1/28/2015. I. The Scientific Revolution. d. Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities. AP Euro Unit 4.1

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1 AP Euro Unit 4.1 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM I. The Scientific Revolution A. Medieval view of the world 1. Primarily religious and theological 2. Political theory based on divine right 3. Society governed by Church views and practices 4. Superstition played a major role 5. Scientific thought in early 1500s still based on Medieval ideas B. Causes of the Scientific Revolution 1. Medieval universities a. By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline b. Medieval philosophers developed a degree of independence from theologians; sense of free inquiry c. Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics within their departments of philosophy. d. Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities. 2. Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics -- Renaissance patronage was often was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic 3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances 4. Scientific methodology developed a. Bacon: empirical research b. Descartes: deductive reasoning 1

2 C. The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view that developed in the 16 th and 17 th centuries. 1. Secularism emerged and many educated people became openly hostile to religion 2. The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western society D. 16 th Century 1. Nicolaus Copernicus ( ) a. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543) b. Heliocentric view: Sun is center of the universe while the earth revolves around the sun -- Seemed to challenge the book of Genesis in the Bible that put forth the geocentric view Illustration published in On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, 1543 c. Religious reaction -- Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned Copernicus view -- Catholic church reaction initially not severe as it did not always interpret the Bible literally -- By 1616, the Church proclaimed the Copernican view false and persecuted those who advanced his views (e.g. Galileo) 2

3 2. Tycho Brahe ( ) a. Europe s best astronomer in the late-16 th century b. Built best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on the cosmos c. His data later proved Copernican theory -- Ironically, he did not accept the Copernican view Brahe s quadrant was among the largest of his era and allowed him to make minute measurements of the cosmos. The king of Denmark gave him the island of Hveen to use for his observatory. 3. Johann Kepler ( ) a. First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe b. Mathematically proved Heliocentric universe c. 3 laws of planetary motion: Orbits are elliptical Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun 3

4 Kepler s Model of the Solar System Kepler s Edifice of Astronomy, located on the frontispiece to his 1623 Rudolphine Tables E. The 17 th Century 1. Galileo Galilei ( ) a. Developed laws of motion using the experimental method -- acceleration -- inertia b. Use of the telescope validated Copernicus heliocentric theory Galileo s use of the telescope demonstrated that the moon was not a smooth orb, as had been previously thought. 4

5 c. Galileo s findings became controversial in the Catholic church -- Inquisition of Pope Urban VIII forced Galileo to retract his heliocentric views -- Galileo sentenced to house arrest 2. Francis Bacon ( ) a. Formalized empiricism that had already been used by Brahe and Galileo b. Inductive method for scientific experimentation Renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things. Frontispiece to the History of Royal Society of London. Bacon is located on the front right. 3. Rene Descartes ( ) a. Discourse on Method: advocated deductive method -- cognito ergo sum : I think, therefore I am b. Demonstrated relationship between geometry and algebra c. Cartesian Dualism: divided all existence into the spiritual and material --- The spiritual: logic -- Material: empiricism 5

6 4. Modern Scientific Method: Inductive method (Bacon) + Deductive method (Descartes) 5. Isaac Newton ( ) a. Integrated astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory on how the universe worked. b. Principle of universal gravitation: -- Detailed in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) -- More popularly known as Principia -- Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship -- Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God s active participation in the natural world is not needed to explain the forces of nature -- Ideas became basis of deism during the Enlightenment Memory Device for Scientific Revolution: C ops B ring K ids G reat B ig D onuts N ow Copernicus Brahe Kepler Galileo Bacon Descartes Newton 6

7 6. Anatomy and physiology a. Scientists began challenging Greco- Roman medical views (especially those of Galen) b. Vesalius: The Structure of the Human body (1543) -- Renewed and modernized the study of human anatomy c. William Harvey ( ) -- On the Circulation of Blood (1628): explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body d. Anton van Leeuwenhoek ( ) -- Father of microscopy -- First to see and write about microorganisms in water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries 7. Royal scientific societies a. Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology b. Scientists now could communicate with each other internationally c. The Royal Society in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; founded in 1660 d. Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by Peter the Great). 7

