CHAPTER- II HISTORICAL ASPECTS

Transcription

1 CHAPTER- II HISTORICAL ASPECTS

2 !9 Northrop Frye, the eminent Canadian structuralist, makes a significant comment on historical fiction in his magnum opus: Historical fictions are not designed to give insight into a period of history, but are exemplary; they illustrate action and are ideal in the sense of manifesting the universal form of human action. (The vagaries of language make "exemplary" the adjective for both example and precept). Shakespeare and Johnson were keenly interested in history, yet their plays seem timeless; Jane Austen did not write historical fiction, yet, because she represents a later and more externalized method of following nature, the picture she gives of Regency Society has a specific historical value. (Anatomy ofcriticism:four Essays 84) Historical approach advocates the parallel reading of literary and nonliterary texts, usually of the same period; in other words, the non -literary text becomes a co-text of the literary text. The literary text is not privileged against the background of historical and non-literary texts. The textuality of history and the historicity of texts are given equal weight in historical approach. In this approach, history, social, political, cultural as well as literary, provided the context for understanding literary text. As V.A. Shahane says about "Historical Reality and Art": The problem of how historical sense and reality enter into the sphere of art is important in any long-term and lasting assessment of the achievement of Indo-Anglian writers. This historical reality, in terms of time and space, forms part of a work of art and is

3 20 transmuted in the process of giving it a creative expression. This process enables it to achieve under dimension of universality: literature can no longer be considered in isolation from its social implications, cultural and moral value and racial ethos. (Khushwant Singh 30) The very word history comes from the Latin word 'historia'. According to The Oxford English Dictionary history means "That branch of knowledge which deals with past events, as recorded in writings or otherwise ascertained; the formal record or the past, especially of human affairs or actions; the study of the formation and growth of communities and nations." Webster's Third New International Dictionary defines history as: "A systematic written account comprising a chronological record of events (as affecting a city, state, nation, institution, science, or art) and usually including a philosophical explanation of the cause and origin of such events". Encyclopedia Americana mentions: The term history, in popular usage, has been applied to two somewhat different concepts. It is often used to designate the sum total of human activities. When used in this sense one often hears the remark at a particularly active or critical period in human events that "now history is being made". A mere common usage is that which regards history as the record of the events themselves. In this latter generally accepted connotation given to the term history, two definitions may be offered. In an objective sense history is, to usc the words of James Harvey Robinson, "all we know about everything man has ever done, or thought, hoped, or

4 21 felt". Subjectively expressed, history may be regarded as a record of all that has occurred within the realm of human consciousness. (Encyclopedia Americana 205) In the world of Indian novels in English, a great number of historical novels have emerged in recent times. To cherish the memories of bygone days, many Indo-English novelists have turned to the past to trace the deepening mood of nationalism. There is a great impact of the historical milieu on a writer in which he lives and wishes to associate himself with the historical periods by choice. A novelist may use history as a conscious effort, or sub-consciously. The setting of the novels like Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan, I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, Delhi, Chaman Nahal's Azadi, Bapsi Sidhwa's Ice Candy Man, Manohar Malgoankar's A Bend in the Ganges is in the context of some historical framework. Sometimes a novelist may place his action in an imaginary setting to imply a special metaphysical or political point of view, e.g. William Golding's Lord of the Flies, George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty - Four. The author also creates the country through his powerful imagination, as for example Joseph Conrad's Nostromo. Such a novel is regarded as the work of Utopia. R.K. Dhawan remarks: Modern deconstructionists would easily discuss them as exercises in self-depiction. Utopias make fine reading; their relevance to the immediate problem in hand is more of an escapist nature suggesting remedies neither available nor practical. The historical novel represents no surface wave of escapism, but a deep, unconscious movement towjrds national homogeneity.

5 22 (Three Contemporary Novelists3). The actual day-to-day problems of life can be encountered, examined, exposed, challenged and rectified in the historical novel. Historical novel has two vital virtues - entertainment and instruction. The factual and informational values of history illuminate the subject and increasingly sharpen the reader's curiosity. Indeed, a true artist or novelist can serve several purposes through the help of history. The proper amalgamation of history and literature marks the novelist as a creative genius. But the question arises: how far is history relevant in a work of art, like novel In fact, in the sphere of art, historical sense and reality are inseparable. They are the important factors in oetermining the ultimate value of a given piece of art. In a sense, every novelist tries to preserve a period in a book; in other words, every novelist is a historical novelist. A writer of a historical novel, at the same time plays the role of a writer as well as a historian. But as a historian there is some limitation. The author of the novel or fiction is not free to alter history; factual accuracy has to be maintained strictly. Chaman Nahal, says in "Felling oftime Past". Here in lies the additional burden, that a historical novelist places on the artist. The novelist is obliged to do careful research into the period he has chosen for presentation and every detail of that period has to be accurate. (Three Contemporary Novelists 8). The detailed knowledge of a geographical region is not sufficient to an author, but he should also have particular information about the people living in that region, their mode of speech. their dress, their food habits, their peculiar traits

