Understanding the Importance of Kannada Cultural Practices through the Ages: An Overview

Transcription

1 1 Understanding the Importance of Kannada Cultural Practices through the Ages: An Overview _Ramesh Aroli 1 Abstract The present paper makes an effort to bring greater subtlety to inquire and understand the different substances that help out the formation of cultural history of Karnataka and to understand those practices and their antiquity. However, these substances had undergone a number of paradigm shifts, and drawn and redrawn by the individuals and ideologies through the centuries. Thus scholars point out that the Kannada identity movement encompasses a range of moderate and progressive intellectual positions, which have of late been overshadowed by the more strident voices. While searching for such historical evidences it found there is sturdy interrelationship between various essences and the material production which could really help us to theorize the meaning or the signs of human practices in general and cultural practices of Karnataka in particular. 1 Assistant Professor, Kamala Nehru College, University of Delhi, Siri Fort Road, News Delhi-49.aroliramesh@gmail.com

2 2 At break of Day, whom do we pray? Mother Earth, who grows our pepper and ginger Let us, awhile remember her, ever! 2 This is how a folk song in Kannada narrates the connection between belief system of people and the origin of cultural practices. Indeed every form of art including literature, drama, painting, music and all kinds of creative human expressions are an outcome of activities related to production. Though, scholars could trace the antiquity of Kannada literary history dating back to at least 1500 years but it is difficult to locate the origin of oral literary culture which began earlier, still runs parallel to the written form. However, the history of Kannada literary practices has not been historically divided absolutely into different time periods; for the convenience of present study I have been categorized the period into below phases. Hindana : Pre-colonial period Naduvana : Colonial period Nutana Prastuta : During Nationalism : Post-Independent period. Kannada, a Dravidian classical language is as old as Tamil, which is spoken predominantly in the state of Karnataka in India. Construction of identity of this geo-cultural region called Karnataka, one of the Southern states of India can be traced in the ideological debates among the scholars who tried to create the notion of Kannada identity with different entities. Though in India, generally, sense of belongingness is strongly ensured by the language of concerned regions which is considered as a dominate substance. But, taking into account of other entities such as, historical, political, religious, geographical and cultural, the literary scholars and historians determine that the existence of Kannada Nadu (Kannada region) is 2 A folk song quoted in Janapada Karnataka, p.112, Ed: Nalluru Prasad.

3 3 purely a geographical factor. Prof. Madhava Prasad, a scholar, noted that there is no substance in Kannada or Karnataka that guarantees our (Kannada) identity. It is rather a question of a set of identifications But the question remains unanswered that how the identifications which often change or transform over a period of time can shape a particular domain called identity. Hindana Kaala : Pre-colonial period Challenging construction of cultural identity of the geo-cultural region of this Southern state; researchers trace the existence of Kannada by looking at Kavirajamarga (Kingly path of poets), a first available Ninth Century written text in Kannada a treatise on poetics. At the same time construction of Kannada literary and cultural identity can be traced in the ideological debates that exist within the possible conditions under the specific social and historical junctures. The writer of Kavirajamarga illustrates the spread of Karnataka border as: Cauveriyindamago davarivaramirda nadada kannadol bhavisida janapadam vasu dhavalayavileena vishada visheya visham which means the territory spread over the river Cauvery to Godavari known as Kannada and the people due to their rich culture living in this region had a special status in the universe. Further, it describes the nature of Kannada people as Kuritodadeyum kavya prayoga parinatamatigal which mean that though they do not know writing and do not engage in literary production but they could understand and enjoy the epics by listening. In addition, it points out that they are fond of epics. The researcher of Kannada literary history often quote the names of places of Karnataka mentioned in the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata as there is astonishing difference in

4 4 estimation of antiquity of Karnataka. But there are scholars who establish it by tracing the empirical evidences such as inscriptions and the ancient texts available in other languages. Karnataka Through Ages of R.R Diwakar is one among the significant such studies. In the chapter Early period of Kannada he writes: Its (Kannada) antiquity is next only to that of Sanskrit and Prakrit and, perhaps, also of Tamil. The earliest references to the Kannada country and its culture are to be found in the Buddhist chronicles and early Tamil classics. The Mahavamsha tells us that Asoka, the Mauryan Emperor, sent Rakkhita, one of his Buddhist missionaries, to Vanavasa (Banavasi), and Mahadeva, another of them to Mahisha Mandala (Mysore), in the 3 rd century B.C. Silappadikaram 3 of Ilangoadigal (c465 A.D) refers to a dance of Kannadigas witnessed by the Chera ruler Senaguttavan, of the second century A.D. An illustrative extract ascribed to Avvaiyar of the 2 nd century A.D. and quoted in a commentary on Tolkappiam, the earliest extent work in Tamil, makes a rather uncharitable reference to the Kannada people. The verse says that wise men do not approach these six: Vadugar (Telugu people), Aruvalar (Tamil tribe), Karunatar (Kannada people), cremation ground, goblins and buffaloes 4 It is considered as new trend began with the Ratnatrayaru (Three Gems) of Kannada literature, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna in the 10th century, where prose and verse were mixed with the campu style. The three poets extensively wrote on episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata and Jain legends and biographies. Chavunda Raya, Ranna s elder contemporary then came up with an elaborate work on history of all the 24 Jaina tirthankaras (saintly teachers). The Chola kings of Tamil-land got too aggressive around the 11th century and fought wars. This meant a lean phase in literary activities except for the works of a few writers like Naga Chandra, known for his Jain Ramayana, the Jain poetess Kanti, the grammarian Naga Varman II who wrote Karnataka Bhasha Bhushana in Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms), and Kirtti Varman and VrittaVilasa. 3 Ancient Tamil available text which has reference of Kannada and Karnataka. 4 See History of Printing and Publishing in India edited by B.S Kesavan. Pp5.

