Culture and Religion in Eurasia/North Africa

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 4 Culture and Religion in Eurasia/North Africa 500 B.C.E. 500 C.E. CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES To point out the enormous influence on world history of the religious and cultural traditions developed in Eurasia and North Africa between 500 B.C.E. and 500 C.E. To examine the reasons behind the development of these religious and cultural traditions To consider the common ground and significant differences between these religious and cultural traditions and examine possible reasons behind them CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Opening Vignette A. In 2009, China celebrated the 2,560th birthday of Confucius, despite Communism. 1. Buddhism, Daoism and Christianity also growing rapidly in China 2. part of enduring legacy of the secondwave civilizations B. In the period around 500 B.C.E., there was a great emergence of durable cultural traditions that have shaped the world ever since. 1. China: Confucius and Laozi 2. India: Upanishads defined Hinduism; Siddhartha Gautama set Buddhism in motion 3. Middle East: development of monotheism a. Persia: Zoroastrianism (prophet Zarathustra) b. Israel: Judaism (prophets such as Isaiah) 4. Greece: rational humanism (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, et al.) 5. all sought an alternative to polytheism, placating of gods through ritual and sacrifice a. quest for source of order and meaning in the universe b. guide humans to personal moral or spiritual transformation (especially development of compassion) c. the questions they pose still trouble and inspire humankind d. they defined their distinctive cultures C. Why did all these traditions emerge at about the same time? 1. some historians point to major social changes 75

2 76 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA a. iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier war b. growing cities, increasing commerce c. emergence of new states and empires d. new contacts between civilizations 2. it s a mystery why particular societies developed particular answers II. China and the Search for Order A. China had a state-building tradition that went back to around 2000 B.C.E. 1. idea of Mandate of Heaven was established by 1122 B.C.E. (foundation of the Zhou dynasty) 2. breakdown into the chaos of the age of warring states ( B.C.E.) B. The Legalist Answer 1. Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher 2. principle: strict rules, clearly defined and strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder 3. pessimistic view of human nature; only the state can act in people s long-term interest 4. promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society 5. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China C. The Confucian Answer 1. Confucius ( B.C.E.) was an educated, ambitious aristocrat a. spent much of life looking for a political position to put his ideas into practice b. Confucius s ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia c. his teachings were collected by students as the Analects d. elaboration and commentary on his ideas by later scholars, creating Confucianism as a body of thought 2. principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder a. society consists of unequal relationships b. duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent c. will inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member 3. humans have capacity for improvement: education is the key a. advocated a broad liberal arts education b. application of liberal arts education to government problems c. need for ritual and ceremonies 4. after Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state 5. the family as a model for political life, with focus on filial piety a. defined role of women as being humble, serving husbands b. woman writer Ban Zhao ( C.E.): Lessons for Women 6. Confucian virtues for ideal men contained in the paired concepts of wen and wu a. wen = refined qualities of rationality, scholarship, and literary and artistic abilities b. wu = physical and martial achievements c. wen considered superior to wu 7. emphasized the great importance of history a. ideal good society was a past golden age b. superior men had outstanding moral character and intellect; not just aristocrats c. created expectations for government: emperors to keep taxes low, give justice, and provide for material needs 8. Confucianism was nonreligious in character a. emphasis was practical, focused on this world

3 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 77 b. did not deny existence of gods and spirits, but the educated elite had little to do with them D. The Daoist Answer 1. associated with the legendary Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.), author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power) 2. Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianism a. education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless b. urged withdrawal into the world of nature 3. central concept: dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena 4. Daoism invited disengagement with public life a. simple self-sufficient living b. abandonment of education and active self-improvement c. family still central d. complementarity and balance between sexes rather than hierarchy 5. elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism 6. Daoism entered popular religion a. sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality) b. provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans) III. Cultural Traditions of Classical India A. Indian cultural development was different 1. elite culture was enthusiastic about the divine and about spiritual matters 2. Hinduism (the Indian religious tradition) had no historical founder a. developed along with Indian civilization b. spread into Southeast Asia, but remained associated with India and the Indians above all c. was never a single tradition; Hinduism is a term invented by outsiders B. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation 1. widely recognized sacred texts provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion 2. the Vedas (poems, hymns, prayers, rituals) a. compiled by Brahmins (priests), transmitted orally b. were not written down (in Sanskrit) until around 600 B.C.E. c. provide a glimpse of Indian civilization in B.C.E. d. competing chiefdoms or kingdoms e. a clearly patriarchal society but less restrictive than later periods f. role of Brahmins in practicing elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them power and wealth 3. the Upanishads (mystical, philosophical works) developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins a. composed between 800 and 400 B.C.E. b. probe inner meaning of Vedic sacrifices introspection c. central idea: Brahman (the World Soul) as ultimate reality d. atman, the individual human soul, was part of Brahman e. ultimate goal moksha union of atman with Brahman f. achieving union involved many lifetimes g. samsara reincarnation/rebirth central to the process h. karma governed samsara 4. Hinduism legitimated and expressed India s gender system a. women increasingly forbidden to learn Vedas and participate in public rituals b. Law of Manu defined women as beholden to men in every phase of life c. sexual pleasure legitimate goal for men and women as detailed in the Kamasutra d. many Hindu deities were female

