Perceptions of Islam and Muslims by a Hindu Mystic

Transcription

1 Perceptions of Islam and Muslims by a Hindu Mystic A Systematic Study of Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani s ( ) Thought on Islam and Muslims Name: Amit Govinda Radj Yemenkoemar Sampat Student number: Study: Master in Theology and Religious Studies Academic year: Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Albert de Jong Second Reader: Dr. Nathal M. Dessing

2 Foreword This thesis marks the end of my Master program in Theology and Religious Studies at Leiden University. I had a wonderful time at the university of Leiden during my Bachelor and my Master studies. My time at the university has shaped my ideas about religion, politics, administration and philosophy. In my Master program for Theology and Religious Studies, I was focusing on topics related to Islam in the late 19th and early 20th century in the Indian subcontinent. With my thesis I hope to make a contribution to a relatively new field in the academic world by studying and analyzing the perceptions of Hindu (mystical) thinkers about Islam and Muslims. First of all, I would like to thank professor dr. Ernestine van der Wall for introducing me to the Hindu mystic Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani during the course Confronting Modernity. Secondly, I want to thank my teacher and supervisor professor dr. Ab de Jong for his advices during the writing process of my thesis. I could always come to his office and discuss my ideas and problems regarding my research for the thesis. It was always interesting to discuss the religious and political life in India with him. Thirdly, I would like to thank my family: my mother (Sita Sampat-Marapin), father (Radjindernath Sampat), sisters (Reshma and Sharika Sampat), my brothers in-law (Thom Kepel and Wouter Germans) and my cousin (Aartie Jawalapersad) for their time to read my thesis and their advices to make it a better academic work. Finally, I want to thank my two friends, Cem Terlemiş and Sven Punt, who were also there for me when I needed an advice or someone who listened to my problems during my Bachelor as well as my Master studies at Leiden. Heerhugowaard, 22 August,

3 Table of Contents A note on Transliteration 3 Introduction 4 Methodology, Terms, Resources and Structure of the Thesis 9 The Life of Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani 10 Rammohun Roy and The Brahmo Samaj Movement 13 Vivekananda on Islam 16 Prophets and Saints (1957): Vaswani s thought on Rabia al-basri and Dhul-Nun al-misri 18 Vaswani s essays in The Spirit and Struggle of Islam (1921) 22 Vaswani s thought: the idealism of the New Temple 30 Conclusion 32 Bibliography 33 2

4 A note on Transliteration My transliteration of Sanskrit and Arabic terms follows standard international usage. For the sake of simplicity I have omitted diacritical marks from the names of the two reformers; hence Rammohun Roy and Dayananda Sarasvati for Rāmamohana Rāya and Dayānanda Sarasvatī. Similarly, Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj are used rather than Brahmo Samāj and Ārya Samāj. I refer to Dayananda s major Hindi work as Satyarth Prakash rather than Satyārth Prakāś or Sanskrit, Satyarthā Prakāśaḥ. I use the construction brahmin rather than brahman for a brāhmaṇa or member of the priestly class. This avoids confusion with Brahman as the term for the ultimate reality. In quoting other authors I do not alter their spelling and I follow their use or non-use of diacritical marks. 3

5 Introduction The relationship between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent from the early 8 th century CE onwards varied from time to time and from place to place. It is impossible to say that there has always been tension between these two religious communities in the subcontinent, nor is it possible to argue that there have always been positive relations between these two groups. Muhammad ibn al- Qasim ( CE) was the first Muslim ruler of the Indian subcontinent. 1 The perceptions of Qasim by Muslims differ significantly from the perceptions by Hindus. Where a lot of Muslims see him as a hero because he brought the message of Islam to the Indian subcontinent, Hindus see him more or less as a barbaric figure. It is complex to say whether Qasim was indeed barbaric or not towards non-muslims, because there are not many reliable documents from and/or about him. Therefore, Qasim is still some kind of a mythical figure. After the rule of Qasim, several Muslim dynasties were established in the Indian subcontinent; two examples are the Ghaznavids ( ) and the Mughals ( ). Whereas the Ghaznavids were also seen by non-muslims as barbaric towards them 2, some Mughal rulers were seen as enlightened and inclusivistic. One famous example of a Muslim ruler who came to be known as an enlightened ruler, was Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, nowadays known as Akbar the Great ( ). Whereas Qasim and probably Mahmud of Ghazni had installed the jizya (a tax levied on non-muslims), Akbar abolished this tax and gave his citizens more equal rights and opportunities for work, whether Muslim or not. 3 When it comes to the topic of Hindu-Muslim relations, it is also important to mention the Bhakti Movement. This movement started in the Southern parts of the Indian subcontinent in the early 7 th century CE and later spread towards other parts of the subcontinent, especially in the northern parts, reaching its zenith in the 16 th century. Bhakti 4 became the central point in the movement. Characteristics for the saints of the Bhakti Movement are: realizing a personal devotion to God, mystical love for God, being critical of ritual observances and making religious scriptures more accessible towards the masses by translating them from Sanskrit to regional languages. During the Bhakti movement two types of mystics could be distinguished: those mystics who labeled themselves as a Hindu or a Muslim and those mystics who did not label themselves as Hindu or Muslim (syncretic mystics). The syncretic mystics played an important role in bringing Hindus and Muslims closer to each other. Two famous examples of the syncretic realm are Kabir, also known as Kabir Das ( ) and Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion ( ). Both preached a so called 1 Peter Gottschalk, Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India (Oxford University Press, 2013), Burjor Avari, Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence (Routledge, 2013), John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge University Press, 1995), Bhakti is the path of devotion or love or the attitude of loving adoration towards the divine. (Ron Geaves, 2006: 109) 4