6 23 and countless other characteristics of that particular community. Too much history in the plot of novel, or too many historical figures among the leading characters makes the novel hazardous. A great majority of characters that have an independent historical reality can hardly be made agreeable to the author's design or the demands of the plot. So on one hand, history puts the author at a disadvantage. The most challenging part of writing a history novel is the interaction of historical and fictional characters and the interaction of the two kinds amongst themselves. The historical novel got immense popularity in the nineteenth century. Walter Scott was one of them whose creative pen placed the historical novels at a sublime height. The French Revolution was a great inspiration for the Victorian novelist, Charles Dickens. He efficiently and successfully made use of history in A Tale of Two Cities. It is an excellent work of art with a panoramic background. In a nutshell, the novel represents the dramatic life of a few individual characters, interwoven with the interest of a catastrophic public event. The two world wars, the shameful act of human civilization left great impact on the writers, who insisted on writing significant fiction - Eric Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, Ernest Hamingway's A Farewell to Arms, Herman Wouk's The Cain Mutiny. In fact, in the twentieth century, the historical novels have been much appreciated by the novelists. Novelists are more interested in revolution or foreign occupation than in the day to day life of middleclass people, their manners and morals in a relatively stable society. As R.K. Dhawan comments:

7 24 A case of point is J.G. Farrell's new novel, The Singapore Grip, a trilogy about the decline of the British Empire. Great political movements, conflicts or revolutions are the warp and woof of a historical novelist and good writers are mediumistic to the deeper stirrings of the life of their time or to an event of the past. Apart from Gone with the Wind, the historical novels of the twentieth century which may be termed classics are Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace and Boris Pasternak's Dr. Zhivago. The first is related to Napoleon's invasion of Russia; the second describes the failure of the Revolution of Failure of modem Britain to find some great fictional theme could be attributed to history itself than on writers of the age. (Three Contemporary Novelist 5). The major part of the Indian novels have been written in response to historical events or movements, such as the Gandhian movement, imperial rule, partition of the country. The nation was boiling and massive freedom movement for liberation from the British rule was raging in the country. The British Government was exploiting India and they were not ready to withdraw their rule from the country. The freedom struggle was long and tough. The freedom struggle is not only great commitment to the Indian writers but to the entire nation. Contemporary writers could not escape from the impact of the great movement. The novels written, either in Indian language or in English during the freedom movement, reflect the indispensable spirit of the people devoted to the great cause of freedom. This sprit is truly reflected in the novels of

8 25 the period: Raja Rao's Kanthapura, Mulk Raj Anand's Coolie, K.A. Abbas' Inquilab, D.F. Karka's We Never Die and C.N. Zutshi's Motherland. Most of the novels written before The First World War were confined to religious aestheticism. After the war, the focus shifted to contemporary sociopolitical concerns. The novels dealing with the freedom struggle give a real picture of exploitation and the limitless cruelty of the British rulers, as well as the portrayal of an awakened people struggling for their birthright. The growth of the historical novel coincided with the intensification of the struggle for India's freedom. Indeed, the English, who had brought with them the fruits of knowledge of the west, inspired the Indian soul to imbibe the spirit of nationalism. The English had introduced successfully law, administration, finance and education in India in the early decades of the century. Ironically enough, all this resulted in generating a sense of national unity, which in later stages instigated them the Indians to fight for freedom. Generally, there is a significant role of the intellectuals, philosophers, historians and literary artists in all-national revolutions of the world. R.K. Dhawan aptly remarks, "Not only do they reach the minds of the people through their writings, they also subject every institution of the society to a specific political philosophy and thought that propagates their point of view". (Three Contemporary Novelists 6) The writers always have an intrinsic quality and ability to look beyond their time. Hither, the Indo-English novelists were most responsive to the call of equality, freedom and human rights. It is the writers whose writings make the common man socially. politically and culturally conscious. There were a good number of novels written during the period that portrayed the injustice of the

9 26 British rule and the grim fight of the people who were determined to kick out the foreigners. Politics became synonymous with nationalism. As evident from the writing of Indo-English novelists, the partition of the sub-continent was no doubt the most important historical event of our age. In 1947, the English left the country after dividing it into two parts. Existing religious and political differences between Hindus and Muslims climaxed with the partition and caused widespread disturbances, causing destruction of human life on a scale unprecedented in recent history. Communal violence broke out in West Punjab. At least one million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims lost their lives. There was a large-scale migration of people from one country to the other. In the process, thousands were massacred; women were raped; children flung on spears and property looted on a vast scale. Like the other Indian writers, Indo-English novelists respond to these wents with a sense of horror. A large number of novels were written on the theme of partition, the destruction it brought and the pathetic condition of the refugees. The novelists skillfully record the reign of violence and the complete destruction of human values. K.K. Sharma and B.K. Johri comment: We, however, have some brilliant novels written about it... several Indian-English fictionists, who have dealt with the theme of partition as competently as their counterparts in Hindi and Urdu and are in no way inferior to Yasphal, the writer of Jhuta Sach, Bhisham Sahni of Tamas and Masum Raza Rahi the writer of Adha Gaon. Novelists like Khushwant Singh, Manohar Malgonkar and Chaman Nahal stand out prominently among those who have treated the theme of partition in detail, while R.K. Narayan,

