3.2: FAULTY REASONING AND PROPAGANDA. Ms. Hargen
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1 3.2: FAULTY REASONING AND PROPAGANDA Ms. Hargen
2 PROPAGANDA Persuasion that deliberately discourages people from thinking for themselves. It relies on one-sided or distorted arguments.
3 HASTY GENERALIZATION Generalizations are general conclusions or opinions drawn from particular observations. Valid generalizations are based on sufficient evidence and carry required qualifying words like most, some, and generally. Hasty generalizations are conclusions or opinions based on insufficient evidence or that ignore exceptions. Example: John turned his paper in late today. John never turns work in on time. Analysis: Today may be the only time John has turned a paper in late. Basing a conclusion on only one observation is faulty reasoning.
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5 BEGGING THE QUESTION Assuming the truth of a statement before it is proven. Example: The reason everyone wants the new Tickle Time Elmo" doll is because this is the hottest toy of the season! Analysis: Everyone wanting the toy is the same thing as it being "hot," so the reason given is no reason at all it is simply rewording the claim and trying to pass it off as support for the claim.
6 CIRCULAR REASONING (A FORM OF BEGGING THE QUESTION) Arguing for a conclusion on the basis of a set of premises, where the truth of the premises assumes the truth of the conclusion. Example: My cult leader is infallible; he tells me so. I know what he tells me is true, because he s infallible.
7 BANDWAGON Technique that encourages people to act because everyone else is doing it. Bandwagon attempts to substitute peer or crowd pressure for analysis of an issue or action. Example: Vote for this proposal because all of your friends are voting for it! accompanied by no mention of why the proposal is worth supporting.
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9 NAME-CALLING (AD HOMINEM ATTACK) Labeling intended to arouse powerful negative feelings. Its purpose is to represent a particular person or group as inferior or bad without providing evidence to support the claim. Example: Vote against Marshall because he s a warmonger, tree hugger, preppie, and egghead. Blatant Examples: Commie Fascist Pig Yuppie Bum Terrorist Subtle Examples: social engineering radical cowardly counter-culture
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11 CARD-STACKING (CHERRY-PICKING) Card-stacking is based on half-truths. It presents only partial information in order to leave an inaccurate impression. All effective speakers emphasize information that supports their viewpoint. Good listeners withhold judgment until they hear the supporting details or the case for the other side. Example: This study showed that a hundred cancer sufferers who used homeopathy recovered. So it is established that homeopathy can cure cancer! (While failing to mention that the study had ten thousand subjects, the rest of whom did not respond to the cure ).
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13 GLITTERING GENERALITIES The use of vague, emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to approve something without closely examining the reasons. Example: John Jones has made this nation a better place. Analysis: There is no evidence given for how Jones has made this nation a better place. Example: Coach said to possible supporters, "We have the greatest team ever and it deserves your support. Analysis: There is no evidence given for why this team is the greatest and, therefore, deserves support.
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15 FALSE CAUSE (POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC) The fallacy committed when an argument mistakenly attempts to establish a causal connection. Example: As soon as Jones was elected, savings banks began to fail. Analysis: Jones s election is not shown to have a causal connection; they simply happened around the same time. Example: I stepped on a crack, and now my mother s back is broken.
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17 SLIPPERY SLOPE (ABSURD EXTRAPOLATION, CAMEL S NOSE, THIN EDGE OF THE WEDGE) Predicting that horrific consequences will follow from seemingly innocuous actions, through an incremental, stepby-step process. So, if we do A, this will inevitably result in action B, which will result in action C which will result in (typically horrific) action Z. Example: If the government bans students taking guns to school, next it will be ban any guns being taken to school. Next, it will ban anybody taking guns to any public places. Before you know it, the government will ban guns altogether! Analysis: Assumes that horrendous consequences will necessarily follow from smaller decisions.
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19 STEREOTYPE A stereotype is a biased belief about a whole group of people based on insufficient or irrelevant evidence. A stereotype ignores the individual. Good listeners reject stereotypes and demand specific information. Example: A coworker might say, Surely you don t plan to discuss the issue with the president of the company! Presidents are too interested in profit and personal gain to care about the problems of a single employee. Analysis: The listener assumes that all presidents disregard the problems of individual employees and, therefore, wouldn t be interested.
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