. To achieve this goal, expansions were made and more academic programs added to the curriculum of the college. A school for girls was established in By 1920 the college was transformed into the Aligarh Muslim University. In the year 1920 the political condition in India presaged a widespread revolution. The Khilafat and non- cooperation movements were in full swing. Muslim and Hindus of the country were disassociating themselves from government institutions and boycotting British goods. Gandhiji and the Ali brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) were touring the country. One the terms of the non-cooperation movement was serving links with government educational institutions. These

18 developments reached the Muhammadan Anglo- Oriental College at Aligarh. Which had been setup as Madrasatul Uloom by sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1875 but it turns into M.A.O. in 1877 lastly in 1920 it was granted a status of central university by an act of Indian parliament. It is located in the city of Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. On the modeled of the Cambridge and Oxford University, it was among the first institutions of higher education setup during the British Raj. 1 Originally it was Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College (M.A.O.), which was founded by a great Muslim social reformer Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Many prominent Muslim leaders and Urdu writers and scholars of the subcontinent have graduated from this university. Aligarh Muslim University offers more than 250 courses in traditional and modern branches of education including Arabic education. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a great social reformer of his age, felt the need for modern education and started a school in 1875 which later became the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College and finally Aligarh Muslim University in This is a premier central university with several faculties and maintained institutions and draws students from all corners of the world especially Africa, West Asia, and South East Asia. 1. Amir, Safia. Islam in Modern Age, Periodical Journal vol. 15, 2004

19 In some courses seats are reserved for students for SAARC and Commonwealth countries. The university is open to all in respective of caste, creed, religion or gender. Aligarh is situated at a distance of 130 KM south east of Delhi on Delhi-Calcutta Railway and Grand Trunk Route. In 1960, it established a library and named after Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Library. The first Prime Minister Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated its present building in the same year. The seven stored building is surrounded by 4.75 acres of land in the form of beautiful lawns and gardens. It is the most beautiful building of the university and one of the few very attractive libraries in the country. The library has about 9,00,000 books in this collection the oldest manuscript of more than fourteen hundred years old. It is a fragment of the Quran transcribed by Hazrat Ali, the fourth caliph of Islam and is written on parchment in Kufi script. Another rare collection is the Halnama of Beyazid Ansari, no copy of which is available anywhere in the world. The most outstanding among them is the Latin translation of the celebrated Arabic work on optics, optical parfaits, by Ibn al-haitham ( ) published in More than 5000 students, teachers and other members of the university daily visit the library and utilize its services. 3. Jamia Millia Islamia:

20 During the revolution in 1920 the students of Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College boycotted college by the call of Mahatma Gandhi and Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali & Shaukat Ali) to Non-Cooperation Movement but the government pressurized them to continue their duty so there arose a huge different between the both groups. After much debate and recrimination, a proposal was moved that since the students were being called upon to leave the MAO College of Aligarh, they must have somewhere else to go, i.e. an alternate educational institution must be setup for them by the Muslim community. At first the proposal was met with hostility but was accepted later when it gained the support of a majority. Thus the idea of the setting up of a new National University was born among the students of Aligarh. The demand was communicated to the leaders of the community like Ali brothers, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Maulana Hazrat Mohammad Hani and they all agreed with it. 1 Finally, on Friday, 29 October 1920, a formal announcement of the establishment of the Jamia Millia Islamia was made by Sheikhul Hind Maulana Mahmud Hasan, in the mosque of the MAO College, where enthusiastic teacher and students had gathered. Since he was too weak and 1. Madholi, Abdul Ghaffar. Jamia ki Kahani, Hissa Awal, New Delhi, 1965, p. 20

21 indisposed to deliver the Friday sermon which is known as the inaugural address, it was readout on his behalf by his pupil, Maulana Shabbir Ahmed Uthman. He lauded the role of the students who had sacrificed their hopes and ambitions for the future, for the sake of their community by joining the non- cooperation movement. He defined the aim of the Jamia thus that the education of Muslim should be in their own hands and free from alien influence. The Jamia was thus born of a national political movement yet it would be a mistake to think that it was only an instant product of a temporary upheaval and an immediate response to a short lived tumult and fervor. This is belied by the educational history of the Muslim. The Jamia, though born in a period of revolution, was not merely a product of that revolution. It was in fact a response to certain educational needs of the Muslims, which they had been feeling for very long. Since the Jamia was born in the lap of a national political movement, in the beginning the duty of nurturing it had to be carried out by political leaders. Therefore, its foundation committee and administrative council formed it in November 1920, comprised active workers of the Khilafat movement.