10 27 Balchandra Rajan and Attia Hosain deal with it cursorily in their novels. (The Partition in Indian English Novels 2) Indeed, Khushwant Singh, Chaman Nahal; Manohar Malgonkar and Salarnan Rushdie have made a specific use of history. The freedom movement anc partition are the most important and greatest historical incidents of contemporary India. But the western writers cannot fully perceive the tragic suffering effected by partition. R.K. Dhawan rightly says: E.M. Forster, publishing his Passage to India in 1924, is completely silent about this movement. George Orwell has written of the imperialism in Burma and Leonard Woolf, in his three-volume autobiography, of imperialism in Sri Lanka. There are scattered memoirs of the partition who lived in India but they are mostly in the form of nostalgia that depicts the comforts they enjoyed here. None of these writers, not even Kipling, who is said to have identified himself so closely with India, foresaw that in a few years' time this empire, the greatest Jewel in the British crown (to borrow a title from Paul Scott) would come to an end. (Three Contemporary Novelist 8). Mahatma Gandhi gave a new dimension to the freedom movement. The l\ational Movement (from 1920s) acquired the spectrum of a broad river which kept on expanding until the British were thrown out of India. But the independence came with partition. Mahatma Gandhi himself did not support the idea of partition.

11 28 Thus we see how people were separated from the mam body of the country, analysed, labelled and given a separate distinct status. As Jawahar La! Nehru comments that any proposal to cut up India into parts was a painful one to contemplate; it went against all those deeply felt sentiments and convictions that move people so powerfully. But its social, historical and cultural heritage is remained unscathed and the writers are totally coloured by the socio-historical scene. Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan may remain the most comprehensive description of this catastrophic human situation. Khushwant Singh was greatly moved by the harsh events during those turbulent days. He felt thoroughly disillusioned with the contemporary situation. His faith in the fundamental virtue of mankind was totally shaken: The beliefs that I had cherished all my life were shattered. I had believed in the innate goodness of the common man. But the division of India had been accompanied by the most savage massacres known in the history of the country... I had believed that we Indians were more concerned with matters of the spirit, while the rest of the World was involved in the pursuit of material things. After the experience of autumn of 1947, I could no longer subscribe to these views. I became... an angry middle-aged man, who wanted to shout his disenchantment with the world... I decided to try my hand at writing. Q::!ot a Nice Man to Know: The Best of Khushwant Singh 5).

12 29 Partition, the bloodiest upheaval in Indian history, claimed countless lives and loss of human values. Khushwant Singh was a witness to the massacre in the wake of partition of the country. Indeed, the deeply distressing experience made Khushwant Singh restless and in order to give expression to his feeling, he wrote Train to Pakistan. Singh writes, "the partition theme was born out of a sense of guilt that I had done nothing to save the lives of innocent people". (Not a Nice Man to Know : The Best of Khushwant Singh 5). In this context Khushwant Singh can be compared with Joseph Conrad who as a young boy left Poland, which was then ruled by Russia, and who later on always carried a feeling of guilt of having betrayed his own country, by not coming forward to the rescue of his own countrymen. Khushwant Singh has taken a cover of weather, in the opening para of the novel Train to Pakistan. "The summer of 1947 was not like other Indian summers"( Train to Pakistan 1 ). This summer preceded the date of partition, the date of India's Independence, August 15, And the effect of partition was not simply the birth of two nations, but the growing tension in every home hearth and exploding into bloody riots, turning one time friends into permanent foes, men into beasts, seeking blood of their own kith and kin, on both sides of the newlycreated Indo-Pak border. According to the Hindu perception of misery, natural calamity is a punishment to the people for the sins of their earlier life. Believing this perception, Khushwant Singh develops the narrative: Even the weather had a different feel m India that year. It was hotter than usual, and drier and dustier. And the summer was longer. No one could remember when the monsoon had been so

13 30 late. For weeks, the sparse clouds cast only shadows. There was no rain. People began to say that God was punishing them for their SinS. Some of them had good reason to feel that they had sinned. The summer before, communal riots, precipitated by reports of the proposed division of the country into a Hindu India and a Muslim Pakistan had broken out in Calcutta, and within a few months the death roll had mounted to several thousands. Muslims said the Hindus had planned and started the killing. According to the Hindus, the Muslims were to blame. The fact is both sides killed. Both shot and stabbed and speared and clubbed. Both tortured. Both raped. (Train to Pakistan 9). It was then simply a proposal of partition being hotly discussed between the Congress and the Muslim League. Mohammed Ali Jinnah and his party went against Mahatma Gandhi by supporting partition. While the partition issue was being fought intellectually with arguments for and against by opposing and supporting groups among the Hindus and the Muslims, the Calcutta riots had spread to Noakhali (now in Bangladesh, earlier in East Bengal and later in East Pakistan) where "Muslims massacred Hindus and Hindus massacred Muslims. Mullahs roamed the Punjab and the Frontier Province with boxes of human skulls said to be those of the Muslims killed in Bihar" (Train to Pakistan 9). Mana Majra. a remote village in the Punjab serves as the fictional setting of Train to Pakistan. lt is situated on the India-Pakistan border, half mile away