6 Gospel of universal brotherhood, equality of all mankind and Hindu-Muslim unity. 5 A famous phrase associated with Guru Nanak is: Na koi Hindu hai na koi Musalman, which means There is no Hindu, no Muslim, as Guru Nanak suggested that these labels were unhelpful. 6 One popular song attributed to Kabir is: These differences are full of confusions: Vedas and Muslim books, religion and the world, who is male, who female? Semen is one, piss and shit are one, skin one, flesh one. All arose from one light. Who then is a Brahmin? Who is a Shudra? This body sprang from clay, spontaneously. In it sound and semen joined together. When it dies, what name will you bear? You study and cogitate, but never learn the secret. Brahma is red creation, Shiva black destruction. And Hari is filled with white virtue. Kabir says: Worship the one Ram. Nobody is Hindu, nobody Turk. 7 Let us now turn again to the Mughals. The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar ( ), nowadays known as Bahadur Shah II, came also to be known as inclusivistic towards non-muslims 8. Between the Ghaznavid and the Mughal dynasty, several Muslim scholars had written works about Hinduism and Hindus. The best known scholars who had written about these subjects were: scholar in natural sciences, historian and linguist Abu Raihan al-biruni ( ) and the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh ( ). The first one wrote the Tarikh al-hind ( History of India ), in which he wrote about the cultures, religions and languages he observed and the discussions he had with Hindu scholars in the Indian subcontinent. The second one wrote the Persian work Majma-al-Bahrain (the Mingling of the Two Oceans), in which he compared Sufi Islamic concepts and theories and Hindu Vedanta concepts and theories. After studying Sanskrit and the Upanishads 9, Shikoh also wrote a translation of 52 Upanishads, which was called the Sirr-e-Akbar (the Great Secret). He was able to translate the Upanishads from Sanskrit to Persian with the help of Hindu scholars. 10 Shikoh s spiritual quest for studying Hinduism and Islam in a comparative way was a continuous process. Shikoh concluded that there were indeed remarkable similarities between Hinduism and Islam, for example the oneness of God. These stories concerning the perceptions of Muslims about Hinduism and Hindus have been studied and published by academic scholars such as Carl W. Ernst 11 and Asghar Ali Engineer 12. While there are academic scholars who 5 J.L. Mehta, Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India: Volume II Mughal Empire ( ) (Sterling Publishers 1984), Eleanor Nesbitt, Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2016), E.d. Esther Bloch,Marianne Keppens & Rajaram Hegde, Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism (Routledge, 2010), William Dalrymple, The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857 (Bloomsbury, 2009), An important collection of 108 scriptures which reflect on the inner teachings of the Vedas probably composed somewhere between 800 and 400 BCE. (Ron Geaves, 2006: 107) 10 John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge University Press, 1995), Carl W. Ernst, Muslim Studies of Hinduism? A Reconsideration of Arabic and Persian Translations from Indian Languages, Iranian Studies 36, 2 (2003) Mingling of the Oceans Hinduism and Islam 5

7 have been studying the perceptions of Muslims about Hinduism and Hindus, there are no academic works which specifically deal with the perceptions of Hindus about Islam and Muslims. I hope to make a contribution to this new field within the Department of Religious Studies and Indology. It is important to discuss some historical events about Hindu scholars and (reform) movements in the 19 th and early 20 th century, before I will introduce the central question of my thesis. In the late 19th century, when the British came to power in the Indian subcontinent in 1858, the subcontinent was changed significantly. As Charles Herman Heimsath stated in his book Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform, the impact of the British Raj was not merely economic and social; there was also the profound religious and intellectual alternatives which were presented to India by the West. 13 Missionaries played a very important role in the emergence of Hindu reform movements during the 19th century. The people of the subcontinent had to think about their religious identity, for example about the idea of monotheistic religion or a polytheistic concept of religion. Another important issue was the concept of religious unity. Some academics have argued that the reformers had used the idea of religious unity in order to form a Hindu nation or for political mobilization; others argued that it was a means to get access to state resources distributed according to religion. 14 The issue of religious unity plays also an important role in this thesis (especially when I deal with the so called concept of Hindu-Muslim Unity in Vaswani s thought). Let us now turn again to the Hindu reform movements in the 19th century. The two best known Hindu reform movements were: The Brahmo Samaj (the Society of Brahmah) founded in 1828 and the Arya Samaj (The Noble Society) founded in These two reform movements had a lot of common ideals: the abolishment of sati (the Hindu ritual where widows had to be burned with their deceased husband), the idea of a monotheistic faith in Hinduism, emphasizing the importance of the role of human reason in religion and both were against the use of images and the caste-system. However, the founders of both movements had different ideas when it comes to other religions and about the supremacy of religious scriptures. Whereas Roy had a more inclusivistic idea about religion, the founder of the Arya Samaj, Dayananda was more exclusivistic in his thought towards (other) religions (including the Hindu branch Sanatan Dharma which uses images for prayer). According to Roy, no religious scripture could be regarded as the only authoritative scripture. Dayananda regarded the Vedas as infallible. Dayananda published in 1875 his famous polemical work, called Satyarth Prakash (Light of Truth) in Hindi. J. Barton Scott makes three interesting and important notes in his book Spiritual Despots: Modern Hinduism and the Genealogies of Self-Rule concerning the Satyarth Prakash: 1) during the lifetime of Dayananda, there were two editions of the Satyarth Prakash. The first edition of 1875 Asghar Ali Engineer 13 Charles Herman Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform (Princetion University Press, 1964), E.d. Esther Bloch, Marianne Keppens & Rajaram Hegde, Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism (Routledge, 2010), 8. 6