8 8. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution a. Led to the Enlightenment b. Improvements in exploration (e.g. John Harrison s chronometer gave mariners the ability to easily determine longitude) Harrison's "Sea Watch" No.1 (H4), with winding crank c. Experimentation helped accelerate the Agricultural Revolution d. Improvements in medical knowledge later led to medical advances (18 th and 19 th centuries) e. Contributed to the end of witch hunts f. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 18 th and 19 th century II. The Enlightenment (reached maturation by 1750) A. Secular world view emerged for the first time 1. Belief that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life 2. Belief in man s intellect apart from God 3. Faith in reason, not revelation 4. Deism: religious arm of the Enlightenment a. Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form b. Universe ran much like a clock c. Universe governed by natural law, not by a personal god d. Deism grew out of Newton s theories regarding natural law 5. Baruch Spinoza ( ): Philosopher who created a world view in which he equated God and nature 8

9 B. Belief that the scientific method could explain the laws of society -- Progress in society was possible through following natural laws C. John Locke ( ): greatest of the Enlightenment thinkers 1. Two Treatises on Civil Government, (1690) a. Philosophical defense for the Glorious Revolution in England b. State of nature: humans were basically good but lack protection -- Contrasts Hobbes view c. Governments provide rule of law but only through consent of the governed d. Purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of the people: life, liberty and property -- Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of natural rights e. Right to rebellion: people have a right to abolish a government that doesn t protect natural rights 2. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) a. One of the great works of the Enlightenment, along with Principia b. Stressed importance of environment on human development c. tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively 9

10 d. Saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions -- Contrasted Descartes view that people are born with certain basic ideas e. For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development. f. Undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful D. Ideal of toleration was popularized by scholars who made Enlightenment ideas accessible to the public 1. Bernard de Fontenelle ( ) a. Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad audience b. Stressed the idea of progress c. Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religion 2. Pierre Bayle ( ): Critical and Historical Dictionary, 1697 a. Advocated complete toleration of ideas A person should be free to worship any religion, or none at all Argued that religion and morality were not necessarily linked b. He was a skeptic: believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt Similar to Montaigne s earlier views c. His major criticism was of Christianity s attempt to impose orthodoxy. E. The Philosophes 1. Sought fundamental reform in society a. Popularizers of the Enlightenment b. Believed in progress in society through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence c. Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves 10

11 2. Voltaire ( ) a. Perhaps most influential of all the Enlightenment philosophers b. Deist who challenged traditional Catholic theology c. Inspired movement for change Hated bigotry and injustice and sought religious toleration Ecrasez l infame ( the infamous thing ) d. Believed in Enlightened despotism believing people were incapable of ruling themselves -- Ideas similar to Hobbes -- Influenced Frederick the Great, Catherine the great, Joseph II and Napoleon -- Believed in equality before the law but not in equality of the classes 3. Baron de Montesqueiu ( ) a. Nobleman who hated absolutism of Louis XIV b. Spirit of the Laws (1748): called for separation of powers in gov t into three branches -- Principles of checks and balances c. Significant impact on the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution in the 1780s 4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) a. Social Contract (1762) -- Believed too much emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice -- The general will, a consensus of the majority, should control the nation 11

12 b. Considered part of the Enlightenment but was also a founder of the Romantic movement c. State of nature: man was a noble savage but was corrupted by the materialism of civilization d. Emile (1762) -- Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; and self-expression 5. Denis Diderot ( ) Encyclopedia a. Perhaps greatest and most representative work of the philosophes b. Vast compendium of political and social critiques c. Popularized views of the philosophes d. Emphasized science and reason; criticized religion, intolerance, injustice, and tyranny e. Encyclopedia was banned in France and placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the pope 6. Marquis de Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764) a. Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law b. Opposed death penalty c. Opposed torture to extract confessions d. His ideas influenced Enlightened Despots: -- Frederick the Great banned torture -- Catherine the Great restricted it -- Joseph II banned torture and the death penalty F. Economic Theory 1. Francois Quesnay ( ) a. Leader of the physiocrats in France who opposed mercantilism b. Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting laissez faire in agriculture c. Believed gov t and nobility had too much control over land, thus stifling production 12

13 2. Adam Smith ( ): Wealth of Nations (1776) a. Considered the bible of capitalism b. Refined and expanded ideas of the physiocrats c. Believed the economy is governed by natural laws of supply and demand G. Women in the Enlightenment 1. Women played a major role in the salon movement a. Brightest minds of the era assembled to discuss major issues b. Some women took part in the discussions -- Madame de Geoffrin -- Madame de Staël -- Louise de Warens c. Geoffrin played a major role in patronizing Diderot s Encyclopedia d. Madame de Staël later brought German romantic ideas into France in the early 1800s 2. The philosophes favored increased rights and education for women -- Condorcet was the only figure who advocated suffrage for women 3. Mary Wollstonecraft ( ) in England promoted political and educational equality for women 13

