Ethan Goldberg, Brandeis University. Imitation as Innovation: Shaindele the Chanzante and. American Meritocracy

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1 Page 1 of12 Ethan Goldberg, Brandeis University Imitation as Innovation: Shaindele the Chanzante and American Meritocracy

2 Page 2 of12 On Yom Kippur eve in 1980, Jean Gornish lay dying of cancer at Sloan Kettering Hospital in New York. Though frail from the years of smoking that brought on the illness, she knew but one way to comfort her fellow terminal patients and welcome the solemn holiday. The orderlies assembled the floor of patients, and Jean Gornish otherwise known as Shaindele the Chazante comforted them by her heartfelt and earnest rendition of Kol Nidre, the best known and most beloved of Jewish cantorial works (Barsky). The case of Shaindele the Chazante ( ) is a curious result of conflicting American and Jewish values. Traditional Judaism since Talmudic times banned female vocal participation in worship, thus the institution of the cantorate (the trained singer who conducts Jewish worship services) had, until recently, been closed to women. When Judaism came to the United States, this value came into conflict with a strong tradition of female participation in church life and with American ideals of meritocracy and equality of opportunity. Produced out of this tension is the curious and fascinating character of Shaindele the Chazante. This paper briefly outlines these two conflicting values before giving a biography of Shaindele and a thorough musical analysis of her late 1950s album Shaindele Sings the Songs of Her People. The musical and aesthetic result of these conflicting tensions is Shaindele s imitation of the format and style of male cantors. The simple fact that she was a woman singing cantorial music was enough of a novelty; she imitated the familiar songs and singing of notable male cantors. Why had women been silenced in the synagogue? The answer can be traced to the Talmud, the body of Jewish civil and ceremonial law compiled in late antiquity. In the Tractate Brachot 24a, Samuel declares that Kol b isha erwah, a woman s voice is a sexual incitement (Berman). Samuel brings a proof-text from the Biblical love-poem Song of Songs (2:14) to support his statement: let me hear your voice because your voice is pleasant and appearance attractive, (Jachter). According to Samuel, if a woman s voice is pleasant and related to her attractive appearance, then it could be disruptive to prayer and is thus forbidden. The interpretation of Samuel s prohibition has been varied in time and place. As Rabbi Saul Berman explains, German Rishonim (early scholars) interpreted this ban to mean that a woman s voice could not be heard only while a man was saying the Shema (a central prayer of most Jewish services). Rishonim of North Africa and Spain interpreted the ban not on a woman singing, but on communication between a man and a woman who was sexually prohibited to him (like a close relative) that could lead to an illicit relationship. However, Acharonim (later scholars) interpreted the ban more broadly to mean that a woman s singing voice is a form of nudity and is prohibited under all circumstances at all times except in the private company of her husband. But Berman cites three 20 th century rabbinic deciders who seem to revert back to the earlier notion that the ban was based on context (a man saying the Shema) and not a wholesale prohibition of female singing or even speaking. Rabbi Yehiel Weinberg, in particular, allows mixed singing of zmirot (semi-liturgical hymns) by students for the sake of education and to not drive away women from the fold by depriving their rights (Berman 64). But even these more permissive authorities stop short of allowing a