4 78 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 5. multiple paths to fulfillment in Hindu religious thought a. Brahmin priests and especially wandering ascetics spread ideas C. The Buddhist Challenge 1. developed side by side with philosophical Hinduism 2. Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566 ca. 486 B.C.E.) a. spiritual journey led to enlightenment (insight) at age 35 b. his followers saw him as the Buddha, the Enlightened One 3. central Buddhist teaching: life is suffering a. sorrow s cause is craving for individual fulfillment, attachment to self b. cure it with modest and moral life, meditation c. goal is achievement of enlightenment or nirvana (extinguishing of individual identity) 4. large elements of Hinduism are present in Buddhist teaching a. life as an illusion b. karma and rebirth c. overcoming demands of the ego d. practice of meditation e. hope for release from the cycle of rebirth 5. much of Buddhism challenged Hinduism a. rejection of Brahmins religious authority b. lack of interest in abstract speculation c. need for individuals to take responsibility for their own spiritual development 6. also challenged inequalities of caste system 7. while at first opposed, Buddha ultimately allowed separate female orders of nuns a. rules clearly subordinated nuns to men b. Buddha viewed women as an obstacle to male enlightenment c. nuns found relative freedom and independence 8. appealed especially to lower castes and women in India a. teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit b. linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha) c. state support from Ashoka ( B.C.E.) 9. the split within Buddhism a. early Buddhism (Theravada, the Teaching of the Elders) b. by early in the Common Era, development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle) D. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion 1. Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism in India 2. Mahayana Buddhism in particular spread elsewhere in Asia 3. first millennium C.E.: development of a more popular Hinduism a. expressed in epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana b. action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path to liberation c. bhakti (worship) movement began in south India IV. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East A. The radical notion of a single supreme Deity developed in Zoroastrianism and Judaism and became the basis for both Christianity and Islam. B. Zoroastrianism 1. Persian prophet Zarathustra traditionally dated to sixth or seventh century B.C.E. 2. some state support during Achaemenid dynasty ( B.C.E.) 3. single god Ahura Mazda is source of truth, light, goodness a. cosmic struggle with Angra Mainyu (force of evil)

5 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 79 b. Ahura Mazda will eventually win, aided by a final savior c. judgment day: restoration of world to purity and peace d. need for the individual to choose good or evil 4. Zoroastrianism did not spread widely beyond Persia a. Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty were disastrous for it b. flourished in Parthian (247 B.C.E. 224 C.E.) and Sassanid ( C.E.) empires c. final decline caused by arrival of Islam; some Zoroastrians fled to India, became known as Parsis ( Persians ) 5. Jews in the Persian Empire were influenced by Zoroastrian ideas a. idea of God vs. Satan b. idea of a last judgment and bodily resurrection c. belief in the final defeat of evil, with help of a savior (Messiah) d. remaking of the world at the end of time C. Judaism 1. developed among the Hebrews, recorded in Hebrew scripture a. early tradition of migration to Palestine, led by Abraham b. early tradition of enslavement in Egypt and escape c. establishment of state of Israel ca B.C.E. 2. Judean exiles in Babylon retained their cultural identity, returned to homeland 3. distinctive conception of God a. Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty b. relationship with Yahweh as a covenant (contract) c. lofty, transcendent deity but communication was possible d. from god of war to god of social justice and compassion 4. foundation for both Christianity and Islam V. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order A. Classical Greece did not create an enduring religious tradition. 1. system of polytheism, fertility cults, and so on, remained 2. Greek intellectuals abandoned mythological framework a. world is a physical reality governed by natural laws b. humans can understand those laws c. human reason can work out a system for ethical life 3. perhaps was caused by diversity and incoherence of mythology a. intellectual stimulation of great civilizations b. possible influence of growing role of law in Athenian political life B. The Greek Way of Knowing 1. flourished B.C.E. (same time as city-states flourished) 2. key element: the way questions were asked (argument, logic, questioning of received wisdom) 3. best example: Socrates ( B.C.E.) of Athens a. constant questioning of assumptions b. conflict with city authorities over Athenian democracy c. accused of corrupting the youth, sentenced to death 4. earliest classical Greek thinkers a. applied rational questioning to nature b. application to medicine 5. application of Greek rationalism to understand human behavior a. Herodotus: why did Greeks and Persians fight each other? b. Plato ( B.C.E.) outlined design for a good society (Republic) led by a philosopher-king c. Aristotle ( B.C.E.) most complete expression of the Greek way of knowing