5 5 The 12th century saw a sea of change in Kannada literature both in content and style. What caused this is the growth of Veerashaivism which was essentially revolutionary in approach. It derecognized untouchability and saw women as equals. It liberated Kannada from the clutches of Sanskrit. The moving spirit behind this movement was Basavanna, who was a minister in the court of Prince Bijjala. His Vachanas which can be called prose-poems, have their moorings in folk-literature and folk-culture, and yearn to liberate man from the bondage of untruth and ignorance. They seek to provide happiness here and elsewhere. Allamaprabhu, Akkamahadevi, Channabasavanna, Madara Chennayya, Siddarama, Madivala Machayya, Dohara Kakkayya, etc., were other Vachanakaras. And the middle phase of Kannada literature saw the power of Puranic Hinduism over Jainism. A very distinct phase of writing began in the second half of the 12th century in the Vira-Shaiva phase with Basava s Vachanas. There was a spate of writers like Harihara, Raghavanka and Kereya Padmarasa writing fervently about Shiva in the 12th-13th centuries. Rebellion against the orthodox rituals came from the brilliant poetess Akkamahadevi, a harbinger of Bhakti poetry. The Jains, too, weren t idle all this while; they composed legendary histories of various tirthankaras (ford makers). In all, the 13th century was chockfull with poems, literary criticism, grammar, natural science and translations from Sanskrit. After Basavanna, the greatest influence on Kannada literature was Harihara, who used an innovative form called 'Ragale'. His 'Basavarajadevara Ragale and 'Nambiyannana Ragale' are the examples of this genre. His nephew Raghavanka introduced yet another form of poetry called Shatpadi and apart from 'Somanatha Charithe' and 'Siddarama Charithe' and his 'Harischandra Kavya' is considered to be a masterpiece. The Sixteenth Century saw Veerashaiva poets of extraordinary merit. Sarvajna, a Vairagi in that he had no settled home, and no religion, wrote "Sarvajna Padagalu' in Vachana (Songs of Sarvajna) style. This work is really a compendium of wit and wisdom. Nijaguna Sivayogi who was a ruler, saint and scholar wrote 'Viveka Chintamani' an encyclopedia in Kannada.

6 6 Dasakoota or the Vaishnava movement was led by Purandara Dasa, who is also considered the father of Karnatic music. Through his Keerthanas, he propounded the Dwaitha Philosophy and gave an impetus to Bhakthi movement. Kanaka Dasa, though hailing from the Kuruba community, followed in the footsteps of Purandara Dasa. Karnataka culture reached its zenith during the Vijayanagara empire. Naranappa's (Kumaravyasa) 'Karnataka Bharatha Kathamanjari' or 'Gadugina Bharatha' as it is popularly known is the finest example of the literature of this period. This was followed by Lakshmisha's 'Jaimini Bharatha' which is also an immensely popular work. Chamarasa's 'Prabhulingaleele' is another notable work of this period. Post-renaissance movement saw a four-lined folk-metre called 'Sangatya' which was particularly suitable for singing. Nanjundakavi who wrote 'Kumararamana Kathe' proved its multi-dimensional application. But it was Rathnakaravarni who, in 'Bharathesha Vaibhava', explored its full potential. Naduvana Kaala : Colonial period The Wodeyars of Mysore gave a boost to Kannada literature. Particularly noteworthy is Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar's period from 1672 to He himself wrote 'Chikkadevaraja Binnapa'. Tirumalaraya's 'Chikkadevaraja Vijaya' has Mysore history as its theme and is in Champu style. Singararya's 'Mitravinda Govinda', translated from Harsha's 'Rathnavali' is considered to be the earliest Kannada play. Another noteworthy poetess of this period is (Sanchi) Honnamma who wrote "Hadibadeya Dharma' in Sangatya metre. Kannada literature took a strong Hindu bend with the orthodox Vijayanagara kings (14th- 15th AD). Some eminent names were Bhima Kavi, Padmanaka, Mallanarya, Singiraja and Chamarasa. The Bhakti movement also affected Kannada literature in the 15th and 16th