14 31 from the river Sutlej. Although traditionally devoid of political consciousness, the village emerges as a microcosm of India. The Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus are living together in harmony and amity. Partition does not yet have much significance to them: "no one in Mano Majra even knows that the British have left and the country is divided into Pakistan and Hindustan" (Train to Pakistan 33). As Hindus and Sikhs fight against their Muslim brothers for a political stronghold in the nation, so the villagers traditional ways of life progressively disintegrate into selfishness, mistrust, and cruelty. The divided country symbolizes a transition in civilization from spirituality to secularization, a transition that necessarily entails great physical and spiritual agony. The fractured Independence that India attained does not appear to have carried any appeal to the people in the countryside. It would be interesting to look into the scene where the Lambardar and a Muslim in the village have to comment on the issue of freedom to Iqbal Singh, a social reformer, who poses a question to them: "why, don't you people want to be free? Do you want to remain slaves all your lives?'' (Train to Pakistan 62). After a long silence the Larnbardar answers: Freedom must be a good thing. But what we will get out of it? Educated people like you, Babu Sahib, will get the jobs as the English had. Will we get more lands or more buffaloes? 'No', the Muslim said. Freedom is for the educated people who fought for it. We were slaves of the English, now we will be slaves of the educated Indians or the Pakistanis. (Train to Pakistan 62).

15 32 Indeed, freedom does not signify much to the ignorant village people. More buffaloes and more lands are the only things which make their life comfortable. To a question from Iqbal Singh to the Lambardar as to what is going to happen in the country, the Lambardar answers angrily: The winds of destruction are blowing across the land. All we hear is kill, kill. The only ones who enjoy freedom are thieves, robbers and cutthroats. Then he added calmly. We were better off under the British. At least there was security. (Train to Pakistan 64). The above speech of Lambardar confirms that the Independence through partition meant nothing hopeful to common people, but bloodshed and robberies. It has no value, at least they were in better situation under the British rule. The partition took place on August 15, 1947 and there was disturbance across the country. But the village like Mano Majra largely remained peaceful, except for gossiping and information about brutalities and violence. But early in September, the tempest of partition made differences to such villages as well. Here Khushwant Singh speaks about the changing scenario of the village Mano Majra: Early in September the time schedule in Mana Majra started going wrong. Trains became less punctual than ever before and many more started to run through the alarm clock had been set for the wrong hour. On others, it was as if no one had remembered to wind it. Imam Baksh waited for Meet Singh to make the first start. Meet Singh waited for the mullah's call to prayer before getting up. People stayed lfi bed without realising that times had changed and

16 33 the mail train might not run through at all. Children did not know when to be hungry, and clamoured for food all the time. In the evenings, everyone was indoors before sunset and in bed before the express came by - if it did come by. Goods trains had stopped running altogether, so there was no lullaby to lull them to sleep. Instead, ghost trains went past at odd hours between midnight and dawn, disturbing the dreams ofmano Majra. (Train to Pakistan 92-93). The novelist ironically brings out the fact that while trains to Pakistan were getting safe passage from India, trains from Pakistan were adding fuel to the raging fire. It is the arrival of a ghost train from Pakistan loaded with hideously butchered corpses of Sikh and Hindus, which creates commotion in Mana Majra. This instantly inflames the communal frenzy of the people in Mano Majra. Hukum Chand, the Magistrate and Deputy Commissioner of the district, is acutely conscious of the calamitous situation. He is highly sensual; his primary motivation being hedonistic. He is a typical representative of contemporary bureaucracy in India under the British Raj. He would like to escape from the situation of communal violence. Hukum Chand wanted to know from the subinspector whether there was any communal trouble in the area. The sub-inspector comments, "We have escaped it so far, Sir. Convoys of Sikhs and Hindu refugees' from Pakistan has come through and some Muslims have gone out, but we have had no incidents." (Train to Pakistan 29). But Hukum Chand, the magistrate seems to be more infonned than the sub-inspector. He tells the police officer: "Do you know the Sikhs retailed by attacking a Muslim refugee train and sending it

17 34 across the border with over a thousand corpses? They wrote on the engine Gift to Pakistan". (Train to Pakistan 29-30). The sub-inspector thoughtfully answers: They say this is the only way to stop killing on the other side. Man for man, woman for woman, child for child. But we Hindus are not like that. When it comes to an open fight, we can be a match for any people. I believe our RSS boys beat up Muslim gangs in all the cities. The Sikhs are not doing there share. They have lost their manliness. They just talk big. (Train to Pakistan 30). The above lines suggest that Mano Majra had a peaceful life. But the subinspector was more concerned about the Sikh pride than maintaining the law and order. The sub-inspector's observation in this context is significant as he is talking to no less a person than a magistrate. But Magistrate Hukurn Chand is equally concerned on reports of indiscriminate brutal killings in Rawalpindi, Multan, Gujranwala and Sheikhupura. Hukurn Chand desperately tries to conceal the bloody evidence to avoid inevitable retaliation upon the local Muslims. But he seems helpless to do anything to prevent bloodshed. Sikhs in the village are rash and impulsive: "Logic was never strong point with Sikhs; when they were roused, logic did not matter at all''. (Train to Pakistan 142). As a precautionary step Muslims of the area are taken to the refugee camp at Chundunnuggcr, subsequently to be transported to l'ak is tan.