6 80 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA C. The Greek Legacy 1. many people continued traditional religious beliefs and practices 2. Greek rationalism spread widely a. helped by Alexander s Empire and that of the Romans b. Christian theology was expressed in Greek philosophical terms c. classical Greek texts preserved in Byzantine Empire d. Western Europe: neglect of classical scholarship after fall of Roman Empire e. part of Islamic culture VI. The Birth of Christianity... with Buddhist Comparisons A. The Lives of the Founders 1. Gautama was royal, Jesus was from a lower-class family 2. both became spiritual seekers a. both were mystics: claimed personal experience of another level of reality b. based life s work on their religious experience 3. both were wisdom teachers a. challenged conventional values b. urged renunciation of wealth c. stressed love or compassion as the basis of morality d. called for personal transformation of their followers 4. important differences a. Jesus had Jewish tradition of single personal deity b. Jesus teaching was more social and political than Gautama s c. Jesus was active for about three years; Gautama for over forty d. Jesus was executed as a criminal; Gautama died of old age B. The Spread of New Religions 1. probably neither intended to create a new religion, but both did 2. followers transformed both into gods 3. how Christianity became a world religion a. process began with Paul (10 65 C.E.) b. women had more opportunities (but early still reflected patriarchy of time) c. early converts were typically urban lower class and women d. attraction of miracle stories e. attraction of Christian care for each other 4. spread of Christianity a. Paul spread to modern Turkey and Syria b. Syria and Persia heartlands of the Church in the East with own organization and liturgy c. Armenia first place where rulers adopted Christianity as a state region d. Syrian and Persian missionaries brought Christianity to southern India and Central Asia e. by 570 C.E. some Arabs had become Christians f. Coptic church emerged in Egypt g. North Africa furnished intellectuals and martyrs h. during fourth century Christianity became state religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia) i. Axum Christianity linked to Coptic Church, but used local Ge ez language 5. Roman persecution of Christians as atheists for their antagonism to all divine powers except their one god a. ended with conversion of Emperor Constantine in early fourth century C.E b. later Roman emperors tried to use Christianity as social glue c. Theodosius ordered closure of all polytheistic temples d. start process by which Roman Empire and later all of Europe became overwhelmingly Christian 6. Buddhism: Ashoka s support helped, but Buddhism was never promoted as India s sole religion a. Buddhism ultimately absorbed into Hinduism in India

7 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA In Roman empire no renewal of Roman polytheism a. Christianity endured in Europe b. but took up some practices from Roman world 8. both Buddhism and Christianity created networks of cultural connections C. Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions 1. Christianity developed a male hierarchical organization a. women were excluded from priesthood b. concern for uniform doctrine and practice c. emergence of bishop of Rome (pope) as dominant leader in Western Europe 2. Buddhism clashed over interpretation of the Buddha s teachings a. series of councils did not prevent divisions b. less sense of right and wrong than with Christian conflicts 3. Buddhism did not develop an overall church hierarchy VII. Reflections: Religion and Historians A. Religion is a sensitive subject for historians, too. B. There are important points of tension between believers and historians. 1. change: religions present selves as timeless, but historians see development over time, as a human phenomenon 2. experience of a divine reality: historians have trouble dealing with believers experiential claims 3. which group within a religion is authentic : historians usually refuse to take sides C. It can be difficult to reconcile personal religious belief with historical scholarship. D. Second-wave religious traditions are enormously important in world history. CHAPTER QUESTIONS Following are answer guidelines for the Big Picture Questions, Seeking the Main Point Question, Margin Review Questions, Portrait Question, and Documents and Visual Sources Feature Questions that appear in the textbook chapter. For your convenience, the questions and answer guidelines are also available in the Computerized Test Bank. Big Picture Questions 1. Is a secular outlook on the world an essentially modern phenomenon, or does it have precedents in the second-wave era? The philosophical systems of both China and Greece are central to any possible answers. In China, Legalism possessed several features of a modern secular political philosophy in its reliance on law and the enforcement of law to secure a stable society. The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical. Confucianism was primarily concerned with human relationships, with effective government, and with social harmony. Greek thought, with its emphasis on argument and logic, relentless questioning of received wisdom, confidence in human reason, and enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods, also provides a precedent for modern secular outlooks on the world. 2. Religion is a double-edged sword, both supporting and undermining political authority and social elites. How would you support both sides of this statement? In answering this question students must consider the issue of what is and what is not a religion. Legalist and Confucian ideas along with Greek rationalism should be placed to one side, although students could note that (like religions) philosophies can both support and threaten political authorities and social elites. Both Legalist and Confucian traditions are largely supportive of political authorities and social elites, while Greek rationalism, as seen in Socrates death, could threaten the political and social elites. In support of political and social authority, students could readily point to individual instances where new and popular religions were adopted by elites. Ashoka s conversion to Buddhism in Mauryan India provides one example, the support of the Achaemenid dynasty for Zoroastrianism another. Finally, the adoption of Christianity by Constantine and the ultimate reinforcement of patriarchy by the