22 The Jamia Millia Islamia was given an appropriate academic and administrative form at a meeting of its foundation committee held on 22 November Another committee was formed for preparing the syllabus for diniyat (Muslim religious studies) which included the subject Arabic made compulsory of all the levels should be acquainted with the teachings of the holy Quran and also prepared a scheme in which along with Islamiyat. 1 Arabic in Jamia Millia Islamia has been one of the subjects which were introduced at the under graduate level at the earliest stage. However, it s teaching at post graduate level started in 1976 as one of the three disciplines of the rest while department of Islamic & Arab-Iranian studies. The department of Arabic as an independent unit was established only in1988. At present the department conducts different courses such as B.A. Pass & Honours, M.A. and part time evening courses namely Certificate, Diploma and Advance Diploma in Modern Arabic, besides, it also enrolls scholars for Ph.D course on variety of subjects relevant to Arabic language and literature. 1. Madholi, Abdul Ghaffar. Jamia ki Kahani, Hissa Awal, New Delhi, 1965, pp.31-35

23 The aim and objectives of Jamia was to produce child who were both good Muslims and patriotic Indians. It sought to impart knowledge of Islam, its culture and religious sciences, specially the Quran, while also working for national freedom and Hindu-Muslim unity and nurturing the feeling of Indian nationhood, brotherhood and tolerance towards all. Its education would thus be an ideal blend of the religious and the worldly, the old and the new. While teaching the regular subjects of science and humanities, it also decided to impart knowledge of essential crafts as a means of earning a livelihood. Thus, while it was an example of national unity, it was also a field for educational experiments. Urdu was adopted as the medium of instruction of Jamia Millia Islamia University. 1 Religious studies: when it was decided at the outset that dinyat (Muslim religious studies) would be made a compulsory subject in the syllabus of Jamia (it was not so at Aligarh) it was proposed that along with Muslim religious studies arrangements should also be made for the religious education of Hindus. Mahatma Gandhi felt that in the beginning Jamia need only provide a room and fix a time. It the Hindus were interested, they would arrange for the teacher themselves. However, when 1. Amir Safia. The Establishment and Early Years of the Jamia, 2004, p. 97

24 the number of Hindu students in the university had increased considerably (since its doors would remain open for all) Jamia could take too upon itself.

25 UNIT-III PIONEERS OF INDO-ARABIC LITERATURE

26 India has produced a huge number of scholars and litterateurs who contributed for development of Arabic Language and Literature as well as Islamic Studies in India. In case of the pioneers of Indo-Arabic Literature, it is not possible to mention here all, so, I want to mention some of them who contributed a lot for the development of Arabic language and literature in India and made a platform in the Sub-Continent from the Umayyad and Abbasid Period. 1. Mullah Muhammad al-jaupuri: Syed Muhammad Mahdi Masud is popularly known as Mullah Mohammad al-jaunpuri. He was born on September 9, 1443 at Jaunpur. For the intention of acquiring knowledge, he travelled across India, Arabia and Khurasan. When he reached Farah, Afghanistan, he died in April 23, 1505 at the age of 63. Syed Muhammad was a descendant of Muhammad, through his grandson Husain bin Ali. His ancestors had migrated to the Indian subcontinent after moving from Baghdad. His grandfather Syed Othman came from Bukhara to Jaunpur following an invitation from Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi. His father Syed Abdullah Alias Syed Khan started his service as a military general and later served as an envoy of Jaunpur in the court of

27 Delhi Sultanate, on the other hand his mother Amina was the sister of Qaiyyam al-mulk, who was Hasani Syed. His early life and education: Syed Muhammad was known for his intelligence as a child, having memorized the Qur an at a young age of seven. He took an elementary religious education under Sheikh Daniyal who was a Sufi Sheikh of the Chisti order. The Sheikh later on admitted the child into his school for religious studies. The child was very keen to studies and used to perform extraordinarily. By 14, he was already being called Asad al-ulama (Lion of the Learned). That was in the city of Jaunpur of that day which is also remembered as Shiraz-e-Hind. Like Shiraz was then a center for scholars in Persia, Jaunpur was the answer to it in India. By 21, years of age he was hailed as Syed al-aulia (The Master of Spiritual Saints). This historical status of Syed Mohammad is an established fact recognized by many scholars of Islamic studies and historians, particularly those of Indian sub-continent.