3 Page 3 of12 woman to lead a congregation in tuneful prayer, a prohibition that exists to this day in normative Orthodox communities 1. This exclusion of women from the musical life of the tradition synagogue is in deep contrast to the practice of American churches in particular. In Europe, women s voices were rarely heard in church, either; Bach, Mozart and other notable composers of sacred music wrote for choirs of men and prepubescent boys who could affect the female voice. However, British and American Puritans, in their effort to increase congregational participation in the service, preferred mixed singing of unison tunes in English. An early observer recorded: You may sometimes see at St. Paul s Cross, after the service, six thousand persons, old and young, of both sexes, all singing together and praising God [emphasis added] (cited in Ryken 124). The Puritans brought this policy of mixed singing to America, where it doubtless influenced the musical development of American churches. The American attitude of mixed participation and even leadership is well exemplified by a contemporary of Shaindele, the famous Gospel singer Mahalia Jackson ( ). The daughter of a New Orleans pastor, Jackson got her start singing in Baptist churches in New Orleans and Chicago. Her success as a church singer led to recording contracts with Columbia Records in the 1940s. In the 1950s and 60s she brought Gospel music to the mainstream, performing on CBS radio and the Ed Sullivan show. An active supporter of civil rights, she sang the Gospel classic How I Got Over preceding Martin Luther King s I Have a Dream speech at the Lincoln Memorial in Concurrent with American church tradition, Jackson certainly never faced any religious objection to her singing in church, in fact her singing was particularly liked by religious figures like King ( Mahalia Jackson ). Traditional Judaism s prohibition of female cantors also conflicts with broader American ideals of equality of opportunity. This idea begins with the statement in the Declaration of Independence that life, liberty and the pursuit of Happiness are unalienable rights that governments must protect. In order to best protect the pursuit of Happiness, the notion of equality of opportunity became a large part of American political culture. The idea is well summarized by the economist Milton Friedman: No arbitrary obstacles should prevent people from achieving those positions for which their talents fit them and which their values lead them to seek. Not birth, nationality, color, religion, sex, nor any other irrelevant characteristic should determine the opportunities that are open to a person only his abilities. (Friedman 132). 1 Many 20 th century authorities have ruled that listening to a woman s voice on a recording or radio broadcast is not prohibited because it is merely a reproduction of the voice and the singer is not seen (Jachter). However, there is no indication that Shaindele attempted to use this loophole to be heard by Orthodox audiences, especially because she performed live to mixed audiences in addition to her recordings and broadcasts. 2 Accessible at

4 Page 4 of12 As further musical analysis will show, Shaindele was certainly talented and able to perform cantorial music will great skill and affect. But the irrelevant characteristic of her sex stopped her from singing this music in its original context of the synagogue. This is a clear conflict between the American values of equality of opportunity and the Jewish value of kol b isha erwah. Shaindele s background helps to explain what drove her to sing liturgical music. Born Jean Gornish in 1918 to a glatt 3 (strictly religious) family of eight children in Jewish South Philadelphia, Jean was steeped in Jewish music and relished in singing Sabbath zmirot. Throughout her childhood, Shaindele ( little pretty one, her given Yiddish name) grew to some notoriety in the Philadelphia Jewish community. Initially unsure of how to best use her magnificent voice, she had a short career as a lounge singer in northeast Philadelphia (with the stage name Julia Cornish ), over the objections of her parents. Her sister recalls Jean sneaking out of and into the house for these performances. But it very soon became apparent that her talent and aptitude were in the cantorial music of her childhood. Shaindele was a natural talent, never trained by any teacher or cantor. She learned by listening to the popular recordings of Cantor Yossele Rosenblatt, considered by many to be the finest cantor of the so-called golden age in the interwar period (Barsky). Her sister recalls Shaindele sitting meticulously over the recordings, emulating every trill and note 4. She was first heard on the radio in 1938 in Philadelphia, New York and Chicago. By the early 1940s, she was sponsored by Planter s Hi-Hat Peanut Oil, who set up regular concert and radio appearances (Barsky). A Yiddish poster from Philadelphia encouraged Jews to attend a live performance: In Person! Shaindele the Chazante who will astound you with her heartfelt prayers and Yiddish songs. It s been five years since you ve heard her on the radio. Five years that she has touched your hearts with her heartfelt prayers. For the first time, you will see her and hear her from a Jewish stage, performing the most beautiful prayers and songs 5 (See appendix 4). The reaction to her performances was overwhelmingly positive, with rave reviews from newspapers. The Chicago American proclaimed in a concert review: La Chazente elicited tears from those familiar with the literature heard in synagogues and even reached the hearts of those who never stepped into a Jewish temple. In her field she has no competitor and must be termed the Heifetz among cantors, (Cited by Kelman). A program from a Chicago concert perhaps overstated the situation. 3 The term glatt kosher did not enter American Jewish parlance until after World War II. Still, this was the term Shaindele s sister used to describe her family, still stalwarts of the Philadelphia Orthodox Jewish community. 4 For centuries, the only way to learn cantorial music was by apprenticeship to a cantor, which certainly was closed to women. The rise of the phonograph and the publication of cantorial records allowed women like Shaindele a way to learn the music privately, without needing to rely on training from a male cantor. 5 I am grateful to Professor Silvia Fucks Fried for her translation of the Yiddish.