8 82 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA Christian church speak to the political and social support that a new religion could provide to established power structures. More generally, the tendency of several religions to focus the believer s attention away from action in this world also served to support political authority and social elites. This was true of Daoism in China, Buddhism in India, and Christianity in the Roman Empire. However, if followed, the teachings of many religions put real constraints on political and social authorities. For instance, Ashoka s adoption of Buddhism limited the scope for his legitimate use of violence, while dictates about the treatment of the poor and the equality of all believers in the Christian faith brought into question the social norms of Roman society. Religious leaders could prove subversive to the current system, as the execution of Jesus by the Roman authorities indicates. Also, the teachings of a faith could potentially challenge established authorities. For instance, the strict monotheism practiced by early Christians effectively precluded the worship of Roman gods, which traditionally was seen as a sign of obedience and loyalty to the Roman Empire. 3. How would you define the appeal of the religious/cultural traditions discussed in this chapter? To what groups were they attractive, and why? Some religious/cultural traditions, including Legalism and Confucianism, found widespread appeal among the elite because they reinforced the established social structure that defined the elites. Other traditions, like Buddhism and Christianity, appealed to the lower strata of society because they offered universal salvation to all believers regardless of class or gender. Traditions such as Judaism appealed to all strata of one ethnic group because they defined a special relationship between that group and a powerful divine entity. However, each cultural and religious tradition explored in this chapter appealed to its adherents because it brought guidance for living along with meaning and order to life. 4. In what different ways did these religious or cultural traditions define the purposes of human life? Chinese and Greek thinkers focused more on affairs of this world crediting human reason with the power to guide one to happiness through fulfillment of duty and living a moral life. Indian, Persian, and Jewish religious traditions focused on the realm of the divine and the relationship of God or the gods to human life. Whether religious or philosophical in approach, these traditions defined the task of humankind as personal moral or spiritual transformation, often expressed as the development of compassion. 5. Looking Back: What relationships can you see between the political dimensions of second-wave civilizations described in Chapter 3 and their cultural or religious aspects discussed in this chapter? In the case of China, Legalism was the defining political ideology that the Qin used to reunite the Empire; Confucian ideas underpin the bureaucratic organization of the empire and reinforce the Mandate from Heaven. In the case of India, the rich diversity in the Hindu faith reflects the cultural diversity that made empires more difficult to create and sustain in the region; Buddhist thought helps to explain Ashoka s ruling principles. Zoroastrianism casts light on the Persian imperial traditions that sought to link the emperor with Ahura Mazda. Greek Rationalism sheds light on why Greeks were willing to experiment with popular participation in government and legitimacy based on law rather than supernatural authority. Seeking the Main Point Question Q. Fundamentally, religions are basically alike. Does the material of this chapter support or challenge this idea? In support of the thesis that religions are fundamentally alike, students could point to influences like that of Zoroastrianism on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam or the influence of Judaism on Christianity and Islam. Students could also note similarities across traditions, like those between Buddhism and Christianity highlighted in the chapter. To emphasize differences, students could point to differences even within cultural traditions, such as the beliefs that separate the Hindu and Buddhist faiths.

9 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 83 Students could also point to important differences across cultural traditions, such as the difference between the conception of God in the Jewish and Christian traditions, Brahman in the Indian tradition, or the Dao in the Chinese tradition. Students could also note the difference between Greek, Legalist, and Confucian philosophies and those traditions that focus on the supernatural. Margin Review Questions Q. What different answers to the problem of disorder arose in classical China? Three major schools of thought emerged from the Warring States period. Legalism was a hardheaded practical philosophy based on a rather pessimistic view of human nature that assumed people were stupid and shortsighted. Supporters of Legalism argued that only the state could act in the long-term interests of society as a whole. They advocated a system of clearly defined laws and rules, strictly enforced through rewards and punishments, as the best means of securing desirable behavior from subjects. Confucianism argued that social harmony could only be restored through the moral example of superiors. Confucius emphasized that, because human society (both within the family and in public life) consisted primarily of unequal relationships, social harmony relied on the superior party in these relationships behaving with sincerity, benevolence, and genuine concern for others. Only then would the inferior party be motivated to respond with deference and obedience. Daoism provided a third alternative, arguing that disorder stemmed from human actions and that order could return to life if people withdrew from the world of political and social activism and instead aligned themselves with dao, the way of nature. In practice, this meant simplicity in living, small selfsufficient communities, limited government, and the abandonment of education and active efforts at selfimprovement. Q. Why has Confucianism been defined as a humanistic philosophy rather than a supernatural religion? The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical, concerned with human relationships, effective government, and social harmony. Confucianism is based on the cultivation of ren translated as human-heartedness, benevolence, goodness, nobility of heart. Ren is not achieved through divine intervention but rather is nurtured within the person through personal reflection, education, and a willingness to strive continuously to perfect one s moral character. Ritual and ceremonies nurture ren, not because of contact with the supernatural but because they convey rules of appropriate behavior in the many and varying circumstances of life. Q. How did the Daoist outlook differ from that of Confucianism? Daoists found Confucian emphasis on education and the earnest striving for moral improvement and good government artificial and useless. Instead, Daoists urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic, and natural. Daoists turned the spotlight onto the immense realm of nature and its mysterious unfolding patterns, while Confucians focused on the world of human relationships. Q. In what ways did the religious traditions of South Asia change over the centuries? It is difficult to generalize about religious tradition in South Asia because of the variety of religious patterns in the region. However, there was a general evolution away from a religion based on external sacrifice and ritual to one of philosophical speculation, and finally to one of devotional worship and detached action in the world. Q. In what ways did Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions, and in what ways did it challenge them? Buddhism reflected Hindu traditions in the idea that ordinary life is an illusion, in the concepts of karma and rebirth, the goal of overcoming the incessant demands of the ego, the practice of meditation, and the hope for final release from the cycle of rebirth. Buddhism challenged Hindu traditions through its rejection of the religious authority of the Brahmins, the lack of interest in abstract speculation about the creation of the world or the existence of gods, and its rejection of the inequalities of a Hindubased caste system through its belief that neither