18 35 Hukum Chand is terror-stricken and visibly perturbed on the tum of the events. Realizing that the situation is getting out of control, Hukum Chand orders the release of Jugga and Iqbal who had been intentionally arrested. They, he thinks might exert some influence on the misguided youth and save hundreds of Muslims from being butchered. After securing his freedom, Jugga finds Mano Majra changed. He finds that all Muslims have quit the village for the refugee camp. Jugga's immediate concern is the fate of his beloved Nooran. When Jugga comes to know that there is a conspiracy and learns that the train to be attacked is carrying his sweetheart Nooran, he decides to do something to save the lives of the Muslim passengers ultimately, he averts the attack at the cost of his own life. The title, Train to Pakistan, is very suggestive. It symbolises partition having taken effect, movement of the people from India to the newly created Pakistan for a new destination, amid excitement, agony, fear, loot, rape and turmoil. The train to Pakistan went on to Pakistan safely, thanks to the supreme sacrifice by a gallant Sikh, a lifetime criminal, who in his deep love for Nooran, his beloved, who, too, was in the train along with her folk heading for Pakistan, turns a martyr. The expression; "The train went over him and went on to Pakistan"( Train to Pakistan 207) the concluding sentence of the novel, is very suggestive, poignant and meaningful. Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan deserves a high position in Indo-Anglian Literature. Through the transformation of history into art form, the author shapes and orders an event, which, in its overpowering reality, is difficult to grasp. The effects of such a complex and heartfelt Situation thus assumes new meaning by creative and imaginative intensification.

19 36 I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, the second novel of Khushwant Singh, published in the year 1959, also has a historical back drop. The action of the novel takes place during the war years, from April 1942 to April In terms of Indian history, the freedom movement or Quit India movement has a great significance. Khushwant Singh treats the plot realistically and the novel has its roots in the freedom movement. As S.K. Dubey says: Though it does not probe deep into any political ideology and also does not subscribe to any political point of view, besides giving a very inadequate details about the freedom movement, it does give us a peep into the life and atmosphere during that period. It does give some details about the countrymen's longing for freedom and attempt by some enthusiastic young men preparing for terrorist activities to free the nation from the foreign yoke. (Khushwant Singh : A Critical Study of His Novels 67) It was the period when the Quit India movement had been launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 with bewildering experiments in non-violence. In Train to Pakistan, Khushwant Singh has successfully pointed out that the fabric of Mahatma Gandhi's non-violence was instantly turned to pieces when large scale violence with mass killings suddenly broke out in the wake of partition. In fact, the two novels give a vivid picture of the agonising past. I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale tells us about 'The preparations by a group of educated young men in terrorist methods to free the nation from slavery'. During the freedom movement, two streams of thought were at work, the terrorist group kn0\\11 as 'Garamdal' and the non-violent group known as 'Naramdaf. In

20 37 the novel, Khushwant Singh presents the colonial encounter between Indians and the British Government against the background of Punjab. Punjab, the land of five rivers is known for its own distinctive geographical features, its military history and Sikh religion. Khushwant Singh tries to give a very microscopic picture of the Punjabi life at the time of the freedom struggle. The colonial encounter between the Indians and the British was moving towards a climax on account of the emergence of nationalistic consciousness among the Indians. There had been a mixed reaction among Indians towards the British Raj. Khushwant presents a microscopic picture of the strange mixture of attitude to the alien rule through the depiction of life in Amritsar district. In the novel, Khushwant Singh explores the conflicts and tensions between pro-british and anti-british ideologies that arise in the family of a Sikh Magistrate, Buta Singh. For example, Buta Singh has great admiration for the British rule in India: Loyalty to the Raj had been as much an article of faith with him as it had been with his father and grand father who had served in the army. He, like them, had mentioned the English king or queen in his evening prayer, '0, Guru', bless our sovereign and bless us, their subjects so that we remain contented and happy. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 25) Buta Singh tells his son that the Indian should help the British in their war against the Germans and other European powers: I do believe that in this war our interests and that of the English are identical. If they lose, we lose. If we help them to win, they will