5 Page 5 of12 Women stop their home duties; men hide in the back of their business counters, with their ears glued to the radio so that they will not miss a sound, a word, or a krechtz of Sheindele the Chazente s singing (See appendix 6). The only criticism was of the title chazante because she did not officiate in a synagogue. The Idisher Kuryer, a Chicago Yiddish newspaper, wrote: She is really not a chazente. She does not doven [conduct services] at a podium, and she fills no other functions like a chazen, (Cited by Kelman) In fact, despite some reports to the contrary, Shaindele never desired to officiate in a synagogue. Her sister put it well: Growing up the way we did, she knew her place, that is, she believed that women did not belong on the pulpit, and was content to perform cantorial music on the radio and in concert (Barsky). Shaindele s popularity on the Jewish radio and in concert in the 1940s led to the release of her only album Shaindele Sings the Songs of Her People. As the following musical analysis will show, Shaindele sought to imitate the style and affect of her male cantors. But first, her music must be put into context. In the post-war era, many American Jews began to suburbanize and thus found themselves outside of insular, majority- Jewish communities. A decline in synagogue attendance and Jewish literacy were not far behind. (Sarna 282) But, this so-called second generation of Jews held fond memories of the immigrant-orthodox synagogues of their parents and grandparents, including a taste and appreciation for cantorial music. Thus, for this generation, cantorial music became a form of high entertainment akin to attendance at the symphony or opera. In fact, two famous cantors of this era, Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker, split their time between the pulpit and the stage at the Metropolitan Opera. Tucker in particular published many records of concert cantorial music, written by his longtime colleague Shalom Secunda, and had many concert appearances in the Catskills at the Concord Hotel ( Shalom Secunda ) in addition to his many Operatic roles (Shisler). For Jews, this represented the synthesis of American and Jewish values they often sought. Tucker and Peerce navigated both worlds with ease, proving that a person could be successful in American and Jewish circles. Another example of this cultural synthesis is the 1956 publication of Perry Como s rendition of the beloved Kol Nidre melody 6 (Hirt-Manheimer). Como was a pop singer, and neither a cantor nor even Jewish. But his singing hearkened the listeners to their childhood musical memories, with the added approval of a bona fide American singer. This record demonstrates the entertainment and cultural, but not necessarily religious, values of published cantorial singing in this period. Shaindele s record fits this pattern, but it was by circumstance, not by choice. Tucker chose to perform both Opera and cantorial music in concert and in synagogue, his gender and talent allowed him to flow between the two worlds. Shaindele s birth into a committed, glatt family led her both to her love and aptitude for cantorial music (and not popular music) and to her conviction that a female cantor in a synagogue was forbidden (Barsky). She was, however, able to find ample audience 6 Accessible at

6 Page 6 of12 among this generation who had a taste and memory for the music, but had dropped at least enough of their Orthodoxy not to mind hearing it from a female voice. Shaindele s audience was familiar with the cantorial style of Tucker and his artistic predecessors like Yossele Rosenblatt, Dovid Roitman and Mordecai Hershman. In her published record and presumably in her concerts and radio broadcasts (no extant recordings from these have been located), Shaindele successfully and artfully imitated her male peers. By comparing her renditions of classic songs of her people to those of their male composer-performers, the large extent of the imitation becomes clear. In order to show the extent of the imitation in outward forms, let us compare Shaindele s album with a typical cantorial album of the period, Richard Tucker s Kol Nidre Service. The first level of imitation is in visual presentation. In short, the whole affect of the album s cover art is imitative of the albums of male cantors like Tucker. Shaindele is pictured in the white robe and skullcap of a male cantor. Her hair is cut short and is tucked into the skullcap. The jewelry she does wear is bulky and masculine. To give a Judaic feeling to the cover art, the name Shaindele is written in Hebraized English characters, just as Tucker appears alongside a talit (prayer shawl) and shofar (ram s horn), symbols of the synagogue on Yom Kippur. The intention to imitate the aesthetic of male cantors is clear (see appendix 1). Another point of imitation is with narration. In anticipation of the audience s affinity for the music but lack of Judaic knowledge, each number is prefaced with brief explanations in English, elucidating the history and shedding light upon the background of each hymn and prayer, the album s liner notes assure the customer. The function of these narrations was both to set the piece in context, as folk singers are want to do (Kelman), and to explain to the less knowledgeable listener about the meaning of the words. The liner notes anticipate the concern that a second generation Jew would have over listening to music in Hebrew and Yiddish, languages he might have once studied but might have forgotten. Tucker s album also precedes many of the songs with the same style of somewhat bombastic and melodramatic narrations that precede each song in Shaindele s album (see track 12 of companion CD). Finally, Shaindele imitated male cantors by her use of music director Abe Ellstein and producer Daniel Sloan. A name well known to everyone even remotely familiar with Yiddish music, (liner notes) Ellstein was considered one of the big four [composers] of Second Avenue of Jewish theatrical and liturgical music. Ellstein, who had studied at Julliard and toured the world with famous cantors and singers like Yossele Rosenblatt, Mordecai Hershman and Molly Picon, was a master composer and orchestrator of Jewish music ( Abraham Ellstein ). His music for Shaindele relies on the familiar mixed choir, organ and occasional strings and trumpets, just as he would have done for a male cantor. Daniel Sloan was a producer for Moishe Oysher, and Jan Peerce, two famous cantors of this era. Shaindele did not seek to innovate in her work, and working with Ellstein and Sloan shows her desire to imitate those who had also worked with them by relying on their expertise. It also demonstrates that Shaindele was not on the fringe of Jewish music and that she did not need to go beyond the artistic establishment to find people willing to support and work with her. Rather, wellestablished and experienced figures in Jewish music backed her talent.