10 84 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA caste position nor gender was a barrier to enlightenment. Q. What is the difference between the Theravada and Mahayana expressions of Buddhism? The Theravada expression was championed by monks and nuns who withdrew from society to devote themselves fully to the quest for nirvana. It portrayed the Buddha as an immensely wise teacher and model, but certainly not divine. It was more psychological than religious, a set of practices rather than a set of beliefs. And the gods, while never completely denied, played little role in assisting believers in their search for enlightenment. The Mahayana expression proclaimed that help was available to reach enlightenment. Within this expression, bodhisattvas, spiritually developed people who postponed their own entry into nirvana in order to assist those who were still suffering, could help the believer. The Buddha himself could also help. The Buddha became something of a god, and both earlier and future Buddhas were available to offer their help on the path to enlightenment. The Mahayana expression developed elaborate descriptions of these supernatural beings, together with various levels of heavens and hells that ultimately transformed Buddhism into a popular religion of salvation. As part of this development, religious merit leading to salvation might now be earned by acts of piety and devotion, and merit might be transferred to others. Q. What new emphases characterized Hinduism as it responded to the challenge of Buddhism? Hinduism emphasized more clearly that action in the world and the detached performance of caste duties might provide a path to salvation. Another emphasis was on devotion to one or another of India s many gods and goddesses. One manifestation of this emphasis was the bhakti movement, which involved intense adoration of and identification with a particular deity through songs, prayers, and rituals associated with the many cults that emerged throughout India. The most popular deities were Vishnu and Shiva. Q. Summing Up So Far: How did the evolution of cultural traditions in India and China differ during the era of second-wave civilizations? India s tradition focused on divine or spiritual understanding of the world, whereas China focused more on philosophical ideas and the here and now. Indian cultural traditions underpinned a castebased social system, while China s supported the Chinese imperial system. Q. What aspects of Zoroastrianism and Judaism subsequently found a place in Christianity and Islam? Zoroastrian concepts of the conflict between God and an evil counterpart, the notion of a last judgment and resurrected bodies, a belief in the final defeat of evil, the arrival of a savior, and the remaking of the world at the end of time all influenced Judaism. Some of these teachings, especially the concepts of heaven and hell and of a coming savior, also became prominent in Christianity and Islam through this influence on Judaism. From Judaism, both Christianity and Islam drew a distinctive conception of the divine as singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, and demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals. Q. What was distinctive about the Jewish religious tradition? Unlike other Mesopotamian peoples, the Jewish people through time came to believe in a single god, whom they called Yahweh. The Jews came to understand their relationship with Yahweh as a contract or covenant. In return for their sole devotion and obedience, Yahweh would consider the Jews his chosen people. Unlike other gods in Mesopotamia, Yahweh was increasingly seen as a lofty, transcendent deity of utter holiness and purity, set far above the world of nature, which he had created. Unlike the impersonal conceptions of ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh was encountered as a divine person with whom people could actively communicate. He was also a god who acted within the historical process. Yahweh was also distinctive in that he was transformed from a god of war into a god of social justice and compassion for the poor and marginalized. Q. What are the distinctive features of the Greek intellectual tradition? Emphasis on argument and logic Relentless questioning of received wisdom Confidence in human reason