21 38 certainly give us something more than we have now. We should know who are our friends and who are our enemies. The English have ruled us for over a hundred years, and I don't care what you say, I believe they have treated us better than our own kings did in the past; or the Germans, Italians or Japanese will do if they win and take over India. We should stand by the English in their hour of trouble. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 24) Buta Singh's attitude to life is opportunistic. He always wants to secure himself. He enjoys the confidence of the Deputy Commissioner, John Taylor. John Taylor says: 'I wish other Indians talked like you, Buta Singh! I rely on you to guide them. I do not anticipate any trouble today but one never knows. A small incident may lead to a major riot. There are some politicians looking for trouble. I am told there are many meetings this afternoon'... The Superintendent of Police informs me that your son has also organized meeting of students. I told him not to bother about him. "If he is Buta Singh's son," I said "we can trust him, even if he is a Nationalist or a Communist or anything else." (l Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 31) Sher Singh, the son of the District Magistrate Buta Singh, believes in a diametrically opposite philosophy of life. He is the President of the student union in the local college. He has patriotic zeal and nationalistic philosophy popularized by Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru and other leaders. He is not influenced by his father's

22 39 loyalty to the British. Sher Singh strongly reacts to his father, "We are far too concerned with other people. Our communist friends are only worried about what will happen to Britain. Very few of us are bothered about our own future". (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 24) Sher Singh becomes a leader and enjoys the support of a large mass of students. He conducts several secret meetings of students to carry out terrorist activities in the city of Amritsar. Madan, the son of Magistrate Wazir Chand is a great supporter of his nationalistic activities. Thus the conflict between the pro British and the anti-british attitude exists in the same family which may be said to be a microscopic symbol of the macroscopic phenomenon of the Indian political life. Buta Singh is a supporter of the British rule because he has the knowledge of the internal contradictions and conflicts ofindian life. Sher Singh is the freedom fighter who wants India for Indians. He expresses his nationalistic ideology in the fiery speech he delivers at the gathering of patriotic students: Comrades, we meet at a critical time. The enemy is at our gates... Comrades we not only have the enemy at our doorstep we have enemies within our own house... Those who sacrifice the interests of the mother land for foreign countries are our enemy No. 1. They have been rightly named as the kaum nashts destroyers of the race... There are people who want to cut off the limbs of Mother India and make another state of Pakistan. They too arc our enemies... But we are Sikhs who do not fear any enemies. We shall destroy all those who stand in our way.

23 40 (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 43-44) Sher Singh is able to look at the history of his own country for heroes 'someone like Sivaji, or Rana Pratap, or our own Guru Govind Singh'. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale : 86). Sher Singh's mother has developed the habit of echoing her husband's view that the British should stay on in India: "We eat their salt, and as long as we eat it, we will remain loyal" (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 89). To this Sher Singh inunediately reacts: "Who eats whose salt? They suck our blood. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 89) His hope of freedom: "Spring will come to our barren land once more... Once more the nightingales will sing." (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 89) By this time, Mahatma Gandhi influences the nationalist to act rigorously. The Gandhi-Cap attack shops and public offices and "Each time it was the same story-demonstrations, violence, arrests everywhere - everywhere except in Punjab" (1 Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 171). He also receives a cyclostyled letter with a caption, 'A Manifesto of the Hindus tan Socialist Republican Anny'. It drew attention to the arrest of the leaders and asked the youth of India to rise and rid themselves of foreign rule. It did not mince its words. 'Shoot English officials and the Indian toadies who serve them. Destroy roads and bridges; cut telegraph and telephone wires; create chaos and paralyse the administration. This is your sacred duty. Long live the revolution. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 170) Now Sher Singh's rebellious impulse grows more intense. Finally he decides that he should take some terroristic action. In a secret meeting, Sher Singh

24 41 and his friends take the oath of liberating the country from British rule. They take the oath in the name of the great martyr, Bhagat Singh. They define their main target clearly. Sher Singh makes it more clear: "The call is to destroy means of communication. A few bridges blown up, a few roads barricaded, and the British Army will be stuck where it is." (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 172). Later, Sher Singh is arrested for the murder of Jhima Singh and the police try to find out the identity of the other conspirants. On the other hand, Buta Singh is more worried about his position. He does not wish to associate himself with his son in the prison. Sabhrai, decides to take up the responsibility of meeting her son. After all, Sher Singh is discharged by the intervention of Mrs. Taylor. Thus, Sher Singh becomes a hero in the eyes of his fellow rebels and nationalists. He is garlanded, photographed and cheered by the enthusiastic audience. He thumps his chest and declares: Comrades... 'I will cherish the honour you have done me today for the rest of my life. I've proved that I was called upon to do a small duty to my country and I did it'... 'you all know how well the king Emperor- may peace be upon him - looks after his guest'... 'But they could not break the spirit of the son of India and God willing they never will'. (I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale 251) The novel I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale presents the paradoxical picture of the colonial encounter, before independence between the Indians and the British including both the positive and the negative aspect, the submission as