8 contained a handful of publishers errors and was written in an especially awkward Hindi Dayanand, who was just learning the language, had to write much of the book in a hurry; 2) The second edition of 1883 not only cleaned up the formal problems of the first edition. It also vastly expanded the number of references from canonical Hindu texts, and added the two controversial final chapters criticizing the Bible and the Qur an and 3) There has been a fair amount of controversy within the Arya Samaj about which edition should be understood as more authoritative, and even as to whether Dayanand actually authored the final two chapters of the 1883 edition (2016: 248). 15 For my thesis, I have worked with the 1875 edition. In chapter 14 (the last chapter) of the Satyarth Prakash, Dayananda deals with Islam on theological and philosophical grounds. His attitude towards Islam was negative, which could be illustrated by the following statements 1) Dayananda argued that the Muslim prophet Muhammad was an imposter, 2) he argued that Allah was arrogant because he was praising his own book and 3) according to Dayananda, Allah s actions were more devilish than godly inspired. 16 Another important Hindu thinker to introduce here is Narendranath Dutta, better known as Swami Vivekananda ( ). Vivekananda is probably best known as the first Indian mystic who introduced Indian philosophy and Hindu thought to the Western world in Chicago at the famous Parliament of the World s Religions in The Parliament was the first attempt in the West to establish a formal interreligious dialogue. Representatives of various world religions attended this global conference. Vivekananda represented India and Hinduism at the Parliament. He called for religious unity, referring to the common ground between different faiths, thus he can also be said to have been inclusivistic. He was influenced by Rammohun Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa ( ) and his own father Bisvanath Dutta ( ). Vivekananda became very popular after this conference and later on he visited several countries in the West to give lectures about his views on religion and spirituality. It would be logical to argue that Vivekananda could be seen as an inclusivist Hindu scholar. However, we will see later on that Vivekananda s attitude towards Islam changed over the time and that he, like Dayananda, also became polemical towards Islam. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the relationship between Hindus and Muslims was marked by periods of peace and communal riots. While Roy, Dayananda and Vivekananda did not write about the relationship between Hindus and Muslims during this period (the perceptions about Islam and Muslims) and were merely dealing with theological issues, Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani, better known as Sadhu 17 Vaswani, ( ) made a huge contribution to the literature genre about Hindu perceptions of Islam and Muslims. He has written a whole book in English with essays about Islam and Muslims called: The Spirit and Struggle of Islam (published in 1921). One of Vaswani s 15 Scott, J.B., Spiritual Despots: Modern Hinduism and the Genealogies of Self-Rule (Chicago University Press, 2016),

9 essays from The Spirit and Struggle of Islam was also reprinted in the Ahmadiyya Muslim journal, called The Islamic review. If we take a look to the introduction of Vaswani in the Islamic Review, we will see that Vaswani s work was very much appreciated by the Ahmadiyya Muslim community: Professor Vaswani is a distinguished son of India, and a loving son too. In the world of thought and of letters he occupies a position of his own. A voluminous writer, his writings breathe the noblest of sentiments. Uplift of his motherland, a Great India that is the burden of his sweet notes. Technically speaking, he is a non-muslim; yet, a lover of Truth, his heart is full of love of Islam and of the Great Prophet of Islam. His recent contribution on Islam to an Indian paper, The Light, which we have the privilege and pleasure to reprint below, and which opens with the above words with all the force of eloquence, amply shows that in his love of the Holy Prophet he yields not the most devout of Muslims. 18 Vaswani s thought on Islam and Muslim will shed a new light on the relationship between Hindus and Muslims (for example when we take a look at his personal experiences with both religious communities in Sindh) in the late 19th and early 20th century. Furthermore, Vaswani s thought will also lead us to rethink about the perception of Hindu (mystical) thinkers of Islam and Muslims. Just as Vivekenanda s name came to be associated with the Chicago World Parliament of 1893, Vaswani acquired his popularity among Westerners because of his appearance at the Berlin conference of religious liberals in This international conference was organized by an international association, founded in Boston in 1900 as a result of the Chicago Parliament of 1893, which today bears the name International Association of Religious Freedom (IARF). Those who spoke at the Berlin congress were liberal thinkers from different faiths, ranging from Christianity and Judaism to Hinduism and Sikhism. Indian philosophy and Hinduism was represented by Vaswani. While Roy, Dayananada and Vivekananda have been the object of various scholarly studies, this does not hold true for Vaswani. 19 Central Question In this MA-thesis, I would like to introduce Vaswani s thought on Islam and Muslims, by analyzing his work Prophets and Saints (1957) concerning the topic of Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and his work The Spirit and Struggle of Islam (1921). The central question of the thesis is: What were Vaswani s ideas on Islam and Muslims and could Vaswani be seen as a disciple of Rammohun Roy, Vivekananda or could Vaswani be regarded as a founder of a new religio-spiritual idealism? 18 Khwaja Kamal-Ud-Din ed., The Islamic Review (August 1923), vol. XI, pp For a brief introduction to Vaswani and his speech at the Berlin Conference of 1910, see Ernestine van der Wall, India s boodschap aan het Westen. Wereldgodsdiensten en vrijzinnig internationalisme in de vroege twintigste eeuw, in Christel de Lange & Roos Mulder (eds.), Vijf continenten, vijf eeuwen. Vijf jaar geschiedbeoefening in het Kerkhistorisch Gezelschap S.S.S. (Leiden 2011), (in Dutch) 8