11 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 85 Enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods Q. How would you compare the lives and teachings of Jesus and the Buddha? In what different ways did the two religions evolve after the deaths of their founders? Their backgrounds were very different. Jesus was a rural or small-town worker from a distinctly lower-class family, while Gautama was born into a ruling family and was surrounded by luxury. Both became spiritual seekers, mystics in their own traditions, who claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality. Those powerful religious experiences provided the motivation for their life s work and the personal authenticity that attracted their growing band of followers. Both were wisdom teachers, challenging the conventional values of their time, urging the renunciation of wealth, and emphasizing the supreme importance of love or compassion as the basis for a moral life. Both called for the personal transformation of their followers. Jesus inherited from his Jewish tradition an intense devotion to a single personal deity with whom he was on intimate terms. According to the New Testament, the miracles Jesus performed reflected the power of God available to him as a result of that relationship. The Buddha s original message largely ignored the supernatural, involved no miracles, and taught a path of intense self-effort aimed at ethical living and mindfulness as a means of ending suffering. Jesus s teachings had a sharper social and more political edge than those of the Buddha. Jesus s public life was very brief, probably less than three years compared to over forty years for the Buddha. Neither Jesus nor the Buddha probably planned to found new religions. Both the Buddha s and Jesus s messages emerged soon after their deaths as separate religions proclaimed to much wider and more inclusive audiences. Both the Buddha and Jesus were transformed from teachers into gods by their followers. The Christian faith was ultimately promoted as the single legal faith in the Roman Empire. Buddhism, while supported by some rulers, was never promoted to the exclusion of other faiths in India. Both Buddhist and Christian followers clashed over interpretation of their respective founder s teachings. However, Buddhist disagreements generally lacked the clear-cut distinctions defined by right and wrong that Christian disagreements developed. Q. In what ways was Christianity transformed in the five centuries following the death of Jesus? Jesus became divine in the eyes of his followers. Christianity developed from a small Jewish sect into a world religion that included non-jews. A Church of the East developed with its own organization and liturgy. Its heartland was in Syria and Persia, but with adherents in southern India and Central Asia. Armenia became first kingdom where rulers adopted Christianity as a state region. A Coptic church emerged in Egypt. Christianity became the state religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia). It spread throughout the Roman Empire, first largely among the lower stratum of people in the towns and cities, but as it gained in popularity, Roman rulers sought to use its popularity as a glue to hold together a very diverse population in a weakening imperial state. In the fourth century, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and all polytheistic religions were banned. Christianity adopted elements of religious practice in the Roman world as it spread and converted the population. It developed a hierarchical organization, with patriarchs, bishops, and priests. It ultimately developed a patriarchal, maledominated clergy. It sought unity in matters of doctrine and practice, but ultimately permanent divisions formed. Q. Summing Up So Far: How might you understand the appeal of Buddhism and Christianity as opposed to the more rationalist approaches of Greek and Confucian philosophy? Buddhism and Christianity offered the promise of a better life after this one, whereas both Greek and Confucian philosophy dealt only with this life. Buddhism and Christianity focused on the realm of the divine whereas neither Confucianism or Greek Rationalism offered much in the way of spiritual fulfillment.

12 86 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA Buddhism and Christianity offered universal salvation to all believers regardless of class or gender, whereas Confucianism reinforced unequal class and gender roles in society and Greek rationalism was open only to those with education. Portrait Question 1. How might you understand the actions and attitudes of Perpetua? Is her experience accessible to people living in a largely secular modern society? Perpetua placed devotion to her faith above all other parts of her life, including her responsibilities as a daughter and mother. Her decision to help the gladiator cut her throat reflects her deep belief in the promise of a Christian afterlife. In terms of the accessibility of Perpetua s martyrdom, on one level it is a very human story. She is torn between conflicting concerns: her father s wishes and the reputation of her family, the terrible condition in prison, her desire to take care of her baby, and her devotion to her faith. It is not hard to have empathy with someone in such a difficult and trying situation. However, in modern secular societies people are not normally put to death for their beliefs and so her experience may seem remote to some modern readers. Her willingness to die for her faith may not resonate with some in modern society who either do not have a faith or are not as attached to theirs as Perpetua was to hers. Using the Documents and Visual Sources Features Following are answer guidelines for the headnote questions and Using the Evidence questions that appear in the documents and visual sources essays located at the end of the textbook chapter. Headnote Questions Document 4.1: China: Reflections from Confucius Q. How would Confucius define such a person? To obtain perfect virtue, Confucius would require a person to fully subdue one s self and return to propriety. He would also expect a person to behave to every one as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country and none in the family. Confucius would also advocate that such a person possess sincere reverence, love, and submission to parents, elders, and social superiors as expressed both through daily actions and rituals. He would expect one to obtain riches and honors only in the proper way. One should also possess wisdom by giving one s self earnestly to the duties due to men while respecting but also keeping aloof from spiritual beings; and undertake extensive study of all learning while maintaining restraint as defined in the rules of propriety. Q. How might one become this kind of person? Confucius makes clear that only propriety in one s day-to-day actions leads to virtue. However, he also promotes the concept of learning from parents, superiors, and through formal study. Q. What role does propriety or ritual play in the making of a virtuous man? Propriety plays an important role, as Confucius defined propriety as appropriate behavior in every aspect of life. Ritual also plays an important role; the philosopher Tsang notes in this selection Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents, and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice; then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence (p. 199). Q. What understanding of learning or education comes through in this text? Polite studies should only be undertaken after a person has mastered loyalty to his or her parents, reverence for elders, and the virtues of earnestness, truthfulness, love, and friendship. Learning is displayed in sincerely serving parents and prince, and even without formal education such displays make one learned. For the superior man, extensively studying all learning can help one avoid overstepping what is right, by which he means practicing propriety and restraint.