7 Page 7 of12 Moving from outward forms to content of the album, her choice of songs are almost all imitative. On the surface, she presents none of her own compositions and only one song that was written for her. Five of the six selections on the album were written and performed by other male cantors. The very fact that she performed the repertoire of male cantors shows her desire to imitate them. The album includes the following selections (original composer-performer in parenthesis) (each selection is reproduced in full on the companion CD, along with the recordings of the original composer-performer): Side one: Rochel M vako Al Boneho (Dovid Roitman): This text from the Rosh Hashanah liturgy depicts the biblical Rachel weeping over her children, the exiled people of Israel. As the narrator describes the text, the choral soprano depicts the weeping Rachel. Shaindele s choice to sing this piece about a woman weeping for her children is particularly striking: perhaps it is a tacit signal that she is a woman in a traditionally male role. Still, there is nothing female about her rendition of this piece; it imitates what its male composer-performer sang. Mein Shtaitele (Ellstein-Lillian): This is a Yiddish song written by the conductor Ellstein reminiscing about life in Jewish Eastern Europe, similar to the songs Shaindele often sang to close her concerts. The opening and closing sections contain broad, metrical melody lines with lush string accompaniment. The middle section quotes a cantor singing as a part of the reminisce in recitative. Recording this song was a condition of Ellstein s agreement to arrange and conduct this album s music (Barsky). Ellstein was apparently confident that the album would sell well and attempted to popularize his song on its coattails. No other recording can be located, most likely because Ellstein died shortly after producing the album, and the song s intrinsic quality was not enough to ensure its continued performance. Tihair Rabbi Yishmael (Zavel Kwartin): The text for this piece comes from the Yom Kippur martyrology, and it describes the death of ten rabbis during the Hadrainic persecutions (Jacobs). The piece begins simply, with little choral embellishment and relatively monotonic chanting of the text. The drawn-out tones seem to wail out in morning for the martyrs. Towards the end, the singer seems to shout out passionately, repeating the name Rabbi Yishmael Cohen Gadol often with increasing fervor and with added Oy veys. The piece is written in the distinctively Jewish Freygish or Ahava raba mode, generally applied to texts of sorrow and lamentation (Gottlieb 141). In comparison to Kwartin s recording, Shaindele s singing is less rushed and more dynamic, reflecting a high level of taste and artistic nuance. Side Two: Annenu (Mordecai Hershman): The text for this piece also comes from the Yom Kippur liturgy; it pleads for God to answer the repentant sinners.