10 Methodology, Terms, Resources and Structure of the Thesis Methodology and Resources My thesis is based on written primary and secondary sources. The primary sources are: Vaswani s work Prophets and Saints (1957) and Vaswani s essays in the book called The Spirit and Struggle of Islam (1921). The secondary sources are: (academic) books, articles and websites to give context to and background information for subjects related to my main object of research ( Hindu perceptions of Islam and Muslims in general and more specifically Vaswani s ideas on Islam and Muslims). Vaswani s work Prophets and Saints gives us an insight in his thought on Sufism. Vaswani s essays in The Spirit and Struggle of Islam are important to analyze to get an insight in his thought when it comes to other topics related to Islam and Muslims. To operationalize the object of study, I have chosen to focus on three specific topics when it comes to Vaswani s ideas about Islam and Muslims. I will discuss Vaswani s ideas on 1) Sufism, 2) his ideas about the concept of Hindu-Muslim Unity (whether it was merely political or also something spiritually important) and 3) his views about the Muslim prophet Muhammad. Terms Inclusivism/inclusivist: with inclusivism in this thesis, I refer to an ideology where there is no supremacy of a specific group of people (based on religion, culture or race). With this term, I refer to an ideology where a mystic and/or religious thinker argues that salvation can be obtained by people via different paths. Exclusivism/exclusivist: I use the term exclusivism in this thesis to refer to people or a specific organization where there is an idea of supremacy, which is based on either religion, culture, race or all of them. With this term, I refer to an ideology where a mystic and/or religious thinker argues that salvation can only be attained by one way, for example only through the Quran. Structure The structure of the thesis is as follows: first, I will give a short biography of Vaswani. Secondly, I will discuss the ideas of Rammohun Roy and Vivekananda on religion and spirituality, with special attention to Islam and Muslims. Furthermore, I will examine Vaswani s ideas on Sufism as expressed in his work Prophets and Saints and his ideas on the concept of Hindu-Muslim Unity and his views on the Muslim prophet Muhammad as expressed in his work The Spirit and Struggle of Islam. Finally, I will conclude that Vaswani s thought on Islam and Muslims could be labeled inclusivistic. 9

11 The Life of Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani was born in Hyderabad (Sindh, nowadays Pakistan) on the 25 th of November in As a young boy he received education in the Upanishads (Hindu philosophical scriptures). Later on he also studied the scriptures and history of other religions, like Christianity (illustrated by the chapter Christ and Krishna in Sri Krishna: The Saviour of Humanity published in 1921) and Islam (illustrated by the work The Spirit and Struggle of Islam published in 1921). However, Vaswani is mostly known for the Mira movement, a movement in which he wanted to reform the educational system in India, with special attention to reviving moral and spiritual values. 21 The name Mira refers to the medieval Hindu mystic and Krishna devotee, Mira(bai). 22 For Vaswani, character building was nation building. He started this movement after the independence of India in In The Call of New Education (published after his death in 1971), Vaswani s speeches and writings on education were brought together. The chapter St. Mira s Education gives an excellent impression about Vaswani s ideas about education in general and in particular his vision with the Mira movement: The emphasis in St. Mira s Schools is on atmosphere more than on rules, text-books and buildings. Knowledge is born and nourished in an atmosphere of love and service. A child is a centre of creative life. This needs to be opened as a flower is opened, gently, - by sympathy, not force. Gentle forces are the best. Teachers of the right type are an urgent need, - teachers who would use gently forces of sympathy and understanding to educate the pupils. St. Mira s Schools strive to cultivate as did the ashramas in ancient India, love of truth. There is no Religion higher than Truth, - said the ancient Seer. In Love of Truth and sympathy with life and its multitudinous forms is reflected the spirit of true Freedom. St. Mira s Schools are, therefore, non-communal, non-sectarian. They teach reverence for all prophets, all saints, all heroes, all rishis, all races, all religions. 23 Vaswani studied at the University of Bombay. He received his B.A degree in English Literature and Language in 1899 and his M.A. degree in However, there is no source where we can verify in what subject(s) Vaswani graduated during his career as a student. He decided that he wanted to devote 20 This biographical sketch is based on the information at official website of the Sadhu Vaswani Mission The most famous female devotee of Northern India. She was born in 1547 and is believed to have fallen in love with Krishna at an early age. She betrothed herself to the deity and adorned, bathed, sang and danced to the image of Krishna. It is believed that she died in the city (Vrindavan) through being absorbed back into Krishna s form in the temple. This form of death is a rare honour bestowed on very few of Hinduism s countless lovers of the divine. Mirabai is remembered throughout Northern India as the embodiment of devotion and her thousands of songs are still recorded by modern artists and sung on radio as well as in congregational worship. (Ron Geaves, 2006: 58-39) 23 T.L. Vaswani, The Call of New Education (Sadhu Vaswani Mission., Pune, 1971),