7 7 centuries. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas were translated afresh using the folk meters satpadi and regale. Devotional songs of dasas or singing mendicants were compiled, which formed an important part of popular literature. The next two centuries were a busy period with many rulers and kingdoms such as the Wodeyar kings, Bijapur Sultans and Mughals that led to much literary activity. Bhattakalanka Deva s Karnataka Shabdaushasana (1604AD) on grammar, Sakdakshara Deva s romantic campu- the Rajshekhara Vilasa (1657AD), the historical compositions of the Wodeyar period ( AD), Nijaguna Yogi s Viveka Chintamani of Shaiva lore (mid 17th century), Nanja Raja s Puranic works the Shiva Bhakti Mahatmya and Hari Vamsa (circa 1760), were some of the notable creations. The popular Yakshagana, dramatization of Puranic tales with much singing, was an innovation of the late 18th century. A good mass of folk poetry thus came to be written. Shishunala Sharif, was a saint poet, philosopher and social reformer of the period who composed moral poems in Kannada called Tatvapada.He is recognized as the first ever Muslim poet in Kannada literature. Shishunala Sharif was known to compose poems as per the situation and sing them to spread the messages across.though, he never penned down his compositions, from the word of mouth quite a few them have been passed on to the next generations. All his works are in colloquial Kannada language that is called Dharwad Kannada. The ideology of Karnataka as a concept of nation in its modern form was a historical development, starting from the last decade of the 19th century elaborated by the intellectuals and historians of early part of 20th century. By introducing printing machines and print culture in to the vernacular languages in Indian states, the Christian missionaries too caused for the spread and growth of Kannada consciousness in Karnataka as well. A systematic historical study of Kannada literature, language and its cultural practices by the Christian missionaries and European scholars as well as Kannada scholars helped Kannadigas to imagine their past and appreciate their cultural awakening. Some scholars termed it as cultural renaissance of Karnataka.

8 8 Nutana Kaala : During Nationalism and Post-Independent period. Duringthe 19th century, Western-styled education, Christian missionaries who depended upon the local language to circularize their Gospels, and ultimately the arrival of the printing press, incredibly sped up the development of modern period in Kannada literature. A well-known Christian missionary, Hermann Mogling, had published the first-ever Kannada newspaper named Mangalore Samachara in Mogling also had gone ahead to publish Kannada classics as a series, referred to as Bibliotheca Carnataca during the period from British officers Benjamin L. Rice and J. H. Fleet also had begun to edit and issue critical editions of surviving literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions. The first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel was brought out in Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar continued the tradition of his predecessor. Kempunarayana's 'Mudramanjusha' deserves a special mention. Wodeyar also started the Raja's English School (1833) and this along with the expansion of Missionary activities, increased the Western influence on Kannada literature. Chamaraja Wodeyar's period saw a new era in Kannada literature. M.S.Puttanna's 'Madiddunno Maharaya', D.Venkatachalayya and Dr.B.V.Venkateshaiyya's detective stories like 'Parimala' and 'Arindamana Sahasagalu', Galaganatha's social and historical novels, Kittel's dictionary, Cha.Vasudevarayya's 'Bala Bodhe' belong to this period. Muddanna's 'Ramashvamedha' is an epic episode in prose. This has a tinge of modem writing. Translated novels by B.Venkatacharya and Galaganath, mostly historical made a deep impact on readers. In 1921, Professor B.M.Srikantayya heralded the 'Navodaya' movement. His 'English Geethagalu' was a free rendering of some great English poems. Around this period, and unknown to him, K.V.Puttappa (Kuvempu) had switched over from English writing to Kannada and the culmination of his work was 'Sri Ramayana Darshana' written in blank verse. Puttappa's social novels such as 'Kanurusubbamma Heggadati' and 'Malegalalli

9 9 Madumagalu' are equally well acclaimed. Among the works of the thirties, D.V.Gundappa's 'Manku Thimmana Kagga' stands out as a jewel. It is considered to be unique in the sense that it contains ethical principles, philosophic truths and experiences of life. Samsa wrote many plays in Halegannada, of which 'Vigada Vikramaraya' is the best example. Another important factor influencing twentieth century Kannada literature is that Kannadaspeaking areas were distributed among Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Mysore provinces in the first half of this century. Only in 1956 were predominantly Kannada-speaking areas united to form the present Karnataka state. Till then, many writers felt that failure to bring the Kannada-speaking areas under one state administration led to the lack of identity of the Kannadigas. Therefore, in Karnataka, the freedom struggle meant not only freeing India from the British but also freeing Kannada-speaking areas from the rules of Tamilians, Telugus, and Marathas. Discovering and propagating the best of Kannada literature of the past and present were the ways of unifying the Kannada-speaking people and helping them find their cultural identity. B. M. Srikantia, Alur Venkata Rao ( ), and their disciples spent a considerable number of years touring different parts of Kannada-speaking areas and lecturing about Kannada language and literature. Thus, Kannada language and culture became important instruments in making people aware of their identity and in helping them regain their selfrespect during the freedom struggle. Modern education made a late entry in Karnataka as compared to other parts of India. Works based on Sanskrit models, like Shakuntala of Basavappa Shastri, continued till the late 19th century. With a little initiation from the Christian missionaries, the Academy of Kannada Literature was set up in Bangalore in Gradually modern literature gained tempo and translations were made from English, Bengali and Marathi. Kerur and Galaganatha attempted the first novels in Kannada, followed by a host of novelists like Shivarama Karanta, K. V. Puttapa, G P Rajaratnam, Basavaraja Kattimani, Nanjanagudu Tirumalamba (the first major woman writer in modern Kannada) and others.