28 He would strictly adhere to the sunna of Muhammad and accordingly the commandments in Qur an. He is said to have observed extreme devotion and maximum trust in God, to the extent he never consumed even a penny from his parent s wealth after reaching adulthood, for the sake of religious piety. His Travels: He left Jaunpur along with his family and a small group of followers. Migrating from place to place and gathering more companions the Mahdavia group reached Farah in Afghanistan where he died and buried there. 2. Gulam Ali Azad Bilgrami: Gulam Ali Azad Bilgrami was a scholar of Arabic, Persian and Urdu languages in 18 th century in India. The King of Yemen had acknowledged his poetic qualities and accorded him the title of Hassan Al-Hind. His early life and education: Mir Ghulam Ali Husaini Wasiti is best known as Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami. He was born in Bilgram, a small town of Uttar Pradesh. He gained a reputation for possessing command over all topics of literature and learning. He was instructed in language by Mir Abdul Jalil of Selsibil;

29 in prosody and literature by Mir Syed Muhammad; in the Qur an by Muhammad Hayat; and in all excellences by Abdul Wabhat Tantawi. According to the Masalati Shuara, he studied eloquence with Muhammad Aslam Salim and Sheikh Saad Ullah Gulshan of Ahmedabad. As a youth he left Bilgram and stayed for two years in Delhi. He visited Lahore and Multan and made acquaintance with scholars of these cities, and lived for five years in the province of Sindh. He then traveled to the cities of Mecca and Medina, where he devoted himself to religious studies particularly in Sihah Sittah i.e. six books of traditions of Muhammad Ismail Bukhari, Muslim Nishapuri, Ibn Majah, Abu Daud, Abu Isa Tirmizi and Abu Abdul Rahman Nisai. He returned from Hejaz and lived in the city of Aurangabad, Deccan till his death. Nasir Jang and other nobles of the Nizam s state were his devotees but he avoided worldly favours and preferred a life of piety and poverty. Azad was a poet and a biographer of the poets. He was the friend of Shah Nawaz Khan, and when the latter was murdered, he collected his friend s manuscripts Ma asir al-umara which were scattered in all directions, and published them. Azad compiled his two diwans of poetry in Arabic and Persian. Among the works of lasting value were the dictionaries of poets.

30 His Major Works: 1. Yad-i-Baiza Biographies of 532 poets. 2. Ma asir ul-kiram Tarikh-i-Bilgram, which dealt with 80 sufis and 70 learned men of the author s home town. 3. Sarw-i-Azad - sketches of 143 poets born in India. 4. Khizanah-i-Amirah - notices of 135 poets famous for obtaining rich rewards from potrons. It also contained details of events to which Azad was eye witnesses. 5. Rauzat ul Auliya - on lives of saints buried in Khuldabad. 6. Ghizlan ul Hind - a book on Indian womanhood as reflected in Persian literature. 7. Anis ul Muhaqqiqin - on Indian saints. His theme and writing style: Azad s skill as a poet, especially as a panegyrist of Muhammad, has long been recognized. His critically edited Arabic work, the Subhat al- Marjan (The Coral Rosary), is cited for its praise of India, which describes India as the first domicile of Adam and for Azad s knowledge of Indian languages and culture, and for his literary, critical and poetic sensibilities.

31 Miratul Khayal (Mirror of fancy) by Shir Khan Lodi states that the author of the Khazanahi A amira composed the Tazkirah at the request of his relationship with Muhammad Auladi Muhammad. Ibrahim Khalil gives the life of Azad in his Suhuf, and states that up to the present time, which is the 7 th year of Shah Alam, he is still occupied in the composition of Persian and Arabic poetry. His works are numerous, and among others, he has arranged three Tazkirahs of poets, as Yadi Bayza, Servi Azad, and Khazanahi Aamirah. In Khulasat al-afkar, it is mentioned that Azad was a distinguished poet settled at Aurangabad, where he was much honoured, and associated on friendly terms with the sons of Asaf Jah. He wrote a Persian diwan, and a book of Arabic elegies. His Tazkirahs are considered noble proofs of his proficiency in everything connected with prosody and composition, both in Persian and Arabic. 3. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi: Qutbuddin Ahmad bin Abdur Rahim is known as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (R.). He was an Islamic scholar; reformer and founder of modern Islamic thoughts who attempted to reassess Islamic theology in the light of modern changes.