25 42 well as rebellion simultaneously involved in it. As Vasavraj Naikar says in his essay "Imperialism and Nationalism in I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale": The novel can be easily contrasted with Chinua Achebc' s Things Fall Apart where the same theme is depicted in reverse fashion. Whereas in I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, the sons rebels against the British rule and the father submits to it, in Things Fall Apart the father rebels against the British rule and the son submits to it in the form of being converted to Christianity. (Khushwant Singh The Man and the Writer 161) Khushwant Singh's Delhi is a queer blend of history romance and sex. The main theme of the novel is history, history confined to portrayal of Delhi in certain periods of history under certain rulers, history, which is not all-inclusive but selective. The novelist is also strictly personal and whimsical in selection of the period of history, encompassing six centuries, personages and commoners. History is a record of various events that transpired in different times and an account of great personalities who dominated their respective eras. It is a study made by historians on the basis of available inscriptions, monuments and documents. Emphasizing the chronology of happenings and rulers, history remains one dimensional and lifeless, but Khushwant Singh makes history much more interesting through his wonderful craftmanship in his much acclaimed novel Delhi. Khushwant Singh says about Delhi in his Author's note: In this novel I have tried to tell the story of Delhi from its earliest beginnings to the present times. I constructed it from records chronicled by eyewitness. Hence most of it is told in the first

26 43 person. History provides me with the skeleton. I covered it with flesh and injected blood and a lot of seminal fluid into it. (Delhi Author's Note) The novelist travels through time, space and history picking up threads of his choice to suit the canvas of his narration. In his journey, however, the author has skipped over important events and personages of the past and contemporary India and as such authenticity of history as detailed by him may be questioned. But the chosen historical events and personages are only a cover for the message the author wants to give for the future and the lesson to be learnt from the past. The chapters of the novel contain the vivid picturisation of history commencing from Ghiasuddin Balban and ending with the assassination of Indira Gandhi. This book is a fascinating amalgam of the ancient and the modem; the metropolis and the village; the Royalty and the commoners; the festivals and the flirtations; the aromas and the stench. Bhagmati, the hijda forms the saucy undercurrent that links all these diverse factors. The novel begins with a very unusual analogy where Delhi is compared to a hijda but very quickly he gives the reason: "I have two passions in my life; my city Delhi and Bhagmati. They have two things in common: they are lots of fun. And they are sterile" (Delhi 30). In Delhi each chapter is linked by some incidents that pave a new direction for the ensuing historical development of Delhi. Bhagmati, the hijda, is an interesting character that develops parallel in the mind of the author and intensifies the sterility and hollowness of the so-called sophistication prevailing among the higher strata of society.

27 44 As the author-narrator undertakes an epic journey in time, he comes across many people, emperors and eunuchs, poets and prostitutes, saints and soldiers who have participated or have been witness to major historical upheavals wherein some of them take the task of throwing light on their personal lives and on the times in which they lived. All the episodes of history are narrated in first person by the protagonist to give the narration the intensity of authenticity. Each episode of history is co-related with the Bhagmati episode so as to provide an easy access to past and present. The novel begins in a typical Khushwant Singh style. The author's association with hijda, Bhagmati, his amorous activities, his infatuation for 'white skin' and certain adventures with lady JHT bring to light the mundane world of Delhi. But the ruins of certain historical places unfold a new vista. Thus starts the journey of the reader through time, space and history. In fact what follows in the novel, in the form of history, places and anecdotes has been described by the author himself in the paragraph below: At the Qutub Minar I told them of the number of suicides that had taken place and how no one could jump clear of the tower and come down in one piece. I told them of Humayun's father, Babar, going round his son's sickbed four times praying to Allah to transfer his son's illness to him and how Humayun had been restored to health and Babar died a few days later. About the Red fort and its places, I had picked up a lot of interesting details from the time Shah Jahan built it, the kings who had sat on the peacock throne, and were later blinded or murdered; the British who had taken it after the Mutiny of 1857; the trials of INA officers, do\m

28 45 to 15 August 1947 when Lord Mountbatten had lowered the Union Jack and Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolour on the ramparts. Having once done my homework there was little more to do than impress the tourists with my learning. (Delhi 108) Musaddilal's narration takes the reader way back to the 13th century, the reign of Ghiassuddin Balban. The reader is shifted to the past as Musaddilal narrated his time: The very name Ghaisuddin Balban made people urinate with fear. He had a terrible temper and was known to execute anyone who as much as raised his eyes to look at him. He kept two huge Negroes beside him to hack off the heads of people he sentenced to death. (The Oxford History oflndia 55) The great historian Vincent A Smith says the same thing about the cruelty of Ghiassuddin Balban: He had no regard for human life, and no scruples about shedding blood. He was, indeed, a 'ruthless king'. Fear and awe of him took possession of all men's hearts; and he maintained such pomp and dignity at his court that all beholders were impressed with respect for his person. He never laughed. His justice, executed without respect of persons, was stem and bloody. (The Oxford History of India 241) Some times Khushwant Singh reconstructs history with a totally new approach. The general beliefs about various occurrences and personalities are