14 H. Later Enlightenment (late 18 th century) 1. After 1750 became more skeptical (Hume and d Holbach even promoted atheism) 2. Paul d Holbach ( ) a. Argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces (determinism) b. His staunch atheism, determinism and attacks on Christianity undermined the Enlightenment 3. David Hume ( ) a. Argued against faith in both natural law and religion -- Argued desire, not reason, governed human behavior b. As a skeptic, Hume claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory experiences c. Undermined the Enlightenment s emphasis on reason 4. Nicolas de Condorcet ( ): Progress of the Human Mind a. His utopian ideas also undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas. b. Identified 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted the 10 th stage would bring perfection. 5. Rousseau: criticized rationalism and civilization as destroying the individual 6. Immanuel Kant ( ) a. Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment b. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge c. Argued science could describe nature but could not provide a guide for morality. 14

15 d. Categorical imperative was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience. -- Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond knowledge of science. -- Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself. I. Classical Liberalism 1. Political outgrowth of the Enlightenment a. Liberty of the individual and equality before the law but NOT democracy b. Natural rights philosophy of Locke played a role in the American and French Revolutions c. Impact of Locke and Montesquieu was clearly visible in the U.S. Constitution (e.g. separation of powers) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man during the French Revolution d. Rousseau s view of the general will influenced the French Revolution after Belief in laissez faire capitalism (Smith) a. Gov t should not interfere in the economy b. Opposite of mercantilism 3. Belief in progress (through reason and education), human dignity and human happiness 4. Religious toleration 5. Freedom of speech and the press 6. No cruel and unusual punishment 7. Equal treatment before the law J. New Christian groups opposed the Enlightenment 1. The secular and deist views of the Enlightenment caused a reaction among some Christian leaders who believed Christian spirituality was on the decline 2. German pietism: argued for spiritual conversion and religious experience 3. Methodism: sought spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate one has been born- again -- John Wesley ( ): founder 4. Jansenism in France argued against an impersonal god 15

16 K. Impact of Enlightenment on Society III. Enlightened Despotism 1. Emergence of a secular world view 2. Enlightened despotism in Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France (under Napoleon) 3. American and French Revolutions influenced by classical liberalism 4. Education reform in various countries 5. Growth of laissez faire capitalism in the 19 th century during the early industrial revolution in England and 19 th century America A. Philosophes inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots 1. Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people 2. Believed (like Hobbes) that people were not capable of ruling themselves B. Reforms were modest 1. Religious toleration 2. Streamlined legal codes 3. Increased access to education 4. Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty B. Frederick the Great (Frederick II, ) 1. Background a. Among the greatest German rulers b. Son of Frederick William I c. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment He considered French learning to be superior Patronized Voltaire; invited him to live in his court in Berlin Musician and poet 2. Wars of Frederick the Great a. The first 23 years of his reign were dominated by warfare b. War of Austrian Succession ( ) -- Cause: Prussia invaded Austria and occupied Silesia -- Violated the Pragmatic Sanction -- Frederick defeated Maria Theresa c. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle -- Prussia gained Silesia (and doubled Prussia s population in the process) -- Prussia recognized as the most powerful of all the German states and one of Europe s Great Powers 16

17 c. Seven Years War ( ) Cause: Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia and gained Russia and France as allies o Goal of Austria, Russia, and France was to conquer Prussia and divide its territories among the winners Maria Theresa and her family, 1754 Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 o France and Austria, traditional enemies, were now allies o Britain, a traditional ally of Russia, supported Prussia with money Bloodiest war of 18th century and bloodiest since the 30 Years War o Also included England and France s struggle for North America o Prussia was outnumbered by its enemies 15 to 1 o Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruptions to its society o Berlin was twice captured and partially destroyed by Russian troops o Prussia was on the verge of a catastrophic defeat 17

18 Tsar Peter III (an admirer of Frederick) pulled Russia out of the war o This saved Prussia from almost certain defeat o Peter was assassinated and replaced by Catherine II as a result Treaty of Paris (1763) o Most important treaty of the 18 th century and most important since Treaty of Westphalia (1648) o Prussia permanently retained Silesia o France lost all of its North American colonies to Great Britain o Britain gained territory in India The 2 nd Hundred Years War ( ) France vs. England Wars of Louis XIV War of the League of Augsburg ( ) War of Spanish Succession ( ) War of Austrian Succession ( ) Seven Years War ( ) American Revolution ( ) War of the First Coalition ( ) Napoleonic Wars ( ) 3. Enlightened reforms of Frederick the Great a. Frederick claimed that he saw himself as the first servant of the state The destruction of war encouraged Frederick to help improve society Yet, Frederick was an absolute ruler His reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state The peasantry did not really benefit from his reforms 18