10 10 K.S. Narasimha Swamy's 'Mysoora Mallige', a collection of poems with love and separation as the theme is a landmark of the Navodaya period. G.P. Rajarathnam's 'Rathnana Padagalu' perhaps stands unique in world literature in seeing truth a beauty in drunken man's gay gibberish. Pu.Thi. Narasimhachar's 'Gokula Nirgamana' has Krishna's separation from Radha as its theme and this again reaches spiritual heights. Gorur Ramaswamy lyengar chose the easy form to portray the life of rural Karnataka his 'Halliya Chitragalu' is considered the supreme example of his writings. His tradition was continued by A.N.Murthy Rao in 'Hagaluganasugalu' and M.R.Srinivasa Murthy in 'Rangannana Kanasina Dinagalu'. The period also saw a spurt of literary critisism. Of these T.N. Srikantaiya's 'Bharathiya Kavya Meemamse' is considered to be a classic. A.R. Krishna Shastry nurtured a whole generation of writers through 'Prabuddha Karnataka', a periodical brought out by the Kannada Sangha of the Central College and later shifted the publication to Mysore University. S.V.Ranganna, an English Professor, who had by this time established himself as a Kannada writer through 'Ranga Binnappa', wrote on literary criticism in 'Shaili' and 'Ruchi'. V.Sitaramayya's output varied from 'Hana Prapancha', an economic treatise, to 'Pampa Yathre' a travelogue, to host of writings, from poetry to literary criticism. R.S. Mugali wrote 'Kannada Sahitya Charithre' succinct and balanced history of Kannada Literature. The short story too made its advent with Panje Mangesha Rao and Masti Venkatesha Ayyangar. A new trend in drama began with the use of colloquial language. Poetry, too, wasn t left behind; B. M. Shrikanthayya took Kannada poetry to great heights with innovations like the blank verse. Literature in Kannada today is a big enterprise, with bustling centres like the University of Mysore, the Karnataka University at Dharwar and the Kannada Sahitya Parishad of Mysore. As the Navodaya period mounted towards its summit, the Pragatishila (progressives) movement headed by novelist A. N. Krishna Rao (also recognised as `Anakru`), gathered up considerable thrust in the early 1940s. This school, primarily inclined towards being a leftist, debated that literature must serve as a tool of social revolution and considered the Navodaya to be the result of aesthetes, too straight-laced to be of any social significance.

11 11 During the 1950s, even as the Pragatishila integrated back into the Navodaya stream of thought, yet another new modernist school of writing named Navya came forth, as if in a cyclic motion. Though formally ushered in by V. K. Gokak (Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, a major writer of Kannada and English languages, winner of Jnanpith Award) with his Navya Kavitegalu ("Modern Poems", 1950), in reality it was Gopalakrishna Adiga who best illustrated the distinctive spirit of the movement. Poetry and, later, the short story became the most efficient and valuable medium of expression of the Navya movement, always considered an integral part in modern period of Kannada literature. The most spectacular and extravagant (in a symbolic sense) playwrights from the modern period in Kannada literature include Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Girish Karnad`s Tughlaq (1964) successfully tries to delineate brutality induced by idealism gone off beam. It is interesting to note that except U.R.Ananthamurthy and Girish Karnad, all the five of the seven Jnanapeetah awardees in Kannada, Kuvempu, Da.Ra Bendre, Shivarama Karantha, Masthi Venkatesha lyengar and V.K.Gokak have been writing since the Navodaya period. Da.Ra. Bendre won the award primarily for 'Naku Thanti' a metaphysical poetic work but his popularity is based more on his writings drawn from folk culture. Shivarama Karantha's writings range from encyclopedea to novels, essays, drama and poetry. 'Marali Mannige' is his oft-mentioned novel, but 'Bettada Jeeva' 'Chomana Dudi' and 'Mookajjiya Kanasugalu' are also noteworthy. His works mirror the cultural ethos of Dakshina Kannada. Masthi Venkatesha lyengar is primarily noted as short story writer, his 'Chennabasava Nayaka' and 'Chikaveerarajendra' are historical novels dealing with degeneration of monarchy, and 'Subbanna' is a long story which reaches metaphysical heights. V.K. Gokak began as a Navodaya poet but his magnum opus is 'Bharatha Sindhu Rashmi' which seeks to find answers for the modern man's dilemmas in ancient epics. Significantly, Ananthamurthy's 'Bhava' also seeks inspiration from traditional wisdom.

12 12 As earlier movements failed to address the different issues in their writing the oppressed groups such as lower castes, Muslims and women stared coming in to the different forms of creative expression that led entire Kannada cultural sphere to undergo a kind of vibrancy for the first time in its history. Dalit and Bandaya are the two most (social and literary) radical movements in the mid-1970s in Karnataka. Dalit writers are, mostly, from untouchable castes. Bandaya is the movement of young leftist writers. Both schools of writing had expressed anger towards several forms of social and economic exploitation. Karnataka has a rich heritage of art and culture. From time immemorial this place has been the origin and the culmination ground of Indian classical music and other form of arts. Folk culture has its roots in this state and the art forms have heavily borrowed from them. By utilizing the medium of performing arts artistes convey the various traditions and customs of a particular community. Stories from epics are also portrayed on stage. The performances are eye candy because of the vibrant costumes and make up. Narrators are an indispensable part of these performances. Performing arts have always been a medium to educate people. Through these art forms twin purpose of education and entertainment was achieved. FOLK DANCE FORMS Yakshagana Yakshagana is one of those art forms that is rooted in mythologies. In Hindu mythology Yakshas are depicted as demi gods who attend to Kubera. This dance drama elaborately portrays the stories from holy texts. A trip to coastal Karnataka is incomplete without watching Yakshagana. Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada are the places where this dance drama is performed. Yakshagana is a unique combination of dance, drama,