29 46 questioned or turned upside down. Prithvi Raj is held to be a great Hindu ruler, but Musaddi Lal has something different to say: Their great hero was Prithvi Raj Chauhan who had defeated Ghori once at Tarain in AD But the very next year, on the same battlefield, he had been defeated and slain by the same Ghori. They had an answer to that too. Prithivi Raj's only mistake was to spare the life of the maleecha when he had first defeated him, they would reply. Nobody really knows the truth about this Prithiv Raj. A poet fellow named Chand Bardai had made a big song - and - dance about him. This great hero Prithivi Raj married lots of women and even educated the daughter of neighboring raja. But you could not say a word against him to the Hindus. Next to Sri Ramchandraji, it was Samrat Prithivi Raj Chauhan who they worshipped. (Delhi 54- SS) He further says: Sultan Ghiasuddin Balban's eldest son, Prince Mohammed, was killed fighting the Mongols. The mighty Sultan who had ruled Hindustan for twenty two years with an iron hand wept like a woman. He would not eat or sleep or attend to the affairs of the state. He fell ill but would not allow the royal physician to feel his pulse. In a few days he was reduced to a skeleton and died. (Delhi 63) Historian Vincent A. Smith also says the same story:

30 47 His eldest and best-loved son was killed in a fight with the heathens in March That sorrow shook the strong constitution of Balban, the 'wary old wolf, who had held possession of Delhi for sixty years' he died in 1286 at an advanced age. (The Oxford History oflndia 242) The history gets unrolled step by step and Delhi witness a new era of prophets like Nizamuddin Anliya: "The Khwaja Shahib's words were like nector cooled in mountain streams of paradise (Delhi 67). When Allauddin Khilji became the emperor, the situation went from bad to worse. Sultan Allauddin Khilji steps up his mission of destruction, paying no heed to the Sufi saint's secular message. Allauddin also built a new city, Siri and planned to raise another Qutub Minar higher than the first one. As Vincent A. Smith says: Ala-ud-din loved building and executed many magnificent works. He built a new Delhi called Siri on the site now marked by the village of Shahpur,... He made extensive additions to the 'Qutub' group of spread structures, and began a gigantic minar, which was intended to far surpass the noble Qutub Minar... In early life he was illiterate, but after his accession acquired the art of reading Persian to some extent. In spite of his personal indifference of learning several eminent literary men attended his court, of whom the most famous is Amir Khusru, a voluminous and much admired author in both verse and prose. (The Oxford History of India 24 7)

31 48 Musaddi La! told us that the great poet Amir Khusru (Abdul Hassan) was born of a Hindu mother and Muslim father. The fall of Delhi under the Sultan Qutubaddin Mubarak Shah is visualized as the end of 'degenerate transvestite', 'sodomite catamite'. A most bizarre relationship described between Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah the Emperor of Hindustan and Khusrau Khan, who was a Hindu Pawar boy captured during an expedition to Gujrat. He is an effeminate, though extremely handsome and attractive lad. The Sultan promptly fell in love with him. His infatuation was so much that he turned his back upon all the beautiful women of his well-stocked harem. The Muslims became extremely upset with this ongoing homosexual affair. The Sultan thinking that they objected to the fact that his beloved was a Hindu, had him converted to Islam and re-named Khusrau Khan. Later Khusrau Khan killed the sultan and declared himself as the new Emperor Nasimuddin Mohammed. Vincent A. Smith tells us: Qutb-ud-din or Mubarak Khan a son of Ala-ud-din... The young sovereign was wholly evil. He was infatuated with a youth named Hasan, originally and outcaste parwari, whom he ennobled under the style of Khusru Khan... Ultimately the degraded creature was killed by his minion, Khusru Khan, aided by his outcast brethren, 'and the basis of the dynasty of Ala-ud-din was utterly razed'... The lowborn triumph did not last long. After a few months the usurper was defeated and beheaded by Ghazi Malik... the fact that the disordered state required a master, elected Ghazi Malik to till the vacant throne. He assumed the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, and is often called Tughluq Shah (AD 1921 ).

32 49 (The Oxford History ofindia ) The African traveller,!ban Batuta and the Indian historian Zia-ud-din. Barani detailed the second sovereign of the Tughluq dynasty, who appears in his history as Muhammad bin Tughluq. They describe him as 'he was not wholly evil'. He was the 'humblest of men' an egoist. Muhammad Tughluq shifted his capital form Delhi to Daulatabad (1327) and experimented with the financial policy by issuing the copper coins. Musaddi La!' s son Kamal informs his father: Sultan Mohammed Tughluq has gone mad... In fits of generosity he gives away lakhs of tankas, in fits of madness he cuts off lakhs of heads. He issued copper coins to represent silver rupees and gold tankas. Cunning people forge copper coins and take their value in silver and gold till there is nothing left in the treasury... And now he has issued a proclamation transferring his capital form Delhi to Daulatabad 700 miles down towards gehennum. He has ordered every man, woman and child to evacuate Tughlakabad and travel southwards with him. This is indeed madness. (Delhi 85) The history is brought to a state of stand still, as the scene shifts from generation to generation, emperor to emperor and from Lalkot, Mehrauli, Shahr-I Nam, Tughlakabad to Delhi, present to past and then to present again. The interest is sustained and the comparison between the times past and the times present continues. The present rolls back with Bhagmati and the writer. Khushwant's visit to Hauz-I-Alai with Bhagmati and there being bitten by bees, 'the evil spirits of those slaughtered by that Taimur lang', transports the mind of the reader back to