32 His early life and education: Shah Waliullah was born on 21 st February, 1703, four years before the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. His genealogy can be traced back to the family of Umar bin al-khattab. He received a structured education and spiritual instruction at a Madrasa established by his father, Shah Abdur Rahim, at Delhi. Along with the Qur an, he studied Arabic and Persian grammar and literature and the higher philosophical, theological, metaphysical, mystical and juridical texts. He graduated from the school when he was barely fifteen years old. In the same year, his father initiated him into the famous Naqshbandi order. He began his career as a teacher at the Madrasa-e-Rahimia under the tutelage of his father. After the death of his father in 1718, Shah Waliullah became the head of the Madrassa, teaching all the current sciences at the school for about twelve years. During the same period he continued his own studies, growing in stature as a teacher and attracting students to his circle. In 1724, he went to the Hejaz on a pilgrimage (Hajj) and stayed there for eight years studying Hadith and Fiqh under the guidance of Abu Tahir bin ibrahim al-kurdi al-madani, Wafd Allah al-makki, and Taj al-din al- Qali. During this period he came into contact with the people from all parts of the Muslim world and, thus, obtained first-hand information about the

33 conditions then prevailing in the various Muslim countries. During this time, he also saw the forty-seven spiritual visions which form the subject matter of his famous mystical work Fuyud al-haramayn (Emanations or Spiritual Visions of Mecca and Medina). He returned to Delhi in 1732 and spent his rest of his time in producing numerous works till his death in The most important of Shah Waliullah s works is his ujjatullah al-baligha in which he made an attempt to present the teachings of Islam in a spirit of scientific objectivity. The range of his works include: economic, political, social, meta-physical, as well as purely theological aspects. He presented what he considered pure and pristine Islam to the people. His Major Works: Shah Waliullah s main focus was on the Qur an, Hadith, sociopolitical and ethical philosophy and spiritual sciences. He wrote extensively in Islamic studies, including Tafsir (Qur anic exegesis), Hadith (traditions of the Prophet), Fiqh (law), Usul al-fiqh, (principles of jurisprudence), Aqa id (beliefs), Kalam (scholastics philosophy), Tasawwuf (spiritual sciences), history, biography, Arabic poetry, and

34 grammar. He also wrote in the areas of sociology, politics, psychology and ethical philosophy. 1. Fath al-rahman al-tarjamat al-qur an, Karachi, It is among the first popular renderings of the Qur'an into simple Persian language. It was completed by the author in Ramadan 1151 A.H. 2. Al-Fawz al-kabir, Lahore, 1951, 52 pp. It is a concise, but extremely valuable treatise on the principles of Qur anic exegesis. It is among the most popular works of Shah Waliullah, which has made an outstanding contribution to the study and understanding of the Qur an. Originally written in Persian, it has been translated into Arabic, Urdu, Turkish, and English languages. It was first published in Delhi in 1898 A.H. 3. Al-Fath al-kabir (Arabic), Lucknow, 1314 A.H. It deals with the explanation of the difficult words used in the Qur'an, with terms that are usually called ghara ib, i.e. words that are not quite familiar in the common diction. 4. Al-Musawwa min Ahadlth al-muwatta. It is a highly technical commentary in Arabic on this early collection of traditions compiled by Malik ibn Anas (d. 179 A.H.). It was first published in Delhi in 1293 A.H.

35 5. Musaffa Sharh-i-Muwatta. It is a commentary in Persian on the Muwatta. It represents Shah Waliullah s methodology in the teaching of Hadith. It was first published in 1293 A.H. in Delhi in two volumes. It has been translated into Urdu by Sayeed Abdullah and was published from Calcutta in 1294 A.H. 6. Sharh Tarajim Ba d Abwab al-bukhan (Arabic), Hyderabad, In this treatise, Shah Wali Allah has discussed the wisdom of the topical headings adopted by Imam Bukhari for different chapters of ahadith of this important compendium of traditions compiled by Imam Bukhari (d. 256 A.H.). It was first published in Hyderabad (India) in 1323 A.H. 7. Al-lnsaffl Bayan Sabab al-lkhtilaf (Arabic), Beirut, 1977, 114 pp. It is a juridical discourse on the compilation of the early compendia of Ahadith, and the evolution of different schools of jurisprudence. It also discusses the nature of disagreement among the jurists and the principles of resolving various conflicting opinions so as to arrive at a synthetic view within the broad framework of Islamic jurisprudence. It was first published in Delhi in 1308 A.H. It was also translated into Urdu.