13 13 dialogues, songs, music and resplendent costumes. This dance drama is performed in openair theaters where audiences are seated on three sides of the stage. TogaluBombeaata Togalu Bombeaata is a puppet show that is quite popular in Karnataka. In this ancient art form leather puppets are used to enact popular scenes from epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. In a world where puppet shows are fast disappearing this age old art form is quite popular in this Indian state. Such shows were performed to ward off the evil powers that bring diseases, epidemics and destroyed crops. BhoothaAradhane Bhootha Aradhane is a ritualistic dance in Karnataka. The origin of this art form can be traced to the coastal parts of Karnataka and Kerala. This is a way of Tulu worship. This form of folk dance is unique to Karnataka. Bhootha in India refers to ghost. The references to these creatures are found in legends and myths. These creatures are Lord Shiva`s attendants and known as Bhuta Ganas. Bhootha Aradhane is an extension of this worship. Nagamandala Snakes have always mystified people. In India snake is seen to accompany Lord Shiva and is thus considered holy enough to worship. Nagamandala is a folk art of worshipping snakes and is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada and Udupi. The beats and movements of the dance are quite attention grabbing. While worshipping the serpent the dance to depicts the slithering movement of the snake. This exotic performance is a treat to watch as the dancers are dressed up like serpents. Fear and ignorance about snakes also play a major part in their worship. DolluKunitha

14 14 this is a drum dance that is quite popular in Karnataka. Dollu Kunitha is accompanied by singing. This is performed by men of the shepherd community, Kuruba. Strong acrobatic movements, drumming and synchronization are the features of this performing art. Other than this, there is another ritualistic dance called the Puja Kunitha. There are very few dances that are accompanied only by instruments. Puja Kunitha is, thus, unique in its own way. Karadimajal This is a popular folk orchestra of the north Karnataka region. It is performed during various auspicious occasions and in processions. The Karadi or Karade is the percussion instrument that is used in the orchestra. It is a palm sized cymbal that produces metallic sounds while the Shehnai is used to produce the melody Krishna Parijatha Krishna Parijatha is a folk theater that depicts legends revolving around Lord Krishna and Indra. Though there are many theories related to Krishna Parijatha but the most popular one is that of Krishna waging war over Indra. The two lords fell out over Parijatha tree that came out of the ocean of existence. The entire chain of events is performed through this dance drama. JaggahaligeKunita This is a folk art of the Hubballi Dharwad region, particularly of the 'Byahatti' village. It is performed on occasions such as Yugadi and Holi. Jagghalige is essentially a percussion instrument made of a bullock cart wheel with buffalo hides wrapped around. On the said occasions, the village folk roll out the giant instruments and march in an impressive procession. The entire performance is directed by a chief choreographer who himself uses a much smaller percussion instrument called the kanihaligi which is made of clay and covered with calf hide. The performance usually involves a group Of about 15people. Bolak-aat

15 15 This is performed by the Kodava men in front of an oil lamp in an open field. The men hold the chavari(yak fur) in one hand and the Kodava short sword "Odi-kathi" in the other while performing this dance. Many regional variations of this dance exist. Sometimes performers dance only with the chavari without the use of the short sword. When the short sword or the "Odi-kathi" is also used, it is called kattiyaata. The dudi, an hourglass shaped drum is used to provide the rhythm for the dance. Veeragase It is a dance form prevalent in the state of Karnataka, India. It is a vigorous dance based on Hindu mythology and involves very intense energy-sapping dance movements. Veeragase is one of the dances demonstrated in the Dasara procession held in Mysore. This dance is performed during festivals and mainly in the Hindu months of Shravana and Karthika. Hagalu Veeshagaararu (Day Actor's) Hagalu veshagaararu are a group of itinerant actors of Karnataka. Some populations of these artists are native to Andhra Pradesh also. These artists are masters of the art of miming and their performances are extempore. No formal stage or facility is used. The artists move from place to place and pitch tents in places where they offer to perform their show. CLASSICAL MUSIC AND DANCFORMS There are various forms of dances in Karnataka. Bharatanatyam (Mysore), Kuchipudi etc are the main classical dances here. Most of these dances are still learnt by people with great zest. All these dances have different music, beat, movements, themes and costumes. Some of the biggest names in Indian dance hail from these schools of dancing.

16 16 It is worth to note here that legendary classical singers Bharat Ratna Pandit. Bhimsen Joshi and renowned Hindustani vocalist Gangubai Hanagal both were Kannadigas, who lifted the listeners to a divine experience with their unique styles. Scholars says that Bhimsen Joshi s music has been hailed by both the critics and the masses with his performances marked by spontaneity and accurate notes, but his specialisation came in for ragas most popularly Shuddha Kalyan, Miyan Ki Todi and Darbari raga. FLORA AND FAUNA In Karnataka the wildlife is well taken care of. This is the reason why animal world is at its best in Karnataka. For animal lovers this is the best place to be. The dense forest combined with the blessing of River Cauvery has helped the wildlife to grow in Karnataka. In certain places the common men too look after the well being of the animals. Such factors have helped Karnataka to promote its wildlife as a part of tourism. People from all over the globe drop in with a desire to catch a glimpse of a lurking tiger, jumping cheetal, Indian bison, rare species of birds and numerous other animals. Flora and fauna of Karnataka is like a multi-cuisine platter! The wide range of flora and fauna in Karnataka are indeed a source of delight for the tourists. The geography here boasts of a wide variety of flora and fauna that are spread throughout its length and breadth. And also, one can find many varieties of mammals, birds, a wide range of insects, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, etc. ARCHITECTURE The state of Karnataka is renowned for the plethora of Hindu, Islamic, Jain and colonial architectures. It has rich and varied architecture. The three cities of Gulbarga, Bijapur and Bidar in the north have many structures reflecting south Indian Islamic architecture. Among them Bijapur has a lot worth seeing and is referred to as the Agra of South India. Karnataka