12 his life to the service of God and mankind. However, his mother had another desire for her son. She wanted him to become successful with a job and a good salary. Vaswani decided to fulfill his mother s wish. Eventually, Vaswani became a Professor of History and Philosophy at City College in Calcutta in In Calcutta he met Shri Promotholal Sen (known as Naluda), who would become his guru. Given the topic of this paper it is interesting to know that Vaswani went to Berlin together with his guru. In 1908 Vaswani became a Professor of English and Philosophy at the D. J. Science College in Karachi. Although his mother wanted to arrange a marriage for him, he remained a brahmachara (a celibate) through his whole life. After his mother s death in 1920, he set out to fulfil his previous wish and decided to devote his life to God and mankind. In July 1910 Vaswani and his guru took a boat from Bombay to Berlin to attend the World Congress of Religions in August 1910, as one of India s representatives. Vaswani gave a lecture under the title: The message of Modern India. Vaswani had no doubt that India indeed had a message for Western Europe, in particular for the Christian Western countries in Europe. Throughout his lecture, Vaswani made clear that a synthesis of East and West was important to make religion suitable for the future: Synthesis is the note of the New Age; and the Religion of the future must be the organic assimilation of the characters and ideals of the great religious geniuses of East and West; it must be a synthesis of the mysticism and metaphysical insight of the East and the scientific temper and organizing energy of the West. 24 He also argued that every religion has something special to give and that although religions differ, they all contain an element of truth. In Vaswani s own words: We recognize differences. These indeed give to each religion its distinctive specific character; but we do not believe that these differences are contradictions. They are supplementary truths, and so must be brought together in a synthesis as different colours in the pure ray of white or as different notes in the rich symphony of an orchestra. 25 Later on, Vaswani joined Mahatma Gandhi in his freedom movement against the British Raj. He became a patriot and was more involved in politics than ever before. Vaswani was an avid writer and published many books. He was also an editor of a journal (the Sant Mala in the Sindhi language and the Dawn/the New Dawn in English, both started in ). Vaswani founded the Sadhu Vaswani Mission (SVM) in Hyderabad in 1929 or The SVM could be seen as an extension of and organization in relation to the Mira Movement. In Vaswani s philosophy as well as in the Mira Movement and the SVM, vegetarianism and animal rights were central teachings. In fact, Vaswani s 24 Vaswani s lecture is published in the proceedings of the Berlin Conference under the title The Message of Modern india, see Charles W. Wendte e.d., Fifth International Congress of Free Christianity and Religious Progress (Williams & Norgate, 1910), , here Ibid.,

13 birthday (25 th of November), is celebrated as International Meatless Day. 27 In 1949, the Sadhu Vaswani Mission moved from Hyderabad (Sindh) to Pune. His nephew, Jashan Pahlajrai Vaswani, better known as Dada Vaswani (b.1918), became the new spiritual leader of this movement after the death of his uncle in While Sadhu Vaswani made an attempt to build a syncretic ( inclusivist ) idealism on education, religion, politics and service which was inspired by several religious traditions (like Islam and Christianity), Dada Vaswani made a shift towards Vedic Hinduism and Sanatana Dharma. 28 Yet, in the last couple of years Dada Vaswani paid homage to the grandson of Prophet Muhammad, Imam Hussain during the processions on Ashura in the Islamic month Muharram. 29 Therefore, It is difficult to argue if Sadhu Vaswani s legacy with regard to his syncretic idealism still continues or not Gurpreet Mahajan & Surinder S. Jodhka, Religion, Communities and Development: Changing Contours of Politics and Policy in India (Routledge, 2010), (2016), (2015), (2014) and (2013). 12

14 Rammohun Roy and The Brahmo Samaj Movement What does the Brahmo Samaj movement stand for? Its rise should be seen against the background of reactions to modernity, colonialism and identity forming during the late nineteenth century, when there was a revival of Hinduism in India 30. Since my thesis is focused on Vaswani s thought in relation to the Brahmo Samaj, I will focus here on Roy and the Brahmo Samaj movement. Rammohun Roy was born into a prominent brahmin family. At a young age, he studied the Vedas and the Upanishads. Roy was well versed in Persian and Sanskrit, familiar with Arabic, while his mother tongue was Bengali. The Brahmo Samaj (the Society of Brahmah) was founded by Rammohun Roy (the first name of the organization was the Brahmo Sabha, meaning: the Association of Brahmah) in 1828 in Calcutta (India). Roy wanted to reform Hinduism from within. He is often portrayed as the Father of Modern India or the founder of the Bengal Renaissance. The Brahmo Samaj was the first Hindu reform movement, which was inspired by Christian teachings and ideas from the Enlightenment in Western Europe. 31 It is also important to note that Roy may have influenced the Unitarians in Britain. According to Lynn Zastoupil, the Unitarians in Britain may have drawn Rammohun for the idea of a social gospel that stressed this-worldly liberation. 32 Furthermore, Roy was seen as a fellow philanthropist and social reformer, which could be illustrated by his public campaign to rescue women from ritual death, establishing schools and literary societies for the advancement of useful knowledge, and founding newspapers and a printing press, Roy was, in many respects, the image of those Unitarians who were reshaping provincial urban life in Britain. 33 While Roy was regarded in many respects as a rationalist, he was also a scripturalist. Brian Hatcher explained this in the following way he [Roy] felt that the same simple code of religion and morality confirmed by reason could be found at the heart of the Hindu tradition as well. For Rammohun, this code was enshrined in the last layer of the Vedic revelation, the Upanishads, the so called end of the Veda (Vedanta). 34 In other words, although Roy emphasized the role of human reason as an important source for knowledge and action, he had given the Upanishads the same position. In 1803, he wrote his first and best known work Tuhfat al-muwahhidin (a Gift to the believers of Monotheism) in Persian. The Tuhfat was a text in which Roy was advocating against what he called the corruptions 30 Brian Hatcher, Hinduism in the Modern World (Routledge, 2016), Christel de Lange & Roos Mulder (eds.), Vijf continenten, vijf eeuwen. Vijf jaar geschiedbeoefening in het Kerkhistorisch Gezelschap S.S.S. (Leiden 2011), 84. (in Dutch) 32 Lynn Zastoupil, Defining Christians, Making Britons: Rammohun Roy and the Unitarians, Victorian Studies 44, 239 (2002). 33 Ibid., Brian Hatcher, Bourgeois Hinduism, or Faith of the Modern Vedantists: Rare Discourses from Early Colonial Bengal (Oxford University Press, 2008),