19 b. Allowed religious toleration (although less so for Jews) Jews did not receive full rights until eight years after Frederick s death c. Promoted education in schools and universities Gains in primary education were modest d.codified and streamlined laws e.freed serfs on Crown lands Peasants were needed for the army Serfdom remained on noble lands although Frederick ordered an end to physical punishments f. Improved the state bureaucracy by requiring exams for civil servants g. Reduced censorship h. Abolished capital punishment (but not in the army) i. Encouraged immigration j. Encouraged industrial and agricultural growth 4. Yet, Prussia s social structure remained stratified a. Serfdom remained on non-crown lands b. The Junkers were the backbone of the Prussian military and the state The state did not recognize marriages between nobles and commoners. Nobles were not allowed to sell their lands to non-nobles. c. Middle class had trouble moving up D. Catherine the Great (Catherine II) of Russia (r ) 1. Background a. One of the greatest rulers in European history Perhaps the least enlightened of the Enlightened Despots b. Conspired against her husband Peter III to gain the throne. c. Lover of French culture and saw herself as a child of the Enlightenment Diderot lived in her court briefly 19

20 2. Pugachev Rebellion (1773) a. Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising Demanded an end to serfdom, taxes, and military conscription Landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia Pugachev was eventually captured and executed b. Catherine needed support of the nobility and gave them absolute control over serfs Serfdom spread to new areas (e.g. Ukraine) 1785, Catherine freed nobles from taxes and state service Confiscated Orthodox Church lands and gave them to her favorite officials Nobles reached their height while serfs were worse off 3. Catherine imported Western culture into Russia a. Architects, artists, musicians and writers were invited to Russia b. Culturally, Russia gained the respect of western European countries 4. Educational reforms a. Supported the first private printing presses -- Number of books published annually in Russia increased dramatically b. A school for noble girls founded 5. Restricted the practice of torture 6. Allowed limited religious toleration a. Stopped persecution of Old Believers b. Jews granted civil equality 7. Strengthened local gov t led by elective councils of nobles -- Yet, the crown not obligated to accept recommendations from councils 8. Shortcomings of Catherine s reforms a. Only the state and nobility benefited b. Serfdom became even more severe 20

21 9. Territorial growth under Catherine a. Annexed Polish territory through three Partitions of Poland: 1772, 1793, Poland s Diet was weak due to the Liberum veto b. Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea controlled by Tartars. c. Began conquest of the Caucasus d. Expansion provided new lands with which to give Russian nobles Partitions of Poland: D. Austria 1. Maria Theresa (r ) a. Inherited the throne from Charles VI Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: issued by Charles She was archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia Sought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule Conservative and cautious b. War of Austrian Succession As a female, she could not assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor o This cast doubts on her legitimacy as ruler of the Habsburg empire Though she lost Silesia, she saved her leadership of the empire o Gained support of the Hungarian nobility in defeating Bohemian revolt and preserving the empire 21

22 c. Centralized control of the Habsburg Empire Limited the power of the nobles Reduced serfdom Increased size of the empire s army Improved the tax system Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire Reduced torture in legal proceedings d. Brought the Catholic Church under state control Reduced papal influence in Austria Taxed the Catholic church Believed the Church and nobility were the foundations of the state e. Promoted economic development Hoped giving serfs freedom would make them more productive Abolished guilds Abolished internal tariffs Encouraged immigration Improved transportation Supported private enterprise f. Maria Theresa is not considered an Enlightened Despot despite numerous reforms She was not a fan of the Enlightenment Did not go as far as others in allowing religious toleration (although she allowed some tolerance for Protestants) 2. Joseph II (r ) a. Co-regent with Maria Theresa until 1780 b. Perhaps the greatest of the Enlightened Despots but also the least effective c. Major reforms Abolished serfdom and feudal dues Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews Reduced influence of the Catholic church 22

23 Freedom of the press (to some degree) Reformed the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens Abolished torture and death penalty Expanded state schools Established hospitals, insane asylums, poor houses and orphanages d. The Empire declined under Joseph s reign Austria was defeated several times by the Ottoman Empire The Austrian Netherlands were in revolt Russia was threatening Austria s interests in eastern Europe and Balkans Leopold II reversed many reforms in order to maintain effective control of the empire 23