17 17 is also a chief Hindu cultural centre of the 18th century. Aihole and Badami in the north of the state was the centre of construction activities during the middle Ages. The various dynasties that had ruled Karnataka have left their imprint in the architectural style of the buildings and monuments. Structures were built by the early Chalukyas in the 6th-8th centuries. The later Chalukyas built temples that were a blend of the north and south styles with a starshaped plan. It is referred to as the Chalukya style. Later the Hoysalas also developed the in between style of architecture. The three temples in Belur, Halebid and Somanathapura, sport the star plan and have highly decorated walls with exquisite engravings. Jain temples were built on the west coast. Colonial architecture is scattered in the city of Mysore. Some of the exquisite monuments of Hampi reflect a brilliant blend of Hindu and Islamic style of architecture. The Ramachandra temple of Hampi is in the heart of the palace grounds and is called Hazara Rama. It was a medium sized prayer house of the royals. The temple plan is the same as the later Chalukya type square mandapa with a three-sided entrance. The vimana reflects the southern style and the decorations on it are harmonious. The Vitthala temple is the greatest of Vijayanagara architecture. KANNADA CINEMA: The films made in the Kannada language comes from what is known as the Sandalwood film industry; just as Hindi films emerge from Bollywood. While most of the films are made in Kannada, there are a few exceptions to films being made in Konkani and Tulu, making Kannada cinema an important aspect of Indian cinema. The most noted actor to emerge from Kannada films was Dr. Rajkumar. He was well known for his captivating voice and versatile acting abilities.

18 18 Others who have received many accolades include Vishnu Vardhan, Gubbi Veeranna, Balakrishna, Puttanna Kanagal, Prabhakar, Lokesh, Anant Nag, Girish Karnad, Manjula, Ravichandran, Narasimharaju and Dwarakesh. Kannada cinema has lost many of its most talented stars on grounds of different reasons such as accidents and people fading off screen such as Soundarya, Kalpana, Manjula, Suneel and others. However due to lack of studios and technical crews, financers backed away from film projects in the early stages of Kannada cinema. Sati Sulochana released in 1934 has the credit of being the first talky film in Kannada. The 1950's saw the emergence of Dr. Rajkumar. He formed a partnership with two others to produce more Kannada films, but the partnership lasted for a few years before withering away. Most films during this era revolved around mythology and historic events. The golden period of Kannada cinema was seen during the 1970's and 80's where along with Bengali and Malayalam cinema, the emergence of parallel cinema took place in Kannada cinema as well. Films like Kaadu, Samskara, Hamsageethe, Ondanondu Kaladalli, Chomana Dudi were some of the important films to emerge from this era. Girish Kasaravalli, is considered to be the pioneer behind New Wave Cinema in Karnataka. He has won the National award for best film four times. With the government of Karnataka in the 1980's awarding a 50 per cent tax exempt fee for films made in all its entirety in Karnataka, more interest was generated, bringing in much needed revenue into the Kannada film industry. Shivarajkumar started off his film career with one success after another. Other stars who shone in the spotlight were Vanitha Vasu, Devaraj, Jaggesh, Lokanath and Anjana. Gubbi Veeranna could be considered the doyen of Kannada cinema during the mid to late forties. He brought his talent as an actor from the theatrical stage to Kannada cinema through his Gubbi Veeranna Theater. From the mid-forties to late fifties, Gubbi Karnataka Productions (of which he was a shareholder) produced movies such as Bhaktha Kumbara, Gunasagari, Hemareddi Mallamma, Adarsha Sati, and Sadarame.