15 of Hinduism, such as idolatry, caste-system and the sati-ritual (widow-burning). 35 It is interesting to note that the Tuhfat bears many traces of Roy s training in the Islamic sciences, Islamic philosophy and the Arabic language. 36 According to Roy, Hinduism was a monotheistic faith. Like Dayananda, Roy was also critical about religion in general. However, he was less polemic then Dayananda in his thought on religion. After studying the scriptures of Christianity and in particular the teachings of Jesus Christ, he wrote a book about the moral teachings of Jesus, which was called The Precepts of Jesus (1820). Roy s aim was to separate the moral and philosophical message of the New Testament, which he praised, from its miracle stories, as human reason should be the most important source for knowledge and action according to him. After the death of Roy, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, Debendranath Tagore ( ) became the new leader of the Brahmo Samaj. Tagore broke in 1850 with the idea that the Upanishads had the highest authority. According to Tagore, human reason and intuition should become the basis of spiritual and intellectual thought, and therefore the basis of the Brahmo Samaj thought. After a dispute on a philosophical matter between Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen ( ), Sen founded a new organization in 1866 called the Bharatvarshiya Brahmo Samaj (Brahmo Samaj of India). The original Brahmo Samaj organization was renamed as the Adi Samaj (Original Society) and became more hostile towards Christian teachings. The reason for this was because of Sen s acceptance of Christian practices like Baptism, the concept of Trinity and the practice of the Supper. He also said that he received direct revelations from God. A number of contemporaries accused Sen of being a Christian convert. 37 Although he was influenced by Christianity and incorporated several practices in his Brahmo Samaj thought, he never converted to Christianity because he did not believe in the uniqueness of Christ. Sen was later in his life influenced by Ramakrishna and founded the Naya Vidhan (New Dispensation), which was also inspired by Christianity and Hindu practices. Eventually, three branches claimed to be the Brahmo Samaj. All of them were on the one hand successful with their programs of social reform on a local level. On the other hand, they have never played a significant role in Indian society at large. A reason for this could be the fragmentation instead of one powerful united front. According to Carl T. Jackson, the downfall of the Brahmo Samaj was because the Brahmo Samaj was too intellectual in approach and in the end too foreign to win the acceptance of India s millions. 38 At the fourth congress of IARF in Boston in 1907, professor Subba Rau gave a lecture about the ideals of the Brahmo Samaj movement in India in the 19th century. His lecture was called The Ideals of the Brahmo Samaj. According to Rau, the Brahmo Samaj was an inclusivistic Hindu Movement: Yes, 35 Carl. T Jackson, Vedanta for the West: The Ramakrishna Movement in the United States (Indiana University Press, 1994), Carl. T Jackson, Vedanta for the West: The Ramakrishna Movement in the United States (Indiana University Press, 1994), Ibid., 4. 14

16 we have been worshippers of the light, and the Brahmo Samaj has only taken up the ancient position, and is holding up the light. It stands for the light, and the light, mind you, comes not from the east only, but from all quarters, and the Brahmo Samaj recognizes this great fact. And so in our religious movement we recognize the prophets of all lands and the sacred books of all countries. We honor Jesus equally with Buddha. We honor Mohammed and Zoroaster alike, and indifferently in our worship we use the Bhagavad Gita and the Koran and the Zend Avesta. And you will find on the walls of many of our places of worship in India selections taken from the sacred scriptures of the world. 39 The Brahmo Samaj Movement in general came to be known as an inclusivistic Hindu Movement. Although they were looking for a Hindu identity within Hindu scriptures, they were not as negative as Dayananda towards Christianity and other religions. As said earlier, Roy was very attracted towards the moral teachings of Jesus. The different branches of the Brahmo Samaj were not only influenced by Christian teachings, they also incorporated some Christian practices in their thought. Although they were anti-colonial, none of the leaders of the Brahmo Samaj perceived Christianity as a religion of the colonialist. Therefore, it could be argued that the Brahmo Samaj movement was inclusivistic. 39 Charles W. Wendte ed., Freedom and Fellowship in Religion: Proceedings and Papers of the Fourth International Congress of Religious Liberals (International Council, 1907),