13 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 87 Q. What is filial piety and why is it so important in Confucius s understanding of a good society? Filial piety is a child s reverence for and commitment to his or her parents and by extension to all superiors, especially one s elders. The cultivation of filial piety in all members of society is a key to a happy, peaceful, well-run society, for through filial piety children learn propriety and virtue. Q. How do virtue, filial piety, and learning relate to the larger task of creating good government and a harmonious society? The cultivation of virtue is critical because it creates subjects who are deferential to authority and seek to act in the interests of the community rather than individual self-interest. Virtue teaches individuals to conform to laws out of shame and desire to do good rather than fear of punishment. This understanding of the law strengthens good government and social harmony. The cultivation of virtue is also critical among rulers and social superiors, because only through their virtuous and selfless leadership will they succeed in cultivating the reverence and submission of lesser members of society through the system of filial piety. As Confucius states He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn toward it. The system of filial piety is essential for regulating harmonious social relations at every level of society and for teaching children propriety and virtue. The system of filial piety also underpins good government, for to govern the ruler relies on this tradition of reverence and submission to superiors and the aspects of virtue and propriety it inculcates in subjects. Learning is essential because the concept does not just refer to formal learning (although especially for elite members of society formal learning can play a role), but rather the cultivation of a true commitment to virtue and filial piety in day-to-day life by individual members of society. It is the cultivation of virtue and filial piety that underpins social harmony and good government. Q. How does Confucius understand the role of the supernatural gods, spirits, and ancestors, for example? Confucius explicitly advocates respecting spiritual beings and careful attention to the performance of rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices due to the ancestors. But his teachings are concerned with living in this world, not in explaining the spiritual world. Respect toward one s ancestors and the spirits, as shown through the careful adherence to ritual traditions, helped to cultivate virtue and propriety in the living. Confucius argues that until you have mastered the virtues of this world you are in no position to speculate on nor address the needs of the spirit world. As Confucius states, While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits, or again, While you do not know life, how can you know about death? (p. 200) Document 4.2: Reflections from the Hindu Scriptures Q. What is Krishna s answer to this dilemma? That Arjuna s anguish is misplaced, death is part of the natural cosmic order of the universe, and following death will come rebirth. In order not to incur sin, Arjuna must fulfill his caste function, which in this case requires him to kill his kinsmen. It would be sinful to become attached to the illusions of this world and fail to fulfill his duty. Q. What reasons does Krishna give for urging Arjuna to perform his duty as a warrior? As a member of the Kshatriyas warrior caste there is nothing better than a righteous battle. If Arjuna failed to fight then he would have abandoned his duty, lessened his fame, and incurred sin. Arjuna s ordained role in the world is as a warrior; to fail to fulfill his role is to become attached to the illusions of this world. He must cast off all attachments to the material world and perform his caste functions. Only by doing this can he work toward ending the shackles of reincarnation and enter a place where there is no attachment or unhappiness. Q. How does Krishna describe the good society? The good society is one where every person performs the duties of his or her caste without attachment.