19 19 The 1970s and 1980s also witnessed the rise of director Puttanna Kanagal. His movies (Bellimoda, Gejje Pooje, Sharapanjara, Sakshatkara, Nagara Havu) pioneered a new style of filmmaking which acted as a bridge between commercial and parallel cinema. In the 1980s, in a bid to popularise filmmaking, the Government of Karnataka granted a 50% tax exemption to Kannada films completely made in Karnataka, and it increased the subsidy amount to Kannada films. The late 1970s were Rajkumar's peak period. He gave blockbuster movies which created history and established the Kannada film industry on a firm footing. Bangarada Manushya, Daari Thappida Maga, Mayura, Premada Kanike, Babruvahana, Baktha Kumbara, and Krishnadevaraya were successes that gave Rajkumar an iconic status. Shankar Nag made his own mark with the internationally acclaimed Ondanondu Kaladalli and Malgudi Days, along with several commercial hits. Anant Nag, Ambareesh, Prabhakar, Lokesh, Ashok, Srinath, M. P. Shankar, and Sunder Krishna Urs were other actors who made their own mark in the industry. Puttana Kanagal paved the way for the abovementioned actors as well as Ramakrishna, Kokila Mohan, and Chandrashekar. Lakshmi, Padma Vaasanthi, Geetha, Madhavi, Saritha, and Jayamala were some of the actresses who made their mark. A tentative conclusion: Unfortunately, even though Kannada society has contributed some of the great thinkers and philosophers to the Indian philosophy but there is complete silence was maintained as for the contribution of lower castes indigenous yogis is concerned. Especially, during the 19 th century they had to lose the battle where the world-view of the upper caste (as social hierarchy continued) won. Apparently, the whole cultural or literary history of Kannada has had been studied merely either considering text/author or religion (kriti/kartru adharita=dharma adharita) as a base. As D. R. Nagaraj points out that in this period the anticaste social philosophy became the official slogan of Indian nationalism but it was unable to address complex caste factors in different spheres that led other kind of social rage in the

20 20 later period as the very cultural paradigm of the nationalist epoch did not accept the lower caste cosmologies 5 General Notes: While writing pre-history of Karnataka scholars quote this first available medieval text written by Srivijaya in the court of Rashtrakoota king Nrupatunga. It was first published in book form in 1898 (edit by K B Pathak). For details see M. Chidanandamurthy s Karnataka samskruthi, page 4. Aniketana, a quarterly journal of Kannada language and literature, a special issue on the Kavirajamaraga, Apl- Sept: 1999, Community and Culture, selected writings of K.V Subbanna (edit by Manu Chakravarhty), 2009, and Rahamat Tarikere s Kavirajamarga mattu Kannada jagattu : Samskrutika mukhamukhi: It is important to critically engage with the text. Many scholars, whenever there will be debates on land and language, they emotionally recall the geographical entity that mentioned. Basavaraj Kalgudi argues however, that the present-day scholars have not applied their minds enough to trash out a solution to the critical impasse that the Kannada language finds itself in. (Kalgudi. B 71) For details see Basavaraj Kalgudis essay in the Aniketana, same issue above mentioned. Why not scholars look into the way of negation or Anusandhana (a process of negotiation between self (native) and Other (dominant migrates, or cosmopolitan) that has had been practiced within the cultural and literary history, before claiming Kannadigas have been had tolerated others who come for a life in the land? And as K.V Subbana explains the nature of this text, has been seen as mainly a text of rhetoric which has incidentally stated useful tenets about the Kannada language, culture and people.see, Aniketana, same issue. The term Karnataka has been described as a Sanskritisation of Kannada, that later became Kanara and finally, Kanarese in the speech of the westerner and that explained as Kuru + nadu, Kar + nadu or Kan + nada to mention only the main theories. 5 Flaming Feet, Pg;65.

21 21 Virashaiva movement is an important socio-religious movement of 12th and 13th century in Karnataka, which was led by Virashaivas or heroic followers of Shiva, like the other offshoots of the Bhakti movement that was characterized by the combination of egalitarianism and spiritual excellence. As Saki, points out that it was an anti-feudal democratic consciousness, that led artisans and untouchables to fight against Kings, religious Mutts and bureaucrats. See Saki s works Making history Vol. I & II on history of Karnataka. In Dharwad (earlier Bombay Karnataka region), Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha which was established in 1890 rendered an institutionalized service to the ideology of Karnataka. The scholars of this region did an admirable job of encouraging Kannada writers by initiating the publication houses as well as standardized the usage of Kannada language by editing few journals. It also played a crucial role in the history of Karnataka Unification movement. For details see, Gazetteer of Bombay State: Dharawad district (revised edition) Vol.XXII, of the regional Gazetteer of Bombay presidency relating to Dharwad, Bombay Govt Central press, 1959, p Kuvempu, as an exception to the traditionalist literary production, campaigned for social equality and the abolition of priestly class hegemony (Rao, H.S.Raghavendra: 2006), He illustrates the idea of Kannada identity as Jaya bharata jananiya tanu jaate a part of federal India, which appears as relationship between a mother and daughter ; Kannada bhuvaneswari, who born to mother Bharatamaate, is seems entilry different from the earlier scholars. Dalit and Bandaya are the two most (social and literary) radical movements in the mid-1970s in Karnataka. Dalit writers are, mostly, from untouchable castes. Bandaya is the movement of young leftist writers. Both schools of writing had expressed anger towards several forms of social and economic exploitation. To begin with, an aggressive peasant movement in Karnataka, under the aegis of Karnataka Rajya Raita Sangha (1980) fought for the cause of farmers problems. It also made attempt to redefine the Kannadaness in its own way by organizing convention such as Hosa Karnataka and Kannada Desha, a regional political party. Due to internal conflicts and the duality in addressing the issues related to the land distribution and caste, the movement confined itself to the point programs and could

