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1 IRANIAN ISLAM

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3 Iranian Islam The Concept of the Individual Nader Ahmadi Senior Lecturer Stockholm University Sweden and Fereshteh Ahmadi Researcher Uppsala University Sweden Consultant Editor: Jo Campling

4 First published in Great Britain 1998 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN DOI / ISBN (ebook) First published in the United States of America 1998 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York. N.Y ISBN Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ahmadi, Nader, lranian Islam : the concept of the individual/ Nader Ahmadi and Fereshteh Ahmadi. p. em. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN (cloth) 1. Sufism-Iran. 2. Shi'ah-Doctrines. I. Ahmadi, Fereshteh, II. Title. BP188.8.I55A '25' dc CIP Nader Ahmadi and Fereshteh Ahmadi 1998 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources

5 Contents Glossary of Terms x Glossary of Persons xiv Introduction 1 Nader Ahmadi and Fereshteh Ahmadi Conceptual Framework 1 The Concept of the Individual 1 The Term Conformity 2 The Notion of Way of Thinking 3 The Concept of Identity 6 Identity and Culture 8 Overview of the Structure of the Book 9 Part I Philosophical Obstacles 13 Fereshteh Ahmadi 1 Short Introduction to the Foundation of the Concept of the Individual in Western Thought 15 Dualism and the Development of the Concept of the Individual 17 The Impact of Greek Thought on Western Ways of Thinking 17 Antiquity and the Development of the Concept of the Individual 20 Christianity and Greek Thought 23 2 The Importance of Sufism in the Study of the Concept of the Individual in Iranian Ways of Thinking 28 The Importance of the Theological View in the Study of the Iranian Conception of Man 28 The Non-Separation of Philosophy from Religion in Iranian Islam and the Absence of the Phenomenon of the Church 33 v

6 vi Contents The Study of the Concept of Man in Iranian Thought and the Relationship between Man and God 36 Integration of Sufi Ideas into Iranian Ways of Thinking 38 Iranian Familiarity with Mystical Ideas before the Introduction of Islam 40 Mystical Ideas and the Domination of Shi'ism in Iran 43 The Political and Social Situation and the Acceptance of Sufism 47 The Development of the Persian Language and the Popularity of Sufism 49 Conclusion 53 3 The Dissolution of Individuality in Persian Sufism 55 What is Sufism? 55 The Origin of Sufism 57 Persian Sufism 59 The Principle of the Abnegation of the Conventional Self in Sufism 62 Personification as a Step towards the Refutation of Individuality 64 Deification as the Second Step towards the Refutation of Individuality 65 The Concept of Fana 66 Unification as the Last Step towards the Refutation of Individuality 68 The Concept of the Absolute and the Unity of Existence 73 Ibn Arabi's Mysticism of Unity 74 The Relativity of Evil 75 The Concept of Man in the Context of the Idea of the Unity of Existence 81 Conclusion 87

7 Contents vii 4 The Sociocultural Effects of Sufism on the Social Life of Iranians 90 The Attitude of Sufism Towards Other Religions and its Impact on the Iranian View of Other Religions 92 The Sufi Idea of Tolerance and Mutual Concession 94 Sufism and its Impact on the Attitude of Iranian Artists towards Negation of Their Individuality 100 Iranian Islamic Art and Islam's Unitary Point of View 100 The Sufi Tradition of Self-Refutation and Iranians' Reluctance to Speak of their Personal Feelings 103 The Escalation of the Popularity of Sufi Ideas in the Aftermath of the Islamic Revolution Conclusion of Part I PART II Social Obstacles Nader Ahmadi Individuality and Social Reality 115 Main Characteristics of Iranian Social and Political Thought 119 The Concept of History in the Ways of Thinking of Iranians Individuality and Politics 124 A General View of the Theory of Government in the Ways of Thinking of Iranians 126 Iranians' Pre-Islamic View of the Concept of Kingship 132 The Conception of Government in Islam and the Impact of the Ancient Iranian View of Kingship on it 136 The Evolution of the Islamic View of Government 138 The Sunni View of Leadership: Caliphate 138 The Shi'i View of Leadership: Imamat 142