36 8. Iqd al-jld ft Bayan Ahkam al-ljtihad wa al-taqlid (Arabic), Delhi, This treatise discusses various dimensions of the issues involved in ijtihad and taqlid and presents a balanced view on this oft-discussed and much-debated question. It was also translated into Urdu. 9. Hujjatullah al-balighah (Arabic), Cairo, It is the magnum opus of the author and constitutes a highly significant exposition of the Islamic worldview. We shall separately present an introduction to this work in some detail. It was first published in Bareily (India) in 1286 A.H. A number of Urdu translations of this work have appeared. It has also been recently translated into English under the title: The Conclusive Argument from God by Marcia Hermansen, and the first part of the translation has been published by E.J. Brill at Leiden in Al-Budur al-bqzighah (Arabic), Hyderabad, It is the second most important contribution of the author to a philosophical and rational interpretation of Islam after Hujjat Allah al-balighah. It has also been translated into English by J.M.S. Baijon.

37 11. Al-Khayr al-katir (Arabic), Bijnaur, India, 1325 A.H. It is a brief work in which he attempts to explain the fundamentals of faith with an approach combining rational and traditional arguments. 12. Maktub-i-Madam (Persian), Lahore, It is a long letter addressed by Shah Wali Allah to one Isma il ibn Abdullah Rumi. It deals with the metaphysical dimensions of the concept of existence. The work explains the position of the author on the problem of existence which syntheses the views of Ibn 'Arabi and Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. This letter has also been included in al-tafhtmat al-ilahiyyah. 13. Al-Aqidah al-hasanah (Arabic), Lucknow, 1962, 72 pp. It is a plain and rational presentation of the fundamentals of belief in Islam. It has also been translated into Urdu. 14. Al-Muqaddimah al-saniyyah fi Intisar al-firqah al-sunniyyah (Persian), Delhi. This work attempts a rational expose of the Sunni theological doctrines in comparison with the doctrines of the Shi ah. This is in fact Shah Waliullah s introduction to the Persian translation of a treatise by Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi entitled Radd-i- Rawafii.

38 15. Al-Tafhimat al-ilahiyyah (Arabic and Persian) (Bijnaur India: 1936), 264 pp. This work is in two volumes and includes a number of stray writings of the author, in which he has explained subtle points of rational and spiritual import with regard to the teachings of the true faith. Some of these writings are in Arabic and others in Persian. 16. Altaf al-quds (Persian) Delhi. It deals with the basic principles of the spiritual sciences. It has been translated into Urdu (Lahore; 1975), and also English under the title: The Sacred Knowledge of the Higher Functions of the Mind (Lahore: 1982). 17. Sata at (Persian) (Hyderabad: 1970), 54 pp. It discusses various aspects and dimensions of Divine theory and attempts to explain the nature of the abstract and material worlds and their respective characteristics. It has been translated into English and Urdu. 18. Fuyud al-haramayn (Arabic) (Delhi), 144 pp. Shah Wali Allah relates his spiritual experiences during his sojourn in Makkah and Madinah. It has also been translated into Urdu. The Urdu version was published in Lahore in Anfas al- Arifin (Persian). It narrates the spiritual attainments of the author s forefathers and spiritual ancestors. It was first published in 1335 A.H. in Delhi.

39 4. Syed Abul Hassan Ali Nadwi: Syed Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi, affectionately known as Ali Miyan, was an Indian scholar. He authored more than fifty books in various languages. He contributed a lot for the development of Indo-Arabic literature and Islamic Studies in India. His early life and education: He was born on 5 December, 1913, into a scholastic family. He received his early education at his home in Takia, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh, India. His mother initiated his early training in Quranic studies; he later entered formal education in Arabic, Persian and Urdu. His father, Syed Abdul Hai, wrote an 8-volume Arabic encyclopedia called Nuzhat al-khawatir (biographical notices of more than 5,000 theologian and jurists of the Sub-continent). Nadwi received most of his advanced education at the Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama in Lucknow. His writings: Abul Hassan Ali Nadwi primarily wrote in Arabic, although also in Urdu, and wrote more than fifty books on history, theology, and biography, and thousands of seminar papers, articles, and recorded speeches.