8 Page 8 of12 Ellstein s arrangement includes an interesting juxtaposition. The track begins with an instrumental, dramatic opening reminiscent of movie scores of the era (of which Ellstein wrote a few). Then, the choir hums in harmony the beloved Kol Nidre melody, as the narrator describes the mood and meaning of the day and text. The use of the familiar Kol Nidre theme connects the somewhat unfamiliar text and melody to Yom Kippur. The repetition of the imperative Annenu, Answer us, adds urgency to the plea. Shaindele s voice glides easily over the many runs, which Hershman attacks with more bravado and less nuance. Eli Eli (Jacob Koppel Sandler, Boris Thomashefsky): The album s liner notes incorrectly attribute the song as Traditional. This error exemplifies this song s classic status in Yiddish repertoire. Blending quotes from the bible, the singer cries out, asking why God has forsaken the Jewish people. While others like Rosenblatt sing the climax rethe mich rescue me with bravado and gusto, Shaindele s arrangement treats this point of the music with sweet modesty a simple, plaintive request as opposed to a harsh demand. Av Horachamim (Mordecai Hershman): This selection s text comes from the Sabbath Torah service. Shaindele s voice flows smoothly over Hershman s setting, with artful chorus and organ accompaniment. Shaindele chose to perform the songs of male cantors. But not only did she sing the same melodies as male cantors, her unique voice imitated theirs. Her voice range, as demonstrated on the album, is from C3 to C5, very low for a female voice. In fact, her range is best described as tenor, because her voice has the same timbre and range as a typical tenor voice. (See appendix 8) This unique, deep voice allowed her to successfully imitate male cantors, most of whom were tenors. Singers choose keys of songs to best suit their vocal range. Each voice is classified into a range that defines its most comfortable and expressive place. As Table 1 shows, Shaindele sang most of the songs in the same or similar key as her male counterparts. This shows that her vocal comfort range was the same as those of her male models, a unique circumstance that allowed her to imitate even the timbre, pitch and sounds of their voices. Table 1 Keys of Songs by Shaindele and male cantors Song Male key Shaindele Difference key Rochel M vakoh Al G minor (Dovid Roitman) F minor Whole step Boneho Mein Shtaitele No extant recording G minor Tihair Rabbi E Fraygish (Zavel Kwartin) F Fraygish Half step Yishmael Annenu G minor (Mordecai G minor Same Hershman) Eli Eli A minor (Yossele C minor Minor third

9 Page 9 of12 Eli Eli A minor (Yossele C minor Minor third Rosenblatt) Av Horachamim C minor (Mordecai C minor Same Hershman) So, Shaindele imitated male cantors in many ways in her album. In cover imagery, narration, use of famous cantorial composer-conductors and producers, the very fact that she sang the songs of famous male cantors, her tenor voice and the keys in which she sang her songs, Shaindele successfully and artfully emulated male cantors. It is tempting in analyzing Shaindele to call her the mother of the female cantorate, but this title fails for two reasons. First, Shaindele did not function as a cantor in a synagogue, and did not really open any doors to female participation in synagogue ritual or leadership. Secondly, as thorough analysis has shown, she imitated male cantors and did not attempt to put a feminine gloss on liturgical music. It would take a future generation of women cantors such as Faith Steinsnyder and Linda Hirschhorn to reformulate cantorial music to women s voices and sensibilities (See tracks of companion CD). It is clear that Shaindele emulated her male artistic predecessors. But why? Part of the answer lies in how she was raised. Her Orthodox upbringing had immersed her in traditional cantorial music. She grew up hearing this music, which became part of her own musical memory. Her failed attempts to sing popular music show that her voice and artistic sensibilities were firmly settled in the music of her childhood. In addition, imitation was how she learned the music in the first place. Because no self-respecting cantor would take on a female apprentice at this time, Shaindele was forced to learn by imitating recordings of Yossele Rosenblatt and others. She had no mentor to guide any potential artistic development, so she simply skillfully imitated what already existed. Furthermore, in order to be a successful performer, she needed to imitate what others did, in order to legitimize her actions. Had she innovated with new melodies or with a higher-pitched voice (as women cantors who came after her did), it would have been foreign to her audience and thus dangerous to her commercial success. Her audience, with their own musical memories, had a very definite idea as to what cantorial music was, and she need to skillfully present it to be considered legitimate. Americans value meritocracy, and Shaindele needed to prove that she had sufficient talent to present challenging, traditional cantorial works and not simply to perform her own unknown and untested compositions. Finally, quite simply, there were no female role models for her to emulate, so she imitated the popular and successful male cantors. The case of Shaindele is thus an example of the results of conflicting tensions between American and Jewish values. American values of equality of opportunity, and the Puritan-influenced inclusion of women in American church music clashed with Jewish values that considered women s voices to be incitement to sin. When Shaindele wanted to perform cantorial music, she looked to imitate her male peers, and did in many artistic ways. Her success also comments on the taste and attitude of this generation of American Jews. They had given up enough of their Orthodoxy not to mind listening to a woman sing, but still sought authentic Jewish entertainment. Neither fully traditional nor fully assimilated, this generation was intrigued by a