22 22 not come out from the clutches of dominant such as Lingayat, Vokkaliga and Kurubas. For details see Muzaffar Assadis s recent work Karnatakadalli identity rajakeeya :Raita, Raita horata hagu samajika chaluvali. Saki, a Marxist historian and a social activist, was associated with a revolutionary movement in Karnataka. He wrote extensively on Karnataka history, and problems of coffee estate workers in Malnad region. His works Making history Vol. I & II, on Karnataka s history gives a Marxist perspective of studying the people and their past. Though, separate state movement in Kodagu (Coorg) began in the late 1960s, after amalgamation with Karnataka, but there was no serious debate on the question of separate state movement till the 1980s. As Vijaya Poonacha argues that the very demand for separate state formation has been led by the upper caste land holding communities that had spread the outsider syndrome under the aegis of Kodagu Moolanivasigala Samrakshana Samiti. Later, a left oriented Karnataka Vimochana Ranga in association with Liberation Warriors of Kodagu, articulated the movement within Marxist framework. But, right from its inception, the movement has been took several shapes, such as Gandhian model, fundamentalist and extreme left frame. Now, the alliance of backward castes and Dalits witnessing an anti-separatist movement too. It is necessary to look at the changing linguistic pattern and the public sphere of the state, which was quite complex and led to diverse in public. According to the 1971 census, Karnataka had a population of about 29 million with a density of 153 persons /km. Besides the strength of Kannada speaking population, residing in the state during the period was %, whereas other non-kannadigas such as Urdu (9. 00 %), Telugu (8.17 %), Marathi (4.05 %), Tamil (3.76 %), Tulu (3.56 %), Konkani (1.96 %), Malayalam (1.41 %), Kodagu (0.24 %), Gujarati (0.09 %) and Hindi (0.44%) people were resided in the state.

23 23 References and further Reading Assadi, Muzaffar. (2009) Karnatakadalli identity rajakeeya :Raita, Raita horata hagu samajika chaluvali, pub: K.S Muddappa trust, Krishnapuramdoddi. Bairy, Ramesh (1996) Competing Construction of Kannada Identity: A Study of Two Organizations, Unpublished MPhil dissertation submitted at university of Hyderabad. Chidanandamurhty, M (2006) Kannada samskriti : Namma hemme, Kannada pustaka pradikara, Bangalore. (2007). Karnataka samskriti, Kannada sahitya parishat, Bangalore. Early History of Kannaḍa Literature Author(s): B. Lewis Rice Source: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Apr., 1890), pp. Gundappa, D V (1996) Samskruthi, Kavyalaya Prakashana, Mysore. History of Printing and Publishing in India, (1988) Ed: B.S Kesavan, Pub: National Book Trust, India, New Delhi. Journal of Kannada studies, Nove-2003: Apli-2004, Kannda University, prasararanga, Hampi. Janapada Karnataka, p.112, Ed: Nalluru Prasad, Pub: Karnataka Janapada and Yakshagana Academy, Bangalore, Kannada Adhyayana, Winter issue-2002, Kannada university, Prasararanga, Hampi, Karnataka Darshana (2007) Ed: R.S. Hukkerikar, Dept of Kannada and Culture, Bangalore Krishna Murhty, Agrahara, (-2002) Ed: Samskruthi Kathana : Writings by D R Nagaraj, Kannada Pustaka Pradikara, Bangalore. Kuvempu. (2004). Vichara krantige ahvana. Udayaravi prakashana, Mysore. Lankesh, P (2008) Sahity Sahitya Vimarshe: A collection of literary articles, lankesh Prakashana, Bangalore. Literary Cultures in History Reconstructions from South Asia, 2003 Ed: Sheldon Pollock University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London. Mugali, R.S History of Kannada Literature, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, Nagaraj, D R (2006) Sahitya Kathana: A collection of essays on Literary and Cultural Studies, Akshara Prakashana, Heggodu.

24 24 (1993) The Flaming Feet: A study of the Dalit movement in India, South Forum Press Bangalore. Nair, Janaki. (1996) Memories of Underdevelopment: Language and its Identities in Contemporary Karnataka, Economic and Political Weekly, Oct-12-19,1996. (2007) The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore s Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press, News Delhi. Narayana, K V (2007) Kannada Jagattu : Ardhashatamana, Prasararanga Kannada University, hampi. Prasad, M. Madhava,A note on Theme Kannada Identity, Journal of Karnataka Studies, Vol 1, No 1, Nov-2003 Aplril-2004, VIII-XIV Rajashekar Shetty, V T (1978) Dalit Movement in Karnataka, The Christian Literature Society, Madras. Saki. (1998) Making history volume-i, Vimukti Prakashana, Bangalore. (2004) Making history volume-ii, Vimukti Prakashana, Bangalore Srinivasaraju, Sugata (2008) Keeping Faith With Mother Tongue : The Anxieties of local Culture, Navakarnataka Publications Pvt Ltd, Bangalore. Tarikere, Rahamath, Kannada Adhyayana: winter issue, Quarterly, Vol IX-2, Oct-Nov-Dec 2006, Prasararanga Kannada University, Hampi. The Kannadas : The People, Their History, and Culture (5 Vols-Set), Edited by R.A.P. Narasimhacharya, Cosmo, 2002, 1572 p, 5 volumes, Venkatarayaru, Aluru ( 2006) Karnataka Gathavaibhava, Dept of Kannada and Culture, Bangalore. (2007) Karnataka Samskruti, Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore. Blogs and Archives * Namma Kannada Nadu *Wikipedia * Jupiter Infomedia Pvt. Ltd. (Modern Period in Kannada Literature, (2008) *Kamat Potpourri