40 He wrote the book Maza Khasiral Alam be Inhitat al-muslimeen, which is translated into English and some other languages of the World. The Islamist Syed Qutb commended Nadwi s writings for his use of the word jahiliyya to describe not a particular age in history (as earlier Muslim scholars did) but a state of moral corruption and materialism. His honours and awards: , Secretary of the first inaugural session and foundation of Muslim World League in Mecca , King Faisal Award , Chairman of Islamic Centre Oxford , President of League of Islamic Literature , Islamic Personality of Year award established by Sheikh Mohammed of United Arab Emirates His death: Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi died on 23 Ramadan, 1420 AH (December 31, 1999) in Raebareli, India at the age of 86. Role of Maulana Nadwi in the development of Nadwatul Ulama: In 1934, he was appointed as teacher in Nadwa, later in 1961, he became Principal of Nadwa and in 1980, he was appointed as Chairman of

41 Islamic Centre Oxford, UK. He has been awarded King Faisal Award (1981) given by King Faisal Foundation and Sultan Brunei Award (1999) for his contributions. He was a prolific writer in Urdu and Arabic, his books are part of syllabus in various Arab Universities, and several books have been translated into English. 5. Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan: Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan ( ) was a both celebrated and controversial leader of India s Muslim community in the 19 th century, often considered to be the most important Muslim scholar of the Bhopal. He is largely credited with founding the reformist Ahl-e-Hadith movement, which became the dominant strain of Sunni Islam throughout the immediate region. Khan s controversial nature has led to contrasting assessments of his personality, having been described by contrasting sources as a radical fundamentalist, an underhanded and scheming politician and one of the first heroes of the Indian independence movement. His early life and education: Siddiq Hasan Khan s family were said to be descendants of Ali, the fourth Rashidun Caliphate. Initially settling in Bukhara, they migrated to Multan and later to the Shi te strongholds of Bareilly and Kannauj. Khan

42 was born in Bareilly on October 14, Khan grew up in a family which was impoverished despite its history of Islamic scholarship; his father converted from Shi a Islam to Sunni Islam in the early 1800s. Religiously, he was initially influenced by the ideas of Syed Ahmad Barelvi. Khan received much of his education in Farukhabad, Kanpur and Delhi under the care of friends of his father, who died when Khan was only five years old. After pursuing Islamic studies with two Yemeni clerics who had immigrated to Bhopal, Khan came under the influence of the works of prolific Yemeni author Muhammad al-shawkani. The reformist influence on Khan s thinking only increased with his performance of the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, where he became familiar with the works of Syrian polemicist Ibn Taymiyyah. Khan brought back a large number of books with him when he returned to Bhopal and began writing commentaries. Khan relocated to Bhopal in 1854 initially selling perfume but later working as a school teacher. He was expelled to Tonk in 1857, but soon returned to Kannauj to protect his family during the Indian Rebellion in Khan took up a job as an archivist and state historian in 1859 under Shah Jahan, who at the time was notable as a woman in a Muslim principality who was heir apparent to the throne. For the first time in his

43 life, Khan was financially well-off and brought his sister and mother to live with him in Bhopal. Khan married in 1860, to the daughter of the prime minister who was eleven year older than his senior. He eventually married Begum on suggestion of his father-i-law (father of his first wife). Upon Shah Jahan s coronation in 1871, Khan was promoted to the position of chief secretary, began spending longer periods of time alone with Shah Jahan. Khan had become the male consort of the female monarch. According to Lapel Griffin, the marriage was in part to quash the rumor mongering, and officials made it clear that Khan was merely the Sultan s husband and would not function in any executive role. The marriage was controversial due to Indian beliefs regarding the remarriage of widows; ironically, the stated justification for support of the marriage by British officials - themselves predominantly Christians - was that Islam encourages widows to remarry. Despite remaining the spouse of the actual monarch, Khan s wife began to observe purdah and corresponded with male diplomats with Khan as her representative. Khan s mother-in-law held rather negative reviews of her daughter s new husband, and there was friction between the two families. In 1890, Khan fell extremely ill with hepatitis. Resident Francis Henvey, Griffin s replacement, dispatched a medical officer but refused to