10 Page 10 of12 traditional thing done in an untraditional, American way. Her music was traditional and meticulous, but the very fact that she was a woman in this traditionally male realm was enough to make her a beloved performer and an important, if overlooked, figure in the history of American Jewish music.

11 Page 11 of12 Works Cited "Abraham Ellstein." The Milken Archive of American Jewish Music. 11 Dec < Barsky, Honey. "My Sister Shaindele." Personal interview. 28 Nov Berman, Rabbi Saul. "Kol 'Isha." Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein Memorial Volume (1981): Saul Berman. 7 Nov Yeshivat Chovevei Torah. 11 Dec < Edelman, Marsha B. Discovering Jewish Music. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, Friedman, Milton, and Rose D. Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal Statement. Belmont: Cengage Learning, Gottlieb, Jack. Funny, It Doesn't Sound Jewish: How Yiddish Songs and Synagogue Melodies Influenced Tin Pan Alley, Broadway, and Hollywood. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, Hershman, Mordecai. "Aneinu." Fifty Minutes with Mordecai Hershman. Vinyl recording. Shirim Records. Dartmouth Jewish Sound Archive. Dartmouth University. 11 Dec < Hershman, Mordecai. "Av Horachamim." The Seventh Day. Vinyl recording. Collector's Guild Jewish Music Archives, Judaica Sound Archives Florida Atlantic University Library. 11 Dec < a_num&queryvalue=400863&artisttext=hershman&artist=contains&titletext=&ti tle=contains&selectgenre=&selectlanguage=&musiconly=&id=&select=title&sid e=&track=&fetch=&pagenum=1&return=searc>. Hirt-Manheimer, Aron. "Sounds of Kol Nidre: A conversation with Marsha Bryan Edelman." Reform Judaism Online. Fall Reform Judaism Magazine. 11 Dec < Jachter, Rabbi Howard. "The Parameters of Kol Isha." Rabbi Jachter's Halacha Files. 2 Feb Isaac and Mara Benmergui Torah Academy of Bergen County. 11 Dec < Jacobson, Rabbi Louis. "The Ten Martyrs." My Jewish Learning Dec < ppur_community/prayer_services/ten_martyrs.htm>. Kelman, Ari Y. . to the author. Kelman, Ari Y. "The Girl in the Silk Skullcap." Guilt and Pleasure Fall 2007: Dec < &id=72>. Kwartin, Zavel. "Tihair Rabbi Yishmael." Golden Voices of Israel. Vinyl recording. RCA Victor, Save the Music. The Jewish Music Archive. 11 Dec < "Mahalia Jackson." Women in History. 25 Jan Lakewood Public Library. 11 Dec <

12 Page 12 of12 Richard Tucker. Kol Nidre Service. Vinyl recording. Dartmouth Jewish Sound Archive. Dartmouth University. 11 Dec < Roitman, Dovid. "Rochel M'vakoh Al Boneho." The Art of Cantor David Roitman. Vinyl recording. Collector's Guild Jewish Music Archives, Judaica Sound Archives Florida Atlantic University Library. 11 Dec < a_num&queryvalue=402290&artisttext=roitman&artist=contains&titletext=&title =contains&selectgenre=&selectlanguage=&musiconly=&id=&select=title&side= &track=&fetch=&pagenum=1&return=search>. Ryken, Leland, and J. I. Packer. Worldly Saints : The Puritans As They Really Were. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, Sarna, Jonathan D. American Judaism: A History. New York: Yale UP, Shaindele. Shaindele Sings the Songs of Her People. Rec. Circa Vinyl recording. Margot Records. "Shalom Secunda." Save the Music. Jewish Music Archive. 11 Dec < Shisler, Rabbi Geoffrey. "Richard Tucker." Chazzanut Online. 30 Apr Dec < Slobin, Mark. Chosen Voices: The Story of the American Cantorate. New York: University of Illinois P, 2002.