17 Vivekananda on Islam Vivekananda was born in Calcutta and belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family. At a young age, he became interested in religion and spirituality. It is said that Vivekananda used to meditate before the images of Hindu deities such as Shiva and Hanuman. He was influenced by Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa ( ) and his own father Bisvanath Dutta ( ). Some people argued that he developed his open inclusivistic and rational attitude towards religion because of his father. 40 Bisvanath Dutta had studied several languages during his lifetime: Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and English. Therefore, he was able to read different books in different languages. It is said that the Diwan-i-Hafiz was his favorite book. Although Bisvanath was a Hindu, it is said that he regularly also read the religious scriptures of other religions, such as the Bible and the Quran. His appreciation of the religious scriptures of other religions drew criticism from orthodox Hindus. 41 After Bisvanath s death, Ramakrishna became Vivekananda s spiritual guide. Vivekananda is probably best known as the first Indian mystic who introduced Indian philosophy and Hindu thought to the Western world in Chicago at the famous Parliament of the World s Religions in The Parliament was the first attempt in the West to establish a formal interreligious dialogue. Representatives of various world religions attended this global conference. Vivekananda represented India and Hinduism at the Parliament. He called for religious unity, referring to the common ground between different faiths. Vivekananda became very popular after this conference and later on he visited several countries in the West to give lectures about his views on religion and spirituality. It would be logical to argue that Vivekananda could be seen as an inclusivist Hindu scholar. However, we will see later on that Vivekananda s attitude towards Islam changed over the time and that he, like Dayananda, also became polemical towards Islam. His inclusivistic view on Islam and Muslims could be seen in his letter to his Muslim friend Mohammed Sarfaraz Husain in If we take a look at Vivekananda s letter to his friend Husain, we see that he did not place Hinduism above other religions (like Islam). Humanity was the factor which could lead to oneness of all people and according to Vivekananda, this was also the message of the various religions (including Islam). Vivekananda also used metaphors to illustrate that Muslims and Hindus should work together for a better and a united India: We want to lead mankind to the place where there is neither the Vedas, nor the Bible, nor the Koran; yet this has to be done by harmonising the Vedas, the Bible and the Koran. Mankind ought to be taught that religions are but the varied expressions of THE RELIGION, which is Oneness, so that each may choose that path that suits him best. For our own motherland a junction of the two great systems, Hinduism and Islam 40 Amiya Sen, Swami Vivekananda (Oxford University Press, 2003), Chaturvedi Badrinath, Swami Vivekananda, the Living Vedanta (Penguin Books, 2006), 6. 16

18 Vedanta brain and Islam body is the only hope. I see in my mind's eye the future perfect India rising out of this chaos and strife, glorious and invincible, with Vedanta brain and Islam body. 42 It is also said that he did not share the view that Islam was brought by sword to the people of the Indian subcontinent. In his article On the future of Bharat, Vivekananda wrote: The Mohammedan rule was experienced as a liberation for the poor and downtrodden. That is how one fifth of our people became Mohammedans. To think that all these were brought by sword and fire is sheer madness. However, it is important to note that Vivekananda had a different view about Indian Muslims and Muslims from other parts of the world: Mohammedanism in India is quite a different thing from that in any other country. It is only when Mohammedans come from other countries and preach to their coreligionists in India about living with men who are not of their faith that a Mohammedan mob is aroused and fights. 43 If we turn to the lecture of Vivekananda which he gave in London in 1896 under the title Practical Vedanta, we see that he was very polemical towards Islam and the Muslim prophet Muhammad: The more selfish a man, the more immoral he is. And so also with the race. That race which is bound down to itself has been the most cruel and the most wicked in the whole world. There has not been a religion that has clung to this dualism more than that founded by the Prophet of Arabia, and there has not been a religion, which has shed so much blood and been so cruel to other men. In the Koran there is the doctrine that a man who does not believe these teachings should be killed, it is a mercy to kill him! And the surest way to get to heaven, where there are beautiful houris and all sorts of sense enjoyments, is by killing these unbelievers. Think of the bloodshed there has been in consequence of such beliefs! 44 Thus, Vivekananda s views on Islam developed from an inclusivist (illustrated by his letter towards his Muslim friend and his article On the future of Bharat) to an exclusivist ideology (referring to his lecture in London in 1896) art_iv.htm 17

19 Prophets and Saints (1957): Vaswani s thought on Rabia al-basri and Dhul-Nun al-misri Vaswani s work Prophets and Saints contains nine chapters. In each chapter, Vaswani deals with a specific religious scholar or in his words a saint or a prophet (Buddha, Dhul-Nun al-misri, Rabia al-basri, Francis of Assisi, Guru Nanak, Kabir, Mira, Dayananda Sarasvati, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa). It is interesting to take notice of Vaswani s chapter on the Hindu mystical scholar Dayananda Sarasvati (the ninth chapter). Vaswani calls Dayananda, Rishi Dayanand in the chaper and although it becomes clear that he holds a great respect for the founder of the Arya Samaj, Vaswani (as we will see later on), had a different idea on religion in general and on Islam and Muslims in particular. Unfortunately Vaswani did not go into the Satyarth Prakash of Dayananda. It is more a biographical sketch of Dayananda. He also says that he is not competent to speak of the work the Arya Samaj has done. 45 So it might be the case that Vaswani was actually not aware of the polemical work of Dayananda. For the thesis, I will specifically focus on the two Sufi scholars in the Vaswani s Prophets and Saints: Dhul-Nun al-misri and Rabia al-basri. Dhul-Nun al-misri In the second chapter, Vaswani deals with the 9th century Egyptian Sufi scholar, Dhul-Nun al-misri (in Vaswani s word s Junnuna Misri). Al-Misri is considered as the founder of theosophical Sufism, because of the introduction of Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism. Oliver Leaman explains this as follows being a philosopher, Sufi, and alchemist, Dhu l-nun was a freethinker par excellence and his ideas naturally bear all the elements of these three disciplines and others. This is why he can rightly be called a theosopher in the first place. 46 Like Rabia, a lot of what we know about al-misri, is coming from secondary sources (like classical Sufi biographies). It is noteworthy to mention that a lot Sufi scholars, like Ibn al-arabi ( ) and Jalal al-din Al-Rumi ( ), have been inspired by and actually have quoted al-misri in their works. 47 Vaswani introduces him is work as a master of wisdom (see Quote 1). His respect for al-misri could be seen throughout the whole chapter, when he tells the story about the life of al-misri. I will elaborate on three quotes, which will give the reader an idea about Vaswani s thought on al-misri. As we have seen earlier in the chapter with Rabia, Vaswani is also making a link or a comparison between the Indian sages and Sanskrit terms when describing al- Misri (see Quotes 1 and 3). This might be an indication that Vaswani wrote his work for a broad public (Hindus as well as non-hindus). By using terms, concepts and names from different religious traditions and languages, Vaswani could reach a broader public an propagate his vision on religion. 45 Vaswani, T.L. Prophets and Saints, (Crest Publishing House, 1957), Oliver Leaman, The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015), Ibid.,