44 administer medicine for fear that, given the terminal nature of Khan s illness, the British would be accused of poisoning him. Khan died on May 26, His Major Works: After his marriage, Khan began publishing his own works in Arabic, Persian and Urdu; the number of his works eventually topped 200, and many of them were distributed by the state press for free in Bhopal s schools. His polemical and theological works are generally underlined by the principles of self-judgment, reason and rationality. Khan has been noted as one of the first scholars to research the topic of lexicography of the Arabic language, a field of study which the Arabs themselves had ignored until recently. Khan also performed a comprehensive review of Arabic philology and lexicons produced up to his time. 1. Al-Bulgha fi Usul al-lugha, 2. Tarjuman-i Wahhabiya, 3. Al-Iksir fi Usul al-tafsir 4. Al-Bayan al-marsus 5. Aun al-bari

45 6. Abdul Haq Dehlawi: Sheikh Abdul Haq Muhaddis Dehlawi was an Islamic scholar and pioneer of Arabic language and literature in India. He left no stone unturned for the development of Indo-Arabic language and literature. His early life and education: Sheikh Abdul Haqq Muhaddith Dehlawi was born in 1551 (958 AH) in Delhi, hence, Dehlawi is suffixed to his name. He became a noted writer in Arabic and Persian languages, who won favour from both Mughal Emperors, Jahangir ( ) and Shah Jahan ( ). As a result he became a respected scholar on Islam. His ancestors were natives of Bokhara, and later to the Mughal Royal Court at Delhi. His father too made a name for himself in the courts. In 1587, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stayed for the next two years studying the Prophetic traditions (Hadith) and Sufism under various scholars. His return to Delhi, he taught for half a century, and authored more than 100 works, noted among them a history of Medina, a biography of Prophet Muhammad, and a work on the lives of saints. He died in Delhi, in His mausoleum today exists at the edge of Hauz-i- Shamsi near Qutub Minar, Mehrauli, Delhi.

46 His Major Works: 1. Akhbar al Akhyar 2. Sharh Mishkat Shareef 3. Perfection of Faith (Translation), Adam Publishers. 4. Ma arij-ul-nabuwwah 5. Tarikh-i-Haqqi (The History by Haq). General history of South Asia from the time of the Gurids to the 42 nd year of Mughal Emperor Akbar s reign (1005/1596-7). 7. Fazl-e- Haqq Khairabadi: Fazl-e-Haqq Khairabadi was one of the main figures of the Indian Rebellion of He was a philosopher, an author, a poet, a religious scholar. But he is most remembered for issuing a fatwa in favour of Jihad against the English in His early life and education: Fazl-e-Haqq Khairabadi had been a chief judge in Lucknow. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 failed, believing himself covered by an amnesty Khairabadi surrendered himself to the British authorities on 30 January 1859 at Khairabad. He was tried and found guilty of encouraging murder and taking a leadership role in the rebellion. He had chosen to be

47 his own counsel and defended himself. His arguments and the way he defended his case was so convincing that the presiding magistrate was writing his judgment, exonerating him, when he confessed to giving the fatwa declaring that he could not lie. He was sentenced for life to the prison at Kalapani (Cellular Jail), Andaman Island with confiscation of his property by the Judicial Commissioner, Awadh Court. He reached Andaman on 8 October 1859 aboard the Steam Frigate Fire Queen. His son, Abdul Haq, managed to obtain the release order of his father through a subsequent pardon granted by Queen Victoria. He reached Port Blair on 13 February 1861, with the written pardon but was too late When he landed he saw a funeral procession and on enquiring as to whose was it, he was told that it was of Allama Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi had already been hanged on February 12. Besides being a scholar of Islamic studies and theology, he was also a literary persona, especially of Urdu, Arabic and Persian literature. He edited the first diwan of Mirza Ghalib on his request. On account of his deep knowledge and erudition, he was called Allama and later was venerated as a great Sufi. He was also bestowed upon the title Imamul Hikmat wal Kalam (The imam of logic, philosophy and literature). He was considered the final authority on issuing fatwas or religious rulings.