8 viii Contents The Iranian View of Government after the Dissolution of the Islamic Empire 148 Reconciliation of State and Religion under the Safavids ( ) 152 The Idea of the Divinity of Government in Modern Iran 157 The Constitutional Revolution ( ) 157 The Pahlavi Regime ( ) 159 The Doctrine of Velayat-e Faqih 161 The Ideological Consequences of the Shi'i Conception of Power Relationships 168 The Doctrine of Shahadat 168 The Doctrine of Mahdi 172 Conclusion Individuality and the System of Law 180 The Cultural Significance of Law 180 The Significance of Law in Islam 182 Main Characteristics of Law in Islam 183 Notions of Edalat (Justice) and Haqq (Rights) 188 Sources of Islamic Law 193 The Nature of Islamic Law 197 The Persistence of Islamic Law as the Main Source of Legislation in Modern Iran 201 The Concept of Private Ownership: An Overview 204 Characteristics of the Islamic Conception of Private Property 206 Conclusion 209 Epilogue 210 Nader Ahmadi and Fereshteh Ahmadi Some Further Remarks 210 Contrast Between Modern and Traditional Identity 213 Cultural Schizophrenia 215 Identity Crisis among Iranians 216

9 Notes Contents Identity Crisis and Social Roles Identity Crisis of the Individual as a Family Member Identity Crisis of the Individual as a Friend Bibliography Index ix

10 Glossary of Terms 'adil, just. ahl al-haqq, the followers of the Truth. Ahriman, Demon. Ahura Mazda, God (Zoroastrianism). Akhbaris, a school proposing that jurisprudence should be limited to the application of existing Traditions of the Prophet. al-amr be rna 'ruf, enjoin good. 'alim, (pl. ulama) savant, learned men in Islamic religious sciences. al-insan al-kamil, the perfect man. Amir al-mo'menin, the Commander of the Faithful. amma, ordinary people. arif, mystic gnostic. Arya-Mehr, Sun or Sun-God of Aryans. atashkadeh, fire temple, Zoroastrians' holy place. awliya-yi amr (sing. vali-e amr) leader, guardian. Ayatollah, (religious title) Sign of God. bandegan (sing. Bande) slave(s). baqa, eternal life, reintegration into the positive waves of life. batin, esoteric aspect. bay'a, act of recognition of authority of the Caliph by community members. dawla, state. dayr, a pagan temple. deh, village. din, religion. edalat (ad/), justice. fana, passing away (annihilation). faqih (pl. fuqaha) doctor of law. fard'ayn, duties of the individual members of community. fard kifaya, duties of the Community of believers. farr-e izadi, divine grace, divine effulgence. fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. ghayba, occultation, concealment. hadith, narration about what the Prophet has said or done. haqq, rights. hauza, clerical education centre. X

11 Glossary of Terms xi Hijra (hegira), migration, referring to emigration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina, the starting point of the Mohammadan era. hikma, wisdom. hikmat ilahiyah, divine philosophy, theosophy in terms of etymology. Hojjat al-islam, (religious title) Proof of Islam. huquq-e ensani, rights of man. huquq-e elahi, rights of God. ijma', consensus of the community in legal matters. ijtihad, (effort) exploring the sources of law. lim, Divine Knowledge. Imam, Leader of Muslim Community (in Shi'ism). imamat, esoteric Shi'i leadership. Imamiyya, Twelver Shi'a. iifan, mystical theology. ishq, passionate love. ishraq, illumination. Ismailis, a major branch of Shi'a with numerous sub-divisions. Ismailis traces the imamate through Imam Djafar al-sadiq's son Ismail, after whom it is named. iytam, (sing. yatim) orphans. ithar, voluntarily relinquishing one's own good, to prefer others to oneself. ittihad, union, 'union' of lover and beloved. jizia, special tax for non-muslims. Ka'ba, the sacred cube at the centre of Sacred Mosque (al-masjid al- Haram) in Mecca. kafir, infidel. kalam, theological dialectics. karamat, minor miraculous deeds. kashf, unveiling, inner revelation. Khalifa, (Caliph) Successor, leader of Muslim Community (in Sunnism). Khalifat al-rasul allah, Deputy of God's Prophet. Khalifat allah, Deputy of God. khaneqah, the place where the Sufis hold their assemblies. kharaj, (here) land conquered by sword. khirqah, cloak. Khoda, God (in Persian). khuruj, rebel, revolt. ma'ad, end, returning. maraj' at-taqlid, (sing. marja'at-taqlid) exemplar for emulation.