20 Vaswani s respect for al-misri is also to be found in his words when he says that he meditated on sayings of the master of wisdom (see Quote 2). Unfortunately, Vaswani does not make any references to one or more specific book(s) on the Sufi scholar. That makes it difficult to find out what source(s) he had, when he read, studied and meditated on al-misri. What we do know, is that Vaswani was fluent in English and Sindhi. While he mentioned in his work Youth and the Nation that his Hindi was broken 48, it is not clear whether Vaswani was actually familiar with Arabic and Persian like Roy, not to mention Urdu. Quote 1: And Egypt was, for some time, a spiritual teacher of Greece and Rome. Egypt became a homeland of friars and fakirs. In Egypt lived, in the Muslim era, when Khalifas ruled Baghdad, a great teacher of spiritual science, a master of wisdom. They called him Misri (Egyptian), more fully, Junnuna Misri. He rose to a vision of the Truth that is universal, -- the Truth that discards neither Muslim nor Hindu, neither Christian nor Buddhist, neither Greek nor Jew, but embraces them all in Unity that the sages of India have adored as the Eka meva dvityam, the One without a second. 49 Quote 2: Common is the sight of men who bear misfortune, but how uncommon the sight of the blessed ones who bear the buffets of fate, yet do not lose the peace of the soul. If thou hast met God, He is enough the One True Friend in life if thou has not met Him, meet them who are His Friends and thou wilt be happy. Thou cravest for company? Then be in the company of those who have risen above the distinctions of I and Thou. Theirs are consecrated lives! Never think of any creature as mean. Never think of anyone as inferior to thee. Open the inner Eye that beholdeth the Countenance of God and thou wilt see that in all creatures shineth the One Glory! Meditation on God is my food. His praise is my drink and to bear witness to His Glory is my garment. On these and many other sayings of this Teacher have I meditated, from time to time, and have found them charged with the Wisdom of the Gita and the Teaching of the Upanishads T.L. Vaswani, Youth and the Nation (Ganesh & Co., Madras, 1925), Ibid., Ibid.,

21 Quote 3: His thoughts were deeper than the sea and in his life was beauty brighter than the beauty of the moon and the stars. In the years to be, pilgrims from India to Egypt will come to the spot, where Junnuna breathed the last benediction of his earth-life, and bow in lowly reverence to his blessed name and say. Here was one, who taught that wisdom, not wealth, is the Way, -- on, who saw the Face of God unveiled, as did Kasyapa and Agastya, Yagnavalkya and Brihaspati and other holy Rishis of India, in the long, long ago. 51 Rabia al-basri In the third chapter, Vaswani deals with the 8th century Sufi woman, Rabia al-basri. Although a lot has been written and said about Rabia, much of it is said to be legends. However, she still is and plays a vital role within the Muslim community, especially with regard to the mystical form of Islam, Sufism. More specifically, Rabia s contribution lies in the inspiration she has been to many, most especially women who see Rabi a as an archetype for spiritual freedom when social freedom may not be so readily obtained. 52 Vaswani s respect for Rabia could be seen throughout the whole chapter, when Vaswani tells stories about the famous Muslim mystic. I will elaborate on three quotes, which will give the reader an idea about Vaswani s thought on Rabia. Already in the beginning of the chapter did Vaswani address Rabia as one of the greatest mystics of Islam (see Quote 1). Interesting is also that he compares the medieval Hindu mystic and Krishna devotee, Mira, with Rabia (see Quote 1). As mentioned earlier, Vaswani is mostly known for the Mira movement. Where the name Mira refers to the medieval Hindu mystic. Therefore, the comparison between Mira and Rabia could be seen as an example of Vaswani s respect for Islam in general and in particular for Sufism. Furthermore, Vaswani was very much impressed by Rabia s devotion and her asceticism (see Quote 2). Lastly, While Vaswani did not make lots of references to (Sufi) Islamic and/or Arabic terms and concepts when he dealt with al-misri, He used a lot of (Sufi) Islamic and Arabic terms and concepts in his chapter about Rabia (see Quote 3). Unfortunately, like the chapter about al-misri, Vaswani does not make any references to one or more specific book(s) on the Sufi scholar. That makes it difficult to find out what source(s) he had, when he read and studied Rabia. Quote 1: Rabia remains enshrined in my heart. I regard her as one of the greatest mystics of Islam. I often call her the Mira of Islam. Mira was a queen. Rabia was a poor orphan. But Mira renounced her palace and all her possessions and became poor in the service of God. Both Mira and Rabia sang songs rich in 51 Ibid., Roy Jackson, Fifty Key Figures in Islam (Routledge, 2006),