14 88 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA Q. What major themes of Hindu teaching can you find in this passage? That worship of him from whom all things proceed (Brahman) is fulfilled in day-to-day life by performing without attachment the duties of one s own caste. The cycle of reincarnation means that all living creatures are part of the same life force and that everyone on earth is part of the cycle. That attachment to this world distances one from spiritual fulfillment. Detachment from this world and the removal of self-restraint and affections is the pathway by which one reaches supreme perfection by attaining Brahman, the highest culmination of knowledge. Krishna, in the conclusion, states that this is accomplished by A man possessed of a pure understanding, controlling his self by courage, discarding sound and other objects of sense, casting off affection and aversion, who frequents clean places, who eats little, whose speech, body, and mind are restrained, who is always intent on meditation and mental abstraction, and has recourse to unconcern, who, abandoning egoism, stubbornness, arrogance, desire, anger, and all belongings, has no thought that this or that is mine, and who is tranquil, becomes fit for assimilation with the Brahman. Deities like Krishna have come to earth to help humans, to advise the spiritually troubled, to explain the cosmic world, and to teach humankind about how to break the cycle of reincarnation. Q. How does this text differ from that of the Analects? Are they asking the same questions? What similarities in outlook, if any, can you identify in these two texts? Confucius focuses on advice for promoting virtue in individuals and harmony in human societies, avoiding a detailed explanation of the workings of the spiritual world. The Bhagavad Gita purports to recount the words of the deity Krishna and focuses on explaining how the cosmic order of the universe impacts the material world and on what is virtuous action. Duty and fulfillment of one s prescribed social roles in the Analects were sanctioned by a desire for a harmonious society and a peaceful existence in this life. In the Bhagavad Gita, duty and fulfillment of caste functions is also important to the harmonious working of society, but the nature of the cosmic order of the universe and a quest for personal salvation inspire right actions rather than a quest for happiness and social order in this life. Both selections ask related questions about how society is organized and what ensures its smooth running, but their answers to these questions are very different. Both selections offer paths that are intended to help people live happier, more contented lives, and both address the question of what creates and underpins a harmonious social order. Document 4.3: Reflections from Socrates Q. How does Socrates respond to the charges laid against him? Socrates indicates that those who brought charges against him were embarrassed by his questioning, which revealed their foolishness. He states that if the Athenian jury finds him guilty, he will choose death over a life without the right to continue his quest for knowledge. Q. How might Socrates define the good life? How does he understand wisdom and virtue? Do you think that Confucius and Socrates would agree about the nature of virtue? Socrates definition of the good life would center on intellectual freedom and the right to constantly question authorities in search of truth. Only God possesses true wisdom, although humans can strive toward wisdom through philosophical speculation and the questioning of authority. Such efforts would be strengthened if those seeking wisdom recognized human and especially their own shortcomings. For Socrates, virtue is closely linked to sticking to one s principles, recognizing one s weaknesses, and seeking truth. Confucius would have difficulties with Socrates conception of virtue, especially in his lack of reverence and obedience to social superiors and elders, and his unwillingness to acquiesce to social superiors once his objections had been heard and rejected. Q. Why does Socrates believe he has been useful to Athens? He improves the state through his questioning of authorities by stirring it to examine and respond to his criticisms. He exposes those men of repute who pretend to be wise but are not.

15 CHAPTER 4 CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 89 Q. What do his frequent references to God reveal about his understanding of the supernatural and its relevance to social life? Only God is wise, and God possesses wisdom and knowledge beyond what humans are capable of. God shapes human events, in part by revealing truth and wisdom through figures like Socrates. Q. Why did he accept the death penalty and refuse to consider a lesser sentence? (See the image on p. 185.) He would rather die than end his pursuit of wisdom and knowledge through the teaching of philosophy. He feared that any compromise would be unrighteous. He argued that life was not worth living if he had to limit his quest for truth and knowledge. Document 4.4: Reflections from Jesus Q. In what ways does his teaching challenge or contradict the conventional outlook of his time? Jesus defines as blessed those in society with the least power, wealth, or status. He rejects the premise that the laws apply only to actions (like committing a murder), arguing instead that merely thinking of such action is breaking the law. He rejects the retributive aspects of law and instead emphasizes unconditional forgiveness. He rejects the pagan focus on this world. Q. What criticisms does he make of those referred to as hypocrites, Pharisees, and the teachers of the law? Jesus states that those who hope to enter the kingdom of heaven will need to have greater righteousness than either the Pharisees or the teachers of the law. Jesus criticizes those who give to the needy and pray in very public ways in order to attract attention and the esteem of men. Q. How would you summarize the good life as Jesus might have defined it? forgiveness of others transgressions love for even your enemies adherence to Jewish laws and the teachings of the prophets generosity toward the needy and prayer to God, but not if your intention in undertaking these activities is to cultivate personal prestige or others esteem a focus on the life to come, not worldly matters not to judge others Q. How might Jesus and Confucius have responded to each other s teachings? Confucius might appreciate Jesus s message that all should act with restraint in relations to others; that motivations matter when taking actions; and that traditional laws and teachings should be respected. Confucius might have some problems with Jesus s focus on a next life rather than this one; his lack of focus on filial piety and obedience to social superiors; and his explicit criticism of Pharisees and teachers of the law. Jesus might appreciate Confucius s emphasis on the requirement that social superiors treat their inferiors fairly and put the interests of society as a whole ahead of their own. Jesus may have taken issue with Confucius s lack of concern for God or how individuals entered into the kingdom of heaven. Q. What is Jesus s posture toward Jewish law? Jesus teaches that he came to fulfill, not abolish, the law, which remains in its entirety important until everything is accomplished. Jesus also teaches that anyone who breaks or teaches others to break any aspect of the Jewish law will be called least in the kingdom of heaven ; anyone who practices or teaches the law will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. Q. Beyond its use as a guide for personal behavior, what are the larger social implications of the Sermon on the Mount? The poor and powerless are the most blessed in society. Forgiveness and reconciliation rather than retribution should lay at the heart of personal interactions with others. Social esteem should not be sought through public acts of charity and religious piety. Visual Source 4.1: Footprints of the Buddha Q. Why might artists have been reluctant to portray the human figure of the Buddha? In the Buddhist spiritual tradition the material world is a place of illusion from which detachment is