12 xii Glossary of Tenns ma 'sum, infallible. ma'sumyiat, immunity from sin. mabda ', origin, beginning. Mahdi, Returning Saviour, Twelfth Shi'i Imam. majlis, parliament. mardom, people. mashru'e, canonical regime. mashrute, constitutional regime. maw/a, master. mazhar, a theophanic receptacle. mithaq, primordial Covenant. moghan, Zoroastrian clergy. mostaz'afin, oppressed people. murshed-i kamil, perfect spiritual director. Mu'tazila, is the name of the great theological school which created the speculative dogmatics of Islam; a rational Islamic thought tradition. muhtasib, public prosecutor. mujalla, illustration. mujtahid, member of the religious classes who has reached a degree of eminence which permits him to issue opinions on matters of faith. murid, disciple. muqallid, emulator. mushahadah, mystical vision. nafs, psyche. nafs ammara, impulsive forces commanding to evil. na'ib 'amm, general representative. nam, name. namaz jama 'at, congregational prayers. Nourooz, Iranian feast, the starting-point of the Iranian calendar. nur, light. Onnizd, good spirit of Light. qadi, judge. Qaim, referring to Mahdi, Twelfth Shi'i Imam. Qebleye 'alam, (title of Iranian Kings) Centre Point of Cosmos. qest, distributive justice. qias, analogical reasoning. qutb, the spiritual guide, highest member in hierarchy of Saints. ruh, spirit. shahadat, martyrdom. Shahanshah (Shahinshah), (title of Iranian Kings) King of Kings.

13 Glossary of Terms xiii shahid, martyr. Shari'a, Islamic law. Shi'ism (shi'a), esoteric tradition. The Party of Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammad who hold that the leadership of the community passed on the death of Mohammad to Ali, whom they consider the First Imam, and after him, by hereditary succession, to his heirs. Shi'ite (Shi'i), adherent of Shi'ism. Simurgh, mythical bird, 30 birds identical with Simurgh. suf, wool. Sufism, Islamic mysticism, the apprehension of divine realities. Sunna (Sunnat), Authoritative Traditions of the Prophet. Sunni, the largest group of Muslims are the Sunnis, often known as 'the orthodox', who recognize the succession of caliphs as the legitimate successors of Mohammad. Tasawwuf, Sufism. tawhid (tauhid), oneness of God. taqiyya, dissimulation. tariqah, path, spiritual way. tawaf, circumambulation. ta'ziya, passion play. ulama is strictly the alim, one who possesses the quality ilm, i.e. knowledge, learning science in the widest sense and in a high degree. umma, community of believers. uif, customary law. Usulis, Usulis are the school maintaining that competence to arrive at original decisions resides in living religious authorities (mujtahids). vali, guardian. velayat, guardianship. velayat-e faqih, the guardianship of the designated theologian (Mujtahid). Wahadat al-wujud, the Unity of Existence, the Unity of Being. Walayah, saintship, esoteric aspect of prophecy. w'l-nahy munkar, prevent evil. wujud, existence. zahir (zaher), exoteric. Zell allah, (title of Iranian Kings) Shadow of God. zurvan, principle of infinite time.

14 Glossary of Persons Abbas II ( ) Abi 1-Khayr, Abu Said (d. 1049) Abu Hanifa (d. 767) Abu Bakr ( 632-4) al-hilli (d. 1326) al-husayn, Imam (d. 680) al-ma'mun (813-33) al-riza, Imam (d. 818) al-walid II (743-4) Ali, Imam (d. 661) Amuli, Haydar (d. 1385) Attar, Farid al-din (d. 1220) Baba Kuhi (d. 1050) Bastami, Bayezid (d. 874) Cyrus, Achaemenian king ( BC) Darius, Achaemenian king ( BC) Ferdowsi, Abul Ghasem (d. 1025) Ghazzali, Mohammad (d. 1111) Ghazan, Ilkhanid king ( ) Hafiz (d. 1389) Hallaj, Mansur (d. 922) Hasan al-askari, Imam (d. 874) Ibn Arabi (d. 1240) Ibn Babuya (d. 991) Ibn Muqaffa (d. 757) Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (b. 980) Ismail I, Safavid king ( ) Junayd, Abul-Qasim M. (d. 910) Juwayni (d. 1085) Karim Khan, Zand King ( ) Khayyam (d. 1123) Kulayni (d. 939) Mani, prophet (d. 215) Mulla Sadra Shirazi ( ) Musa Kazim, Imam (d. 799) Nader Shah, Afsharid king ( ) xiv

15 Glossary of Persons XV Oljeitu, Ilkhanid king ( ) Razi, Fakhr al-din (d. 1209) Rumi, Jalal al-din (d. 1273) Sa'di (d. 1292) Safi, Safavid king ( ) Sana'i, Abul-Majid M. (d. 1131) Shabistari, Mahmud (d. 1320) Shah Ni'matullah Wali (d. 1430) Sohravardi, Shahab al-din (d. 1191) Tusi (d. 1274) Umar, caliph (634-44) Uthman, caliph (644-56) Xerxes, Achaemenian king ( BC) Yazdgird III, Sasanian king (632-51) Note Date-spans for kings and caliphs are